SLE

SUBJECT: Research Methodology

NAME: Vedanti K Parab ROLL.NO.: SPAFMPAKA07

SYNOPSIS

What is Scientific Research?

Research, as we have already stated, can be termed as “an inquiry into the nature of, the
reasons for, and the consequences of any particular set of circumstances, whether these
circumstances are experimentally controlled or recorded just as they occur. Further, research
implies the researcher is interested in more than particular results; he is interested in the
repeatability of the results and in their extension to more complicated and general situations.
In this context, Karl Pearson writes, “The scientific method is one and same in the branches
(of science) and that method is the method of all logically trained minds … the unity of all
sciences consists alone in its methods, not its material; the man who classifies facts of any
kind whatever, who sees their mutual relation and describes their sequences, is applying the
Scientific Method and is a man of science.
In scientific method, logic aids in formulating propositions explicitly and accurately so that
their possible alternatives become clear. All this is done through experimentation and survey
investigations which constitute the integral parts of scientific method. The purpose of survey
investigations may also be to provide scientifically gathered information to work as a basis
for the researchers for their conclusions.

Steps to Scientific research-

1. Ask a Question / Formulation of research Problem

2. Extensive Literature Review
3. Construct/formulate a Hypothesis
4. Choose research design
5. Select Sampling Technique
6. Collection of Data
7. Analyse the data
8. Interpret & Draw Conclusion

1. Formulating the research problem:

 There are two types of research problems, viz., those which relate to states of nature
and those which relate to relationships between variables. At the very outset the
researcher must decide the general area of interest or aspect of a subject-matter that he
would like to inquire into. Initially the problem may be stated in a broad general way
relating to the problem to be resolved. Then, the feasibility of a particular solution has
to be considered before a working formulation of the problem can be set up. The
formulation of a general topic into a specific research problem, thus, constitutes the
first step in a scientific enquiry.

The best way of understanding the problem is to discuss it with one’s own colleagues
or with those having some expertise in the matter. In an academic institution the
researcher can seek the help from a guide who is usually an experienced man and has
several research problems in mind. Often, the guide puts forth the problem in general
terms and it is up to the researcher to narrow it down and phrase the problem in
operational terms.

2. Extensive Literature Review:

The researcher must at the same time examine all available literature to get himself
acquainted with the selected problem. He may review two types of literature—the
conceptual literature concerning the concepts and theories, and the empirical literature
consisting of studies made earlier which are similar to the one proposed. The basic
outcome of this review will be the knowledge as to what data and other materials are
available for operational purposes which will enable the researcher to specify his own
research problem in a meaningful context.

In this process, it should be remembered that one source will lead to another. The
earlier studies, if any, which are similar to the study in hand should be carefully
studied. A good library will be a great help to the researcher at this stage.

3. Construction of Hypothesis:

After extensive literature survey, researcher should state in clear terms the working
hypothesis or hypotheses. Working hypothesis is tentative assumption made in order
to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences. In other words, it’s a
statement that provides an explanation for why or how something works, based
on facts (or some reasonable assumptions), but that has not yet been specifically
tested. A Research Hypothesis is a statement about the expected outcome of the study.
To constitute a quality hypothesis, the statement needs to have these three attributes-
specificity, clarity and testability.

4. Choose Research Design:

The research problem having been formulated in clear cut terms, the researcher will
be required to prepare a research design, i.e., he will have to state the conceptual
structure within which research would be conducted. The preparation of such a design
facilitates research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal information. In
other words, the function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant
evidence with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. But how all these can
 be achieved depends mainly on the research purpose. Research purposes may be
grouped into four categories, viz.,

(i) Exploration, (ii) Description, (iii) Diagnosis, and (iv) Experimentation.

There are several research designs, such as, experimental and non-experimental
hypothesis testing. Experimental designs can be either informal designs (such as
before-and-after without control, after-only with control, before-and-after with
control) or formal designs (such as completely randomized design, randomized block
design, Latin square design, simple and complex factorial designs), out of which the
researcher must select one for his own project.

5. Select Sampling Technique:

The researcher must decide the way of selecting a sample or what is popularly known
as the sample design. In other words, a sample design is a definite plan determined
before any data are actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given population.
With probability samples each element has a known probability of being included in
the sample but the non-probability samples do not allow the researcher to determine
this probability. Probability samples are those based on simple random sampling,
systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster/area sampling whereas non-
probability samples are those based on convenience sampling, judgement sampling
and quota sampling techniques.

6. Collection of Data:

In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that data at hand are inadequate,
and hence, it becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate. There are several
ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably in context of money
costs, time and other resources at the disposal of the researcher. Primary data can be
collected either through experiment or through survey. If the researcher conducts an
experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements, or the data, with the help of
which he examines the truth contained in his hypothesis. But in the case of a survey,
data can be collected by any one or more of the following ways-

By Observation, through personal Interviews, Questionnaires, or through podcasts

relating to the topic by experts in the field.

7. Analyse the Data:

After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of analysing them.
The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as
establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through
coding, tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences.

Thus, researcher should classify the raw data into some purposeful and usable
categories. Coding operation is usually done at this stage through which the categories
of data are transformed into symbols that may be tabulated and counted. In the
process of analysis, relationships or differences supporting or conflicting with original
 or new hypotheses should be subjected to tests of significance to determine with what
validity data can be said to indicate any conclusion(s).

8. Interpretation & Drawing Conclusion:

If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his findings
on the basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation. The process of
interpretation may quite often trigger off new questions which in turn may lead to
further researches.

The last step of the scientific method is to form a conclusion. If the data support the
hypothesis, then the hypothesis may be the explanation for the phenomena. However,
multiple trials must be done to confirm the results, and it is also important to make
sure that the sample size-the number of observations made-is big enough so that the
data is not skewed by just a few observations.

Criteria’s Of a Good Research-

One expects scientific research to satisfy the following criteria:

a. The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts
be used.
b. The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield
results that are as objective as possible.
c. The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural
design and estimate their effects upon the findings.
d. Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research
and limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
e. Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced,
has a good reputation in research and is a person of integrity.

Problems faced by Researchers in India-

a. The lack of a scientific training in the methodology of research is a

great impediment for researchers in our country.
b. There is insufficient interaction between the university research
departments on one side and business establishments, government
departments and research institutions on the other side.
c. Research studies overlapping one another are undertaken quite often
for want of adequate information.
d. There does not exist a code of conduct for researchers and inter-
university and inter departmental rivalries are also quite common.
e. There may, at times, take place the problem of conceptualization and
also problems relating to the process of data collection and related
things.