PREFACE

It is at the instance of Sri. K. Balasubramanyam, IAS (Retired) who had held many responsible
administrative positions in Karnataka and who has been a member of the Karnataka Gazetteer
Advisory Committee that the idea of publication of A Handbook of Karnataka was taken up by us.
He had placed before us the Mysore Kaipidi edited by Rao Bahadur C.Hayavadana Rao to be
followed as a model. It was published in 1937 and was a text book for High School students. I do
not know whether the present book can be a text book, but tries to introduce in a nutshell Karnataka
State in all its dimensions, so that a man born in this land will know his heritage and also its ‘assets
and liabilities’. Similarly, a man from outside Karnataka can try to understand and appreciate
Karnataka better. Those who are keen on starting new industries in Karnataka can have an idea of
infrastructure and other facilities here. As Karnataka is keen on developing Tourist Industry, the
present book tries to motivate and guide such tourists.

In fact this is a condensed version of the State Gazetteer with some latest figures in various
areas of development presented as a sample survey. Noted artist Sri. Kamalesh has drawn fine line
drawings which are presented in the text. Beautiful colour and black and white photographs have
been supplied by Dr. H. Chandrashekar, Sri. P.S. Chandrashekar, Dr. Devarakonda Reddy, Dr. A.L.
Narasimhan and others. The cover page has been designed by noted artist Sri. T.K. Rao. I am
thankful to them all.

Dr.G. Thimmaiah, Chairman, Karnataka Finance Commission, and Dr.G.S. Dikshit, President,
Karnataka Itihasa Academy have gone through the script and extended valuable suggestions.
Dr. G. Thimmaiah has also written a short note on the Industrial potential of Karnataka. This office
which was busy drafting the chapters of Dharwad District Gazetteer could not have all the chapters
in this written by its own staff. The two articles, one on (1) Survey of Kannada literature and the
folklore o f Karnataka and another on (2) cultural heritage of Karnataka were drafted for us by
Sri C. Seetharam and T.G. Ashwathanarayana, noted journalists respectively. We are thankful to
them.

The Hon’ble Chief Minister, Sri H.D. Devegowda has put us under obligation by kindly
agreeing to write a foreword to this book. The foreword has enhanced the value of publication. We
are highly beholden to him.

Kannada version o f this, Karnataka Kaipidi, will be soon published.

SURYANATH U. K AM ATH
Former Chief Editor
Karnataka Gazetteer
 Chief Editor’s note
The Karnataka Gazetteer Department inheriting a glorious tradition of publishing the State and
District Gazetteers has brought out so far, the entire series of district Gazetteers, the State Gazetteer
in English and Kannada, Decennial Supplement to the State Gazetteer and the revised editions of
the Kodagu and Dharwad district Gazetteers in Kannada. The revised edition o f the Gulbarga
District Gazetteer is about to be released. It is with great pride and delight that this veritable
encyclopedic macrograph on the Karnataka State is brought out with a view to present the readers
a bird’s eyeview o f the state in all its glory. The Kannada version will also follow soon.

Every effort has been made to introduce a myriad variety of dimensions in the state, outlining
the socio-economic and educational aspects with emphasis on cultural synthesis of the rich heritage
of Karnataka. It is fondly hoped that this book may be of profound use to the academecians and
common public alike.

It was at the behest of Sri. K. Balasubramanyam, senior member of the Gazetteer Advisory
Committee the Handbook of Karnataka is before you. Dr. Suryanath Kamath, former Chief Editor
has done a stupendous task of planning, preparing the material and editing this volume, in a
systematic way. Dr. G.S. Dikshit, retired professor of History and Dr. G. Thimmaiah, renowned
Economist have meticulously reviewed the draft chapters and offered their valuable suggestions.

The constant inspiration and support provided by Sriyuths Cecil Noronha, the Chief
Secretary, S.K. Goshal, Additional Chief Secretary and Chairman, Gazetteer Advisory Committee,
S. Vishwanathan, Principal Secretary, Information and Tourism Department and A.R. Chandrahasa
Gupta, Secretary, Kannada and Culture Department have been o f immense value in making this
Handbook a reality.

The concerted efforts of the staff of this department specially Sri. S.A. Jagannath and Dr. A.L.
Narasimhan who have effectively supervised the printing have made this publication possible. M/s
Lotus Printers deserve praise for their neat job.

We, in the Gazetteer Department, do remember, we have a long way to go in continuing the
glorious tradition of the Gazetteers of Karnataka which have found a place of pride in the history
of the state through the ages for their authenticity and meticulous details. We have never looked
back since 1876 from the days of Sri Benjamin Lewis Rice. We keep marching ahead with all your
support.

M.B. PA T IL
Chief Editor
(Additional Charge)
Karnataka Gazetteer

x
 CONTENTS
Chapter I Introduction 1
Chapter II History 29
Chapter III People 55
Chapter IV Agriculture and Allied Activities 70
Chapter V Industries and Power 87
Chapter VI Banking, Co-operatives and Trade 109
Chapter VII Transport and Communication 122
Chapter VIII Economic Trends and Planning 134
Chapter IX Administration 142
Chapter X Education and Sports 156
Chapter XI Medical and Public Health Services 165
Chapter XII Social Welfare Measures 177
Chapter XIII Culture 187
Chapter XIV Karnataka, the Tourist Paradise 230

xi
 KARNATAKA GAZETTEER STAFF

Chief Editor Dr Suryanath U. Kamath (Upto 30.4.95)

Sri M.G. Halappanavar IAS (Upto 27.6.96)
Sri P.G. Naik IAS (Upto 27.7.96)
(Dr. R. Muniswamy and Sri Y.K. Muddukrishna were
holding additional charge upto 15.12.95 and upto 7.7.96 respectively.)
Sri M.B. Patil
Chief Editor, Additional Charge From 15.12.95 to 9.1.96
and from 27-7-96

Editors Sri H.M. Range Gowda

Sri R. Madhwaraj
Sri S.A. Jagannath
Sri S. Lakshminarayana Setty
Sri S.N. Raju
Sri S.R. Mylaraiah
Sri T.G. Narasimha Moorthy
Sri S. Rajendrappa
Sri G.M. Mustafa
Sri R.G. Kulkarni

Investigators Sri Stephen Paul

Sri G. Bhanudas
Dr. A. Lakshminarasimhan

Office Staff
Superintendent Sri B.C. Revanna

First Divn. Assistant Sri S. Raghavendra Rao

Second Divn. Assistant Smt. K.S. Subbalakshmi

Stenographer Smt. Kausalya Balaram

Typist Sri C.N. Madhu Rao

Typist Smt. Meenakumari

Typist Sri H. Mahadevaiah

Assistant Librarian Sri G.S. Patil

Group ‘D ’ Class Employees Sri M. Babu (Driver)

Sri Thammanna
Sri Beeraiah (upto 30.9.95)
Sri H.. Chandra
Sri B.C. Suresh Kumar
 Chapter I
INTRODUCTION
Karnataka has a rich heritage, inspiring its people to create a bright future. With its special
freographicai location full of variety-its rivers, hills, valleys, plains, forests and resources-the Stale
is k no wn for its tourist and industrial potential. Its long history of over 2,000 years has left many
beautiful forts, tanks, temples, mosques and (owns of historical importance. These old towns have
g r ow n to be industrial, commercial and educational centres. They are provided with all modern
facilities.

Bordered by the Western Ghats with tall peaks and lush greenery in the west, the tableland is
fertile because of its black soil and river and tank irrigation facilities. The coastal strip to the west
of the Ghats is renowned for its silvery beaches and rich green paddy fields.

Karnataka has rich religious and artistic traditions. The land has been described by a poet in
a stone record in the 15th Century in following words:

A mine of good discipline,

The dwelling place of Brahma,
The land which had acquired great fortune,
The birth place of learning and wealth,
The true home of unequalled splendid earnestness
Thus distinguished in many ways
Shone the lovely Karnata Country.

The temples of antiquity speak of the piety of their devotees. The agraharas and mathas spread
all over vouch to the scholarly pursuits to which people were attached. The herostones strewing the
land speak of the heroic traits of the warrior race of antiquity. Long traditions of growing cotton
are clear evidence to once flourishing rich textile industry. The ports along the coast remind one of
the rich overseas trade that flourished through them. The blacksoil plains speak of its agricultural
potential. The State’s human resources with racial and religious varieties and progressional skills
promise to make it a hub of industriousness.

Location and Boundaries ,<>'

The State of Karnataka, confined roughly within 11.5 degree North 18.5 degree North
latitudes and 74 degree East and 78.5 degree East longitude, is situated on a tableland where the
Western and Eastern Ghat ranges converge into the Nilgiri hill complex. It is located in the Western
part of the Deccan Peninsular region of India. The State is bounded by Maharashtra and Goa States
in the North and North-West; by the Arabian sea in the West; by Kerala and Tamilnadu States in
the South and by the State of Andhra Pradesh in the East. The State extends to about 750 km from
North to South and about 400 km from East to West, and covers an area of about 1,91,791 sq.km.

Area and Population

Karnataka’s total land area is 1,91,791 sq.km. It accounts for 5.83 per cent of the total area of
the country (32.88 lakh sq.km) and ranks eighth among major States of the country in terms of size.
As per 1991 Census, the State’s population was 448 lakhs. It was 5.3 percent of all-India population
K a rn a ta k a in In d ia
Introduction 3

of 8,443 lakhs. Among different States, Karnataka occupies eighth place with regard to population.
The density of population as per 1991 Census was 235 persons per sq.km which was lower than the
all-India density of 273 (excluding Assam and Jammu & Kashmir). Among the States Karnataka
was in the thirteenth position. Bijapur occupies the largest geographical area of the State with 8.89
per cent and Bangalore (urban) Dt. has the smallest area with only 1.94 per cent.

Territorial Changes
The erstwhile princely State of Mysore came into existence after the Fourth Mysore war in
1799 A.D. and it formed the nucleus State for the New State of Mysore under the States’
Reorganisation Act. The area reported corresponding to the unit was 75,412 sq.km. In 1881 this
unit consisted of only seven districts namely Bangalore, Tumkur, Kolar, Kadur, Mysore, Chitradurga
and Shimoga. In 1886 Hassan Dt. was carved out as eighth Dt. and in 1939, Mandya Dt. was created
as the ninth Dt.
In 1953, the Bellary Dt. of Madras State (excluding Adoni, Alur and Rayadurga taluks) was
transferred to Mysore State when the State of Andhra Pradesh was formed, resulting in an addition
of 9,897 sq.km. to the area of the State.

The State of Mysore (rechristened as Karnataka with effect from 1.11.1973) with its territorial
content as it exists now was formed on 1st November 1956 under the States’ Reorganisation Act.
It comprised of a) the old Mysore State including Bellary Dt.; b) Bijapur, Dharwad and Uttara
Kannada Dt. and Belgaum Dt. excluding Chandgad taluk with an area of 54,347 sq.km; c) Gulbarga
(except Kodangal and Tandur taluks)-16,274 sq.km; Raichur (except Alampur and Gadwal taluks)
-14,078 sq.km; and Bidar Dt. (except Ahmedpur, Nilanga and Udgir taluks, Nayalkal Circle of Bidar
taluk, Zahirabad taluk except Nirna circle and three villages of Humnabad taluk and Narayankhed
taluk) with an area of 5,363 sq.km. from former Hyderabad State; d) Dakshina Kannada (except
Kasargod taluk and Amindivi islands) with an area of 8,385 sq.km; and Kollegal tq. of Coimbatore
Dt. with an area of 2,786 sq.km. from former Madras State; and e) former part C State of Coorg
(Kodagu) Dt. with an area of 4,131 sq.km.

In 1969. Savanur tq. was created and in 1974, Hagaribommanahalli tq. was created by the
abolition of the former Mallapuram tq. in Bellary Dt. During 1986, Bangalore Rural Dt. was carved
out of the former Bangalore Dt. Bangalore Dt. includes Anekal taluk, Bangalore North tq. (including
Jala hobli of the former Devanahalli tq. and Dasanapura hobli of the former Nelamangala tq.),
Bangalore South tq. (including Tavarekere hobli of the former Magadi tq. and Bidarahalli hobli of
the former Hoskote taluk) and Bangalore Urban Agglomeration areas.

The Jurisdiction of Karnataka State extends over portions land-locked within Maharashtra i.e.
Dhamne S. Bailur and Kudrimani of Belgaum tq. and Mukhed of Aurad tq. of Bidar Dt.

Administrative Divisions
Karnataka State has been divided into four Revenue divisions, 49 sub-divisions, 20 districts,
175 taluks and 745 hoblies/Revenue Circles for administrative purposes. The districtwise area,
population and administrative divisions of Karnataka State are given in Table N o.1.1. The Bangalore
Division comprises of Bangalore (Urban), Bangalore Rural, Tumkur, Kolar, Chitradurga and
Shimoga districts with headquarters at Bangalore. The Mysore Division consists of the districts of
Mysore, Mandya, Hassan, Chikmagalur, Dakshina Kannada and Kodagu with the headquarters at
Mysore. The Belgaum Division has Belgaum, Bijapur, Dharwad and Uttara Kannada districts under
Map of Karnataka
Introduction 5

its jurisdiction with headquarters at Belgaum; and Gulbarga division with headquarters at Gulbarga
covers the districts of Bidar, Gulbarga, Bellary and Raichur. The State has 27,066 inhabited and
2,127 uninhabited villages, 254 towns and urban agglomerations. Karnataka has only one city with
more than a million population viz., Bangalore. It is one of the sixth largest urban agglomeration
out of 23 metropolises, urban agglomerations and cities in India. It occupied fifth position in 1981.
During 1991, among six biggest cities only Delhi has grown at a faster rate than Bangalore.
 Table No. 1.1 Area, Population and Administrative divisions in Karnataka - 1991

Sl.No District Area in Percent Population Rank Number of No. of No. of No. of Grama No. of No. of No. of
Sq.km of State’s area in 1991 subdivisions Taluks Hoblies Panchayats inhabited uninhabited Towns and Urban
Villages Villages Agglomerations

1. Bangalore 2,190 1.14 4,839,162 1 1 3 17 115 681 47 4

2. Bangalore Rural 5,815 3.03 1,673,194 14 2 8 35 227 1,713 170 9
3. Belgaum 13,415 6.99 3,583,606 2 3 . 10 35 473 1,138 26 20
4. Bellary 9,885 5.15 1,890,092 13 2 8 31 222 591 26 11
5. Bidar 5,448 2.84 1,255,799 17 2 5 30 177 587 22 5
6. Bijapur 17,069 8.90 2,927,990 5 4 11 36 365 1,247 6 18
7. Chikmagalur 7,201 3.75 1,017,283 19 2 . 7 32 230 1,021 92 10
8. Chitradurga 10,852 5.66 2,180,443 11 2 9 30 280 1,289 189 10
9. Dakshina Kannada 8,441 4.40 2,694,264 6 3 8 26 356 615 - 16
10. Dharwad 13,738 7.16 3,503,150 3 4 17 44 442 1,344 22 20
11. Gulbarga 16,224 8.46 2,582,169 7 3 10 48 3J9 1,295 83 17
12. Hassan 6,814 3.55 1,569,684 16 2 8 38 261 2,369 183 12
13. Kodagu 4,102 2.14 488,455 20 1 3 16 101 291 5 9
14. Kolar 8,223 4.29 2,216,889 10 2 11 53 309 2,889 432 13
15. Mandya 4,961 2.59 1,644,374 15 2 7 31 233 1,365 113 11
16. Mysore 11,954 6.23 3,165,018 4 3 11 49 366 1,649 195 15

A Handbook of Karnataka
17. Raichur 14,017 7.31 2,309,887 8 3 9 57 302 1,396 110 13
18. Shimoga 10,553 5.50 1,909,663 12 2 9 52 371 1,785 172 15
19. Tumkur 10,598 5.53 2,305,819 9 3 10 50 325 2,537 181 12
20. Uttara Kannada 10,291 5.37 1,220,260 18 3 11 35 212 1,264 53 14

State total 191,791 100.00 44,977,201 49 175 745 5,706 27,066 2,127 254

Source: Final Population Totals, Census of India, 1991, Series 11, Karnataka.
Source: Karnataka At A Glance, 1993-94, DES No. 55/1994, Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Bangalore.
Introduction 7

Physiography
Physiograpically Karnataka State forms part of two well defined macro regions of Indian
Union; the Deccan Plateau and the Coastal plains and Islands. The State has four physiographic
regions as follows:
1) Northern Karnataka Plateau : Northern Karnataka Plateau comprises of the districts of
Belgaum, Bidar, Bijapur and Gulbarga. It is largely composed of Deccan Trap. It represents a
monotonous treeless extensive plateau landscape with a general elevation of 300 to 600 metres from
the mean sea level. However the river plains of the Krishna, the Bhima, the Ghataprabha and the
Malaprabha with the intervening watersheds, the steplike landscapes, lateritic scarpments, residual
hills and ridges break the monotony of this extensive plateau. The general slope is towards east and
this region is largely covered with rich black cotton soils.

2) Central Karnataka Plateau : Central Karnataka Plateau covers the districts of Bellary,
Chikmagalur, Chitradurga, Dharwad, Raichur and Shimoga. The region represents the transitional
surface between the Northern Karnataka Plateau of Deccan Trap and Southern Karnataka Plateau
with relatively higher surface. By and large, this region represents the area of Tungabhadra basin.
The general elevation varies between 450 and 700 metres. However, this transitional ground is
broken by several sets of parallel ridges mainly made up of Dharwar system of rocks. The height
of such residual hills is about 900 metres above mean sea level. The general slope of this region is
towards the east.

3) Southern Karnataka Plateau : The Southern Karnataka Plateau covers the districts of
Bangalore, Bangalore Rural, Hassan, Kodagu, Kolar, Mandya, Mysore and Tumkur. This region
largely covers the area of the Cauvery river basin lying in Karnataka. It is bounded by 600 metres
contour and is characterised by a higher degree of slope. In the west and south it is enclosed by the
ranges of Western Ghats and the northern part is an interrupted but clearly identifiable high plateau.
In the east the valleys of the Cauvery and its tributaries open out to form undulating plains. The
general elevation of the region varies from 600 to 900 metres. However residual heights o f 1,500
to 1,750 metres are found in the Biligirirangan hills of Mysore Dt. and the Brahmagiri range of
Kodagu Dt.

4) Karnataka Coastal Region: The Karnataka Coastal Region, which extends between the
Western Ghats edge of the Karnataka Plateau in the east and the Arabian Sea in the west, covers
Dakshina Kannada and Uttara Kannada districts. This region is traversed by several ridges and spurs
of Western Ghats. It has difficult terrain full of rivers, creeks, water falls, peaks and ranges of hills.
The coastal region consists of two broad physical units, the plains and the Western Ghats. The
Coastal plains, represent a narrow stretch of estuarine and marine plains. The abrupt rise at the
eastern flanks forms the Western Ghats. The northern parts of the Ghats are o f lower elevation
(450-600 metres) as compared to Southern parts (900 to 1,500 metres). The Coastal belt with an
average width of 50 to 80 km covers a distance about 267 km. from north to south.

Topography
Karnataka has representatives of all types of variations in topography - high mountains,
plateaus, residual hills and coastal plains. The State is enclosed by chains of mountains to its west,
east and south. It consists mainly of plateau which has higher elevation of 600 to 900 metres above
mean sea level. The entire landscape is undulating broken up by mountains and deep ravines. Plain
land of elevation less than 300 metres above mean sea level is to be found only in the narrow coastal
8 A Handbook o f Karnataka

belt, facing the Arabian Sea. There are quite a few high peaks both in Western and Eastern Ghat
systems with altitudes more than 1,500 metres. A series of cross-sections drawn from west to east
across the Western Ghat generally exhibit, a narrow coastal plain followed to the east by small and
short plateaus at different altitudes, then suddenly rising upto great heights. Then follows the gentle
east and east-north-west sloping plateau. Among the tallest peaks of Karnataka are the Mullayyana
Giri (1,925 m), Bababudangiri (Chandradrona Parvata 1,894 m) and the Kudremukh (1,895 m) all
in Chikmagalur Dt. and the Pushpagiri (1,908 m) in Kodagu Dt. There are a dozen peaks which rise
above the height of 1,500 metres. The percentage of area coming under different elevations is as
follows: less than 150 metres-5.16; 150 to 300 metres-1.95; 300 to 600 metres-43.51; 600 to 1,350
metres-48.81 and more than 1,350 metres-0.57.

Geology
The geological history of Karnataka is largely confined to the two oldest eras - the Archaean
and the Proterozoic. The substantial part of North Karnataka is covered by Deccan Trap. The bulk
of the rocks of Karnataka are Archaean in age.

Ancient Supracrustals are the oldest rocks dated so far in Karnataka. They are a group of grey
gneisses giving an age of 3,400 million years. They are also described as belonging to Sargur schists.

Auriferous Schist Belts (Kolar type) are next in order of age and are a series of basic igneous
rocks. They are well developed in the eastern part of the State. Older Gneissic complex consist of
an extensive group of grey gneisses (3,400 to 3,000 million years) and act as the basement for an
extensive belt of schists. Younger Gneiss complex consist of a group of gneissic rocks mostly of
granodioritic and granitic composition. They are found in the eastern parts of the State and range
in age from 2,700 to 2,000 million years.

Younger Schist Belts (Dharwar type) are the prominent schistose rocks. They are Archaean in
age and belong to the age group of 2,900 to 2,600 million years. Two main divisions in this super
group are Bababudan and Chitradurga. Ranebennur group is presently classified as the top most
formation within Chitradurga group.

Younger ( Closepet) Granites extends in north-south direction as a narrow belt 50 km.wide.

This is a complex of coarse to medium pink and grey granites. Isolated masses of granites like those
of Chitradurga, Arasikere and Banavara belong to the same age group as the younger Granites (2,600
million years). Charncockites are a group of Pyroxene bearing granulites and they are not regarded
as separate intrusions and are located in the southern parts of the State.

The close of the Archaean is marked by a period of dyke formation. The majority of the dykes
are younger than 2,400 million years. They are of doleritic composition. Besides dolorites, a number
of alkaline dyke intrusives have been described in the southern part of Karnataka.

The elevation of the Kaladgi and Bhima Group of sediments to form the landmass of peninsular
India marked the end o f Proterozoic era. The Kaladgi sediments are separated from the underlying
schistose and granitic rocks of Archean age by a profound unconfirmity - the Great Eparchaean
unconformity. The Peninsula of India, of which Karnataka form a part, was not subjected to any
major changes after the proterozoic.
Introduction 9

There is a big gap in the geological history of Karnataka after the close of Bhima period. For
another 500 million years, there is no evidence of any major disturbance till the end of the
cretaceous. The next major event is the tremendous burst of volcanic activity. M ost parts of northern
Karnataka are covered over by the Deccan traps. The western margin close to the coast was affected
by large scale dyke intrusion. The dykes assigned an age around 65 million years connect them with
the commencement of Deccan Volcanic activity.

The cappings of laterite are found over the Deccan Traps and most spectacular development
of laterites is seen around Bidar. Greater part of north Karnataka is covered by black soil and it
covers all types of rocks - Deccan traps, gneisses, schists and even laterite. Rivers flowing through
the Deccan Trap area show thick accumulation of transported black soils within their valleys.

The geological history of Karnataka Craton thus extends to the remote and hoary past. It
displays an unequalled spread of events from the oldest Archaean to the present. Lithological and
tectonic diversity, a near comprehensive pre-cambrian record and for the most part magnificient
exposures have made Karnataka unique in the study of Precambrian geology.

Mineral Resources
Karnataka is endowed with fairly rich mineral wealth distributed more or less evenly over its
territory. It has one of the oldest Geological Survey Department in the country, started as far back
as 1880. The State contains deposits of asbestos, bauxite, chromite, dolomite, gold, iron ore, kaolin,
limestone, magnesite, manganese, ochre, quartz and silica sand. Karnataka is the sole producer of
felsite and leading producer of gold (84%), moulding sand (63%) and fuchsite quartzite (57%).
Production of Minerals in Karnataka.

Unit 1991-92 1992-93

I. Metallic
a) Ferrous 1. Chromite Tonnes 38,180 36,701
2. Iron ore ’000 Tonnes 11,984 11,028
3. Manganese ore - do - 3,47,089 3,89,691
b) Non-Ferrous 4. Bauxite - do - 22,858 13,178
5. Copper - do - 1,04,531 90,115
6. Gold kg- 1,479 1,245
7. Silver - do - 136 128
II. Non-Metallic
8. Asbestos Tonnes 62 41
9. Fireclay Tonnes 4,376 4,038
10. Kaolin Tonnes 2,154 7,402
11. Kyanite Tonnes 581 350
12. Magnesite Tonnes 39,763 38,523
13. Ochre Tonnes 11,418 12,771
14. Quartz Tonnes 44,808 64,557
15. Steatite Tonnes 1,185 442
III. Building Materials
16. Dolomite Tonnes 3,541 86
17. Lime Shell Tonnes 48,910 32,208
18. Lime Stone ’000 Tonnes 6,865 7,105
10 A Handbook o f Karnataka

Karnataka is the major gold producing State in the country, with the two major mines located
in the districts of Kolar and Raichur. The gold mines at Kolar and Hutti are producing about 3,000
kg of gold per annum. There are vast deposits of iron ore in different parts of the State. The iron
ores of Bellary-Hospet region are considered to be one of the world’s best iron ores. The total reserve
of high grade iron ore available in the State is of the order of 1,000 million tonnes. The Sandur
Manganese and Iron Ores Ltd. produces the largest quantity of Manganese ore, about 2,30,000
tonnes from its mines in Sandur area of Bellary Dt. Kudremukh Iron Ore Co. are engaged in mining
iron ore in Western Ghats and Mysore Minerals and Trading Corporation is also active.
About 4,200 sq.km of granite and granitic rocks area contains granites of ornamental quality
in the State. Most of the ornamental granites are found in Mysore, Bangalore, Mandya, Tumkur,
Kolar, Chitradurga, Bellary, Raichur and Bijapur districts.

Water Resources
Karnataka accounts for about six per cent of the country’s surface water resources of 17 lakh
million cubic metres (Mcum). About 40 per cent of this is available in the east flowing rivers and
the remaining from west flowing rivers.
There are seven river basins which with their tributaries drain the State. The names of river
system and the area drained by them are as follows:

Drainage area in the Estimated average

Sl.No. River System
State yield

’000 Sq.Km % Mcum %

1. Krishna 113.03 58.93 27,451 28.20

2. Cauvery 36.13 18.84 10,980 11.28
3. Godavari 4.43 2.31 1,415 1.45
4. West flowing rivers 24.53 12.79 56,600 58.14
5. North Pennar 6.94 3.62
6. South Pennar 3.76 1.96 906 0.93
7. Palar 2.97 1.55

191.79 100 97,352 100

Krishna basin
About 43.74 per cent of the Krishna basin lies in the the State. The rivers course for 483 km
lies in the State. The Tungabhadra which has a drainage area of 66,237 sq km is the largest and the
important of the Krishna’s tributaries. Its major tributaries are the Bhima, Koyna, Panchaganga,
Dudhaganga, Tungabhadra, Hiranyakeshi, Ghataprabha and the Malaprabha. This basin covers 13
districts and about 60 per cent of the geographical area of the State.

The Krishna : The river Krishna rises in the Western Ghats, at an altitude of 1,336 metres near
Mahabaleshwar in Maharashtra, flows from west to east for a length of about 1,400 km, through
Maharashtra, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. The Krishna has a drainage area of about 2.59 lakh
sq km. Together with its tributaries, it flows for about 704 km length in the State.

The Ghataprabha : The Ghataprabha river rises in the Western Ghats, at an altitude o f 884
metres and flows eastwards for a length of 283 km before joining the Krishna. The river debouches
Introduction 11

by 53 metres at Gokak Falls in Belgaum Dt. The total catchment area of the river and its tributaries
accounts for 8,829 sq.km in Maharashtra and Karnataka States.

The Malaprabha : The river Malaprabha also rises in Western Ghats at an altitude of 792
metres in Belgaum Dt. The river flows first in easterly and then in north-easterly directions and
joins the Krishna at Kudalasangama, about 304 km from its source. The principal tributaries are the
Bennihalla, Hirehalla and the Tas Nadi. The total catchment area of the M alaprabha and its
tributaries is 11,549 sq km., wholly in Karnataka.

The B him a : The Bhima river also rises in Western Ghats, at an altitude of about 945 metres
and flows south-east wards through Maharashtra and Karnataka. It flows for 861 km before joining
the Krishna near Kudlu in Raichur taluk. The latter 298 km of the Bhima’s course is in the State.
It has a drainage area of 70,614 sq km out of which 18,315 sq km lies in Karnataka.

The Tungabhadra : The Tungabhadra is formed north of Shimoga at an elevation of about

610 metres by the union of twin rivers, the Tunga and the Bhadra, which rise together in the Western
Ghats at an elevation of about 1,198 metres. The Varada and the Hagari are its important tributaries.
It has a drainage area of 71,417 sq.km out of which 57,671 sq.km lies in the State. It flows for a
distance of 293 km. in the State.

Cauvery basin
About 42.2 per cent of the area of the Cauvery basin (81,155 sq km) lies in Karnataka. This
basin covers 18 per cent of the State area comprising seven districts. Its major tributaries in
Karnataka are the Hemavati, Lakshmanatirtha, Harangi, Kabini, Suvamavati, Lokapavani, Shimsha
and the Arkavati.

The Cauvery : The river Cauvery has its origin in the Western Ghats in Kodagu Dt. It flows
for a length of 320 km in the State. The river flows generally in a south-east direction. The
Chunchanakatte Falls (about 20 m) and the Shivasumdra Falls (about 100 m) exist in the State.

The H em a va ti: The river Hemavati rises in the Western Ghats at an elevation o f about 1,219
metres and joins the river Cauvery near Krishnarajasagar. The drainage area is about 5,410 sq.km
and the approximate length of the river is 245 km.

The K a b in i: The river Kabini has a total course of about 230 km and a catchment area of
about 7,040 sq.km. It joins the Cauvery river at Tirumakudal Narasipur.

Godavari basin
Godavari basin has a drainage area of 4,405 sq.km. Only a small part of Godavari basin lies
in the State. The river M anjra is the major tributary of the Godavari and it flows for about 155 km
in the State.

Pennar and Palar basins

The North Pennar, South Pennar and the Palar rivers drain about 13,610 sq.km in the State.
 ri ver
palab

Rivers of Karnataka
inv-)ikh;liun

West Flowing Rivers : There are numerous west flowing rivers, chief among which arc the
Sharavati, Kali, Gangavati (Bedti), Aghanashini and the Netravati. The total catchment area oi' all
west flowing rivers is 26,214 sq.km. They are mostly harnessed lor power generation.

Ground Water Resources

Traditionally, groundwater in the State has been exploited by open dug wells, constructed in
the weathered mantle. Alter fast drilling rigs became available, borewells have been drilled
extensively, tapping the water stored in rock fissures and fractures.

The water stored in the fractures and fissures ultimately comes from rainfall infiltrating through
the weathered mantle. The ground water in the weathered mantle flows in the direction of the slope
of the underlying fresh rock. Groundwater tends to accumulate in the valley areas and to drain from
ridge areas. If the extraction exceeds recharge ground water is said to be mined. Mining cannot be
sustained for long as it empties the ground water store.

About 4.4% of India’s ground water resources (2.7 lakh mcum) lies in Karnataka. The total
annual recharge of ground water estimated in the State is about 17,99,591 hectare metres (ham).
Net annual utilisation is estimated at 5,76,921 ham as on 31 -3-1991. In the m alnadregion, the annual
recharge is estimated to be 10% of the annual rainfall. In the region where the rainfall is less than
700mm, the evapotranspiration is also high, and the re-charge is less than 5%. For rest of the State,
the re-charge is estimated to be between 5% and 10%. As per minor Irrigation Census 1986-87,
there were more than 3.5 lakh open dug wells in the State. The depth to water level in these wells
from the surface ranges between 2 to 3.5 metres in valley regions and in some places the depth goes
even upto 18 metres. A large majority of the wells dry up in summer. Nearly half of the open wells
are in a poor state of maintenance.

There were 38,899 shallow and 6,673 deep tube wells as per the above Census.During recent
years, borewells are increasingly coming into prominence. These are generally 150 mm in diametre
and drilled to depth ranging from 30 to 60 metres. The average yield ranges from 60 to 80 litres per
minute. In Kolar and Bijapur districts nearly all the available surplus ground water has been
exploited.

Climate
The State enjoys three main types of climates. For meteorological purposes, the State has been
divided into three sub-divisions namely (a) Coastal Karnataka (Dakshina Kannada and Uttara
Kannada districts), (b) North Interior Karnataka (Belgaum, Bidar, Bijapur, Dharwad, Gulbarga and
Raichur districts) and (c) South Interior Karnataka (the remaining districts of Bangalore Rural,
Bangalore, Bellary, Chikmagalur, Chitradurga, Kodagu, Hassan, Kolar, Mysore, Mandya, Shimoga
and Tumkur districts). The Tropical Monsoon climate covers the entire coastal belt and adjoining
areas. The climate in this region is hot with excessive rainfall during the monsoon season i.e., June
to September. The Southern half of the State experiences hot, seasonally dry tropical savana climate
while most of the northern half experiences hot, semi- arid, tropical steppe type of climate.

The climate of the State varies with the seasons. The winter season from January to February
is followed by summer season from March to May. The period from October to December forms
the post-monsoon season.
14 A Handbook o f Karnataka

The period from October to March, covering the post-monsoon and winter seasons, is generally
pleasant over the entire State except during a few spells of rain associated with north-east monsoon
which affects the south-eastern parts of the State during October to December. The months April
and May are hot, very dry and generally uncomfortable. Weather tends to be oppressive during June
due to high humidity and temperature. The next three months (July, August and September) are
somewhat comfortable due to reduced day temperature although the humidities continue to be very
high.

Tem perature: Both day and night temperatures are more or less uniform over the State, except
at the coastal region and high elevated plateau. They generally decrease south-westwards over the
State due to higher elevation and attain lower values at high level stations.

April and May are the hottest months. In May, mean maximum temperature shoots upto 40°C
over the north-eastern corner of the State, decreasing south-westwards towards the Western Ghat
region and the Coastal belt. The highest temperature recorded at an individual station in the State
is 45.6° C at Raichur on 1928 May 23 which is 6° higher than the normal for the warmest months.
December and January are the coldest months. The lowest temperature at an individual station was
2.8° C on 1918 December 16 at Bidar.

Sub-Division Mean daily temperature°C

Maximum Minimum

Interior Karnataka
a. North 32.0 20.4
b. South 29.7 19.2
Coastal Karnataka 30.7 23.3

Rainfall
The annual rainfall in the State varies roughly from 50 to 350 cm. In the districts of Bijapur
Raichur, Bellary and southern half of Gulbarga, the rainfall is lowest varying from 50 to 60 cm.The
rainfall increases significantly in the western part of the State and reaches its maximum over the
coastal belt. The south-west monsoon is the principal rainy season during which the State receives
80% of its rainfall.Rainfall in the winter season (January to February) is less than one per cent of
the annual total, in the hot weather season (March to May) about 7% and in the post-monsoon season
about 12%.

South-west monsoon normally sets in over the extreme southern parts of the State by about
1st of June and covers the entire State by about 10th of June. The rainy months July and August
account individually to about 30% and 18% of annual rainfall. There are about 26 rainy days (with
daily rainfall of atleast 2.5 mm) in Coastal Karnataka and 8 to 11 days in interior Karnataka in each
of these months. The withdrawal of the south-west monsoon begins from the northern parts of the
State around 2nd week of October and by the 15th October monsoon withdraws from the entire
State.
Introduction 15

The retreating monsoon current i.e. the north-east monsoon (October to December) effects the
eastern parts of South Interior Karnataka and accounts for about 30% o f rainfall in this region during
the above period.

Out of the 14 heavy rainfall stations in India, with annual rainfall of more than 500 cm., four
stations are situated in Karnataka. They are Agumbe in Tirthahalli taluk of Shimoga Dt. (annual
rainfall-828 cm) and Bhagamandala (603 cm), Pullingoth (594 cm) and Makut (505 cm) in Kodagu
Dt. Agumbe can be called as the Cherapunji of Southern India. District wise monthly, seasonal and
annual rainfall (mm) for taluk headquarters (1901-1970) is given Table No 1.2
 Table No.1.2 Districtwise monthly, Seasonal & A n n u a l Rainfall (MMs) Based on 5.M.J). LHta
for Taluk Headquarters Stations.

S I.N o. D is tric t N o. o f Jan Feb M ar A pr M ay T o ta l(P M ) Ju n lul A ug S ep 1'o lal(S \V i On N ov i T o ta K N l’ ■ ■Annu.r

T a lu k s
3 4.7 177.7 68 .9 99 .4 439.6 16;! J S4, i. ■; 1■, \
■'66 2
1. B a n g a lo re 7.7 7.5 4 1.9 115.9 i i-c. i 148.7
2. B a n g a lo re R u ra l 8 4.3 6.0 8.1 42.1 107.4 167.8 6 8 .2 8 4.0 111.9 151.2 415.3 ; 5 7.5 :.t: P .4 2 ? .;.5 N16.6
3. K olar 11 6.9 5.8 9 .0 3 3 .4 80.3 135.4 6 1 .0 80.8 100.1 145.4 387.3 135.8 f). ?2 1 2 743.9
4. Tum kur 10 3.1 4.1 6.1 3 3 .6 9 0 .9 137.8 6 0 .7 6 8.9 8 5.0 127.7 324.7. 141.9 I 20;- 6-S.-1
5. Chitradurga 9 3.0 3.9 4 .0 27.1 7 5.7 113.7 5 2 .7 6 7 .6 68 .9 100.7 28 9 .8 121.0 ■14.! 1! .2 176.2 579.8
6. S h im oga 9 1.7 2 .2 10.4 4 2 .9 8 6.7 143.9 2 5 3 .8 558.3 29 3 .3 121.7 1227.1 142.2 45 2 10.1 1' */ 6 1568:6

B A N G A L O R E D IV IS IO N 50 4 .0 4 .6 7 .6 3 5.9 8 9 .2 14 1 .2 9 5 .8 163.6 129.5 130.7 51 9 .5 140.9 56.3 12.7 21 !■ 0 5T;0.-7

7. M ysore 11 3.8 5 .2 12.0 6 6 .0 139.1 2 2 6 .1 5 8 .7 82.5 73 .0 92.9 307.1 155 7 66 .4 1' 5 23 ; 7 7 /0 .9

8. M andya 7 2.8 5.3 7.9 5 0 .2 123.0 189.1 4 3 .9 44.8 6 4 .2 111.5 2 6 4 .? 169.5 * 2 .0 14.7 2 4 6 .2 699.9
9. H assan 8 3.5 4.3 8 .0 59.3 109.4 18 4 .6 118.2 25 0 .3 138.8 9 7 .6 6 0 4 .9 161.3 65.1 15.3 ">.1 ! ] 1031.2
10. C hikm agalur 7 3.1 3.5 9 .2 5 5 .3 101.9 172.9 3 0 0 .4 6 7 1 .7 382.1 160.0 1514.1 163.5 5 9 .0 I ' .7 23 8 .2 1925.2
11. D .K annada 8 4.3 2 .2 8.4 4 3 .5 17 1 .2 2 2 9 .6 9 8 3 .3 131 6 .4 8 0 3 .9 3 4 4 .4 3 4 4 8 .0 2446 88.1 18.9 35 1 .5 4029.1
12. K odagu 3 5 .0 5 .6 14.7 7 3 .5 146.7 2 4 5 .5 4 8 6 .0 9 3 8 .3 5 2 9 .3 2 1 8 .9 2 1 7 2 .6 2 0 1 .7 79.9 18.7 3 0 0 ,0 2718.2

M Y S O R E D IV IS IO N 44 3 .6 4.3 9.7 5 7 .0 13 1 .6 2 0 6 .2 3 0 2 .9 4 8 3 .5 2 9 6 .7 161.7 1244.8 179.4 69.1 16.2 2 6 i. 8 1715.7

13. B ellary 8 1.8 3.2 4.0 28 .8 6 4 .6 102.4 6 7 .5 86.9 94.5 138.9 387.8 106.3 33.3 0.0 148.6 c-38.,6
14. R a ic h u r 9 0.9 1.1 3.9 19.7 4 1 .2 66 .8 6 8 .7 9 6 .5 102.9 145.0 413.1 9 0.9 21.6 6.7 119.2 59 9 .2
15. G u lb a rg a 10 2.7 3.9 9.6 18.6 3 3 .0 67 .8 108.3 161.3 143.8 193.4 6 0 6 .8 80.8 16.1 5.2 1 0 ? .! 776.5
16. Bidar 5 3.5 5.7 11.2 2 1 .2 2 3 .4 65 .0 131.4 189.9 179.5 191.8 6 9 2 .6 65 0 '8 .7 6.0 89,7 847.3

G U L B A R G A D IV IS IO N 32 2.1 3.2 6.8 2 1 .9 41.7 75 .7 9 0 .6 128.9 1 25.6 165.9 5 1 1 .0 87.5 22.4 6.7 116.6 7U3.2

A Handbook at Korvmakri'
17. B elgaum 10 2.0 1.5 7 .6 3 2.9 6 5 .2 1 0 9 .2 103.7 205.1 122.3 109.7 540.8 111.3 38.3 8.8 158 3 8U8.3
18. Bijapur 11 2 .4 3.3 5 .6 2 1 .5 42.3 7 5 .2 71.1 75.5 71.6 148.3 36 6 .5 $i< 5 1 ~9 127 -569. i
19. U .K annada 11 1.2 1.1 4 .0 2 8 .2 103.1 1 3 7 .6 68 0 .4 1005.9 5 5 4 .3 2 4 8 .4 2488.9 148. i 48.6 12.3 2 0 8 .'' 2835.5
20. Dharw ad 17 1.4 2.4 5 .2 3 9.8 77.8 126.7 87.9 135.4 92.3 105.9 42 1 .5 119.8 39.2 100 169 0 717.2

B E L G A U M D IV IS IO N 49 1.7 2.1 5.5 31.7 72.9 1 1 4 .0 2 2 0 .4 33 1 .6 197.5 148.2 89 7 .6 117.4 39.3 °.8 166,5 1.178.1

STA TE AV ERA GE 175 2.9 3.6 7 .4 37.5 86 .6 138.0 181.8 28 4 .7 189.9 199.8 806.2 131.3 48 .6 11.7 19-1.5 ' 1138.6

Source D rought M onitoring cell, D S T , B an galore.

N ote: M M = M illi M etres, PM = Pre M o n so o n , S W = Sou th W est M o n so o n N E = North East m onsoon.
Introduction 17

Fauna
The State of Karnataka has a rich heritage of flora and fauna. The hill chain of Western Ghats
is the only part of the State to retain some semblance of its natural biological heritage. This last
refuge of the native fauna is subjected to rapid decimation with the coming up of several
hydro-electric and irrigation projects, mining, the accelerated pace of forest exploitation and the
increasing demand of land for plantation and crop husbandry. The area under forests in Karnataka
today amounts to 38.72 lakh hectares i.e. 20 per cent of the total land area of the State. W ith the
notable exception of Bonnet Macaque, which is under widespread religious protection throughout
the State, the larger wild mammals are almost confined to the forest areas.

The wildlife bearing forest areas of Karnataka are divided into six regions viz., Coastal
region,Crestline of the Western Ghats, Malnad, Old Mysore Plateau, Kollegal hills and the M^idan.
The natural distribution of animals is largely determined by vegetation.

Region-I - Coastal region : The district of Uttara Kannada and parts of Belgaum constitute
the northernmost sector of the hill tracts of Karnataka. These hilly tracts have vegetation ranging
from evergreen to dry deciduous types. Due to Kalinadi hydro-electric project and a great deal of
Iron and Manganese ore mining, the habitat is highly fragmented and the forest cover is greatly
disturbed. In this region, as per observed data, the gaur are scattered, sambar are much more widely
distributed. Wild pig is most abundant and spotted deer is seen in majority of areas. Elephants are
found scattered over a wide region. The Carnivores-tiger, panther and wild dog occur in low
populations. This region was extremely rich in wild life in the past especially tiger and gaur.
Region II - Crestline o f Western Ghats: This region lies south of Uttar Kannada. There is a
narrow belt of forests following this Crestline of Ghats. The vegetation ranges from evergreen to
moist deciduous. M ost o f the major animals occur in this region but their population on the whole
is very poor. Only a few isolated herds of elephants are found here. The gaur and sambar are
frequently seen while the spotted deer occurs sporadically. Barking deer and sloth bear are also
reported to be present. Wild pig is omni present. The Carnivores - tiger, panther and wild dog are
present but their occurrence rating is very low. This region is a poor habitat for most large herbivores
and consequently for carnivores.

Region III - M a ln a d : This is characterised by dry and moist deciduous vegetation. The area
is marked by conspicuous hills like the Bababudangiri range. This region has one of the best wildlife
concentrations only second to M ysore plateau in the State, harbouring populations of elephants,
gaur, sambar, spotted deer, wild pig etc. The anthropogenic pressures over, this area are much less
and hence the wildlife is somewhat less molested. The presence of perennial rivers, reservoirs and
plenty of bamboos, grass and other fodder species with a moderate rainfall makes this region an
ideal habitat for elephants.
Region IV - Mysore plateau : The western edge of Mysore Plateau, flanked on three sides by
the southern most ranges of the Sahyadris, Nilgiris and eastern spur of hills towards the
Biligirirangan hills, is an undulating plain and is covered by moist and dry deciduous forests. This
area has the richest wildlife concentrations in South India, harbouring large herds of elephants,
spotted deer, wild pig, wild dog, sloth bear, gaur, sambar and occasionally tiger and cats.
Region V : Kollegal H ills: This hilly area is an eastern spur of the Western Ghats. Apart from
the moist deciduous or semi- evergreen forests on these hills, the rest of the region is covered by
dry deciduous forest mostly degraded into scrub. Elephant, sambar, spotted deer, wild pig occur
throughout this region. The wild dogs have fairly extensive distribution, though tiger, gaur and
18 A Handbook o f Karnataka

panther are much more restricted. Almost all the wild life species occur in this region in small
numbers except elephants.
Region VI - Maidan : There is very little forest in the Maidan areas on the Deccan Plateau and
whatever is left is in highly degraded form. Ranebennur is notable for the occurrence of good herds
of black bucks. Wolves are becoming rare but have been reported from several places in this plains.

Flora
Karnataka State has a rich and varied vegetation resulting from several lines of plant migration
conditioned by climate, soil and topography. Biotic factors have in many areas modified the original
climaxes evolved through the centuries.

tonsidering topography, bio-climate and soil, the vegetation of Karnataka could be grouped
under the following four categories viz., 1) Littoral vegetation, 2) West coast tropical vegetation. 3)
Upland deciduous vegetation and 4) Southern tropical montane vegetation.

Littoral vegetation : There are two types of littoral vegetation in Karnataka. The first is
terrestrial on the sand dunes and the second, halophytic along estuaries. The limitations imposed by
the scorching sun, shifting sands and salt-laden winds are overcome by special plants called
psammophytes. The dunes above the tide mark are held down by a number of sand binders. Sundews
and bladder worts often form a seasonal carpet on the wet sands of the rear beach.

Limited mangrove formations occur in the riverine estuaries where the salinity gradient rises
rapidly towards the sea. The best examples of halophytic vegetation are near Kundapur and Gokarna.
It is mostly of the Rhizophora - Avicennia - Bruguiera type. The trees and shrubs have to overcome
the restrictions of a marshy saline habitat with strong tidal currents and fluctuations in water level
as well as the asphyxiating conditions of a slushy soil.

These littoral plant formations have ecological role in the balance of nature. The
psammophytes help in preventing the sand of the beaches from being blown landwards on to
agricultural lands and human habitations. They also protect the beaches for their recreational
value. Mangroves stabilise the river embankments against erosion. They afford breeding ground to
several fishes and other marine animals.

Moist Deciduous Coastal Vegetation: The natural vegetation in this region immediately to the
east of the coastline is of the secondary moist deciduous type. It is sometimes considered a degraded
stage of an evergreen climax.

In the broader coastal low land of Dakshina Kannada, the Hopea - Syzygium-Holigarna series
is usually found with dense understorey of shrubs like Grewia, Ixora and Psychotria. Lianas
especially Hugonia mystax and Uvaria narum are frequent. The secondary moist deciduous forests
are better preserved towards the foothill of the Ghats. The biotic factor which is high in the vicinity
of the Coastal urban centres is less towards the Ghats. :

West Coast Tropical Evergreens : The lower slopes and valleys of the Ghats present fine
examples of the West Coast tropical evergreen forests. These close canopy forests are nurtured by
the heavy seasonal precipitation to form a climax vegetation. Erect buttressed trunks, unbranched
for 20 or more metres fan out to meet the contiguous tree tops. There are several variations in the
dominant canopy trees. The commonest association is of Dipt,erocarpu$, - Kingiodendron-Vularia
between 70 to 600 metres above mean sea level. There are several other plant forms in these forests.
Introduction 19

The biological diversity and its spatial distribution within the forest apportions solar energy as
effectively in the conversion of water and carbon-di-oxide into life sustaining organic compounds.
Upland moist Decidous Vegetation : The decreasing rainfall on the leeward side of the
mountain gives rise to another climax type - the upland moist deciduous vegetation. While in leaf,
the canopy of these forests is dense, during the dry months there is a short period of leaf fall to
avoid loss of water due to transpiration. Flowering of the trees occurs during the leafless period.
This moist deciduous belt running from Belgaum to Kodagu is the habitat of the Tectona - Dillenia
- Lagerstroemia - Terminalia series which include teak, rnalii, kanagalu , nandi, which arc local
names. Extensive areas on the eastern fringe of the Ghats were once covered with clumps of
bamboos.
Upland dry deciduous vegetation: The bio climate of the eastern part of the Maidan permits
a climax dry deciduous vegetation in several protected areas. The canopy is open and the trees
leafless during the driest months. Flowering and fruiting are generally far advanced before the first
flush of new leaves appears with the conventional showers in April-May.
Upland thorn and scrub : There are several parts of Chitradurga, Bellary, Raichur, Gulbarga
and Bidar districts where broad leaved deciduous forests give place to armed trees with tiny leaflets.
Some remaining patches of these forests are made-up of Acacia, Albizia and Hardwickia. (Jali ,
bilwara, ennemara being local names). The Maidan is dotted with numerous irrigation tanks usually
supporting an interesting aquatic flora.
Southern Tropical Montane Vegetation : An altitudinal variation of the tropical evergreens, is
found above 1,500 metres especially at Kudremukh, and in the Bababudan and Biligirirangan hills.
This vegetation of grassy meadows and low wooded patches forms the Southern Tropical Montane
Vegetation. The grassy mountain meadows present a quick succession of herbs that appear in short
lived profusion. A good part of the wet forests has been greatly altered by biotic factors.
The vegetation dynamics in Karnataka indicate several changes in the natural vegetation due
to biotic factors especially human intervention. Inhabitated coastal areas present a thick canopy of
coconut trees. The climax formations of dry types of vegetation with a distinct canopy, an
understorey of shrubs and a ground cover of herbs are confined to a few inaccessible pockets or to
areas of reserved forests. Felling for fuel and grazing especially by goats threatened even these
remnants of the original plant cover. The forest unless covered is slowly converted into grasslands
with scattered trees. In some areas forests have been cleared and low lying areas are converted into
paddy fields while the hilly terrain is often planted with plantation crops.

Forests
Karnataka State has a geographical area of 1,91,791 sq km of which 38,724 sq. km (20 per
c e n t) is under the control of the Forest Department. The forests are classified as reserved (28,611
sq. km), protected (3,932 sq. km), unclassed (5,748 sq. km), village (124 sq. km) and private (309
sq. km) forests. The percentage of forest area to geographical area in the State is less the all-India
average of about 23%, and 33% prescribed in the National Forest policy. The area under forests in
the neighbouring States is as follows : Andhra pradesh 62 lakh ha (9% of the total area of the
country), Maharashtra 54 lakh ha (8%), Tamilnadu 22 lakh ha (3%) and Kerala 11 lakh ha (2%).
The area under each category of forests and the estimated growing stock as in 1992-93 are as
follows:
20 A Handbook o f Karnataka

SI. Type Percentage Forest area Growing Growing

No. of the total under each type Stock stock in
forest area. in '000 ha. per ha. each type
in M3 in millionM3

1. Evergreen and 15.11 580 175 101.50

Semi ever green.
2. Most deciduous 14.96 578 100 57.80
3. Dry deciduous 18.64 727 50 36.35
4. Scrub and Thorny 21.11 818 25 20.45
5. Unwooded 30.18 1,161 — —

Total 100 3,864 — 216.1

About two lakh ha. of forest area is lost for non-forestry purposes since 1956 to 1986-87 and
the details are as follows: For hydroelectric purposes: 22,194 ha, electricity lines 1,688 ha, roads:
330 ha, tanks - 35,840 ha, townships 1,791 ha, mining -42,676 ha, agriculture 67,217 ha,
rehabilitation: 25,820 ha, other purposes 6,357 ha and total 2,03,913 ha.The out turn of major forest
produce for the year 1991-92 is as follows: 1) Timber - a) Rosewood 4,522 M 3, b) Teak - 3,376 M 3
c) Other kinds of timber - 41,253 M 3 2) Pulpwood - 213 M 3 3) Plywood - 2,610 M 3 4) Matchwood
-131 M 3, 5) Sawn Timber - 618 M3 6) Timber in round pole - 32,067 M 3 7) Firewood - 1,66,039
M 3, 8) Bamboo - 19,299 M.T. and Sandalwood 1,418 M .

Though 20% of the land area is classified as forests (3.86 million ha) in the State, only about
11% is well wooded. The remaining area is in different stages of degradation. The State is facing
shortage of fuel wood, fodder and timber as the demand has increased considerably due to the
increase in population of both human and cattle. The forests in the State are managed as per the
prescriptions of the working plans which are prepared for periods of 10 to 15 years after taking into
consideration the type of forests, the condition of the existing crop, the demand for various forest
produce and the requirements of the area for maintenance of ecological balance.

Karnataka Government has established many National Parks and Wild Life Sanctuaries to
protect important species. The following is the list of National Parks and Wildlife Sancturies (WS)
and their year of establishment.

National Park/Sanctuary Area in District Established

sq.km. during

1 2 3 4

1. Anshi N.P. 250 Uttara Kannada 1987

2. Bandipur N.P. 874 Mysore 1974
3. Bannerghatta N.P. 104 Bangalore 1974
4. Kudremukh N.P. 600 Chikmagalur 1987
5. Nagarhole N.P. 643 Mysore and Kodagu 1988
6. Adichunchanagiri
peacock sanctuary 0.84 Mandya 1981
7. Arabitittu W.S. 14 Mysore 1985
Introduction 21

1 2 3 4

8. Bhadra W.S. 493 Chikmagalur and 1974

Shimoga
9. Biligirirangan Temple W.S 540 Mysore 1987
10. Brahmagiri W.S. 181 Kodagu 1974
11. Mookambika WS. 247 Dakshina Kannada 1974
12. NuguW .S. 30 Mysore 1974
13. Sharavathy Valley W.S. 431 Shimoga 1974
14. Someshwara W.S. 88 Dakshina Kannada 1974
15. Shettyhally W.S. 396 Shimoga 1974
16. Ranebennur W.S. 119 Dharwad 1974
17. Pushapagiri W.S. 103 Kodagu 1974
18. Cauvery W.S. 510 Mysore 1987
19. Tala Cauvery W.S. 105 Kodagu 1987
20. Melkote Temple W.S 50 Mandya 1974
21. Ghataprabha Bird S. 30 Belgaum 1974
22. Dandeli W.S. 843 Uttara Kannada 1987
23. Ranganatittu Bird S. 0.67 Mandya 1940
24. Gudavi Bird S. 0.73 Shimoga 1989

Total 6,644

These five National Parks and 19 wildlife sanctuaries forms 17.5% of the total forest area.
They comprise of evergreen to scrub type of forests thus forming a network of representative
ecosystem to conserve endangered species of plants as well as animals and birds. As per the 1989
census of the larger mammals, there were 257 tigers, 283 panthers, 4,418 elephants and 5,473 bisons.

Environment Situation in Karnataka

Survival of life on earth depends on the availability of natural resources. The use of these
resources has an impact on the environment around us. Water usage leads to its pollution. Coal, oil,
minerals and metals are being depleted by increasing usage. A high level of irrigation, unless
accompanied by proper drainage, make the soil saline or water-logged. Combustion of fuels results
in greater accumulation of carbon-di-oxide leading to global warming. This use and depletion of
resources has an impact on our environment.

About sixty per cent of the land area in the State is under one or other type of agriculture. This
is above the national average of 51%. A portion of this land is marginal for agriculture and requires
higher inputs but gives lower yields. As subsistence farming is economically nonviable, this land
is soon degraded and the soil is eroded. Land that cannot support agriculture could well be suitable
for forestry and pasture.

Irrigated land has been rendered saline or water-logged due to water use. Thus in the upper
Krishna Project about 71,000 ha, have become either saline or alkaline. In the command area o f tjie
Tungabhadra reservoir about 33,000 ha, are either saline or water logged; 24,455 ha are saline or
waterlogged in the Malaprabha and Ghataprabha (command) area and 16,500 ha, in the cauvery
basin. Remedial measures are being undertaken in some areas at a high cost.
22 A Handbook o f Karnataka

Pasture lands in the State have been steadily decreasing. During 1956 to 1983, pastures came
down by 31% while animal units increased by 30%. Overgrazing is bound to follow together with
compacling of the land cattle paths.

As a result of the expansion of agriculture and its allied activities, the natural vegetation in the
plains has suffered the most. In fact the characteristic vegetation of this habitat namely the scrub
forest has almost vanished. The wild life too has practically been wiped out in this tract except in
isolated pockets.Similarly in the Western Ghats, the fragmentation of natural vegetation has already
reached alarming proportions and this would have serious consequences on the rate of extinction of
species. The wild life has been decimated in many parts of the State and its numbers are rapidly
dwindling due to loss of habitat, constant fragmentation and illegal killing.
The forest areas in the Western Ghats are being converted into plantations of cardamom,
Cocoa, coffee and tea. Simultaneously timber and fuel wood species are replacing the rich tropical
forests.These plantations while being commercially remunerative, can cause great harm to the
bio-diversity and habitat of the flora and fauna. Vast forest areas have been submerged by hydel
projects on the west-flowing rivers. Resettlement of the people displaced by development projects
has further reduced the forest area by honey combing the forests with human settlement.

Silting is the most serious problems with tanks and reservoirs. The capacity of the tanks goes
on decreasing every year, the tank irrigating less and less land, ultimately becoming altogether
useless for irrigation when the sluice can no longer be opened. The solution proposed for the silting
problem is afforestation of the catchment to the extent possible, banning cultivation in the foreshore
lands and construction of small checkdams upstream to trap the silt.

The exploitation of renewable and non-renewable natural resources is likely to have an

environmental impact. Increased production of minerals will vary with the location, method and
magnitude of operations. Area surrounding the mines will also be affected by the works as well as
workers. So the extent and mode of mining must be regulated by ecological considerations for the
long term utilisation of resources.

Pollution is the introduction of extraneous materials into environment adversely affecting its
normal use. Water pollution is caused mainly by discharge of waste waters into natural water courses
and water bodies. Water is being polluted by industries and human habitations. Industrial effluents
can cause organic, chemical and even hazardous pollution. In order to control this pollution, effluent
standards have been prescribed industry-wise. Thermal pollution caused by water with temperatures
above the ambient water temperature is also to be controlled. The Water (Prevention and Control
of Pollution) Act was enacted by Parliament on 23rd March 1974.

The greatest water pollution in the State is caused by Urban Agglomerations. It is obligatory
on the authorities to treat the sewage before discharging it. However 139 of the 172 Municipalities
do not have functional underground drainage or sewage treatment plants.

Air pollution
Stack emissions from industries also emits fumes containing both suspended particles as well
as abnoxious gases. Stack emission are to be controlled and have to conform to standards using
devices like cyclones, scrubbers, electrostatic precipitators and similar devices. The resultant
particulate matter gives a sludge which again has to be disposed off. The Raichur Thermal power
plant produces around 3,000 tonnes of ash a day. The Mangalore Super Thermal Power Plant is
estimated to generate 20,000 tonnes of ash a day. A step towards controlling pollution and protection
Introduction 23

of our environment was taken by the central enactment of Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution)
Act 1981.

Noise pollution caused by 1) Industrial Noise, 2) Traffic Noise and 3) Cultural Noise is also
under the purview of this Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of 1981. Noise is as harmful
to the human beings as polluted air and water. Noise pollution associated with urban life is on the
increase. The vast majority of people are under the false impression that ears adapt to increased
noise levels. The truth is that they never do, but silently surrender their functions, with increasing
age of an individual.

More comprehensive legislation to provide for the protection and improvement of the
environment was centrally enacted and termed the Environment (Protection) Act on 23rd M ay 1986.

The Department of Ecology and Environment was established in March 1981 to have an
integrated approach to deal with, prevention and control of air and water pollution, preservation and
development of forest wealth and other natural resources in the State. The Environment (Protection)
Act came into force from November 1986 and the existing Water Act and Air Act have been
amended over the last two years. The new provisions of the environmental laws enable the general
public to question the authorities involved in the environmental pollution control in a court of law.
The Ecology and Environment department is now responsible for the management of hazardous
chemicals and control of oil pollution in coastal waters. In addition beach management has also
been given considerable importance. Karnataka State Pollution Control Board is in existence since
1974. The Board is implementing the provisions of Water Act, Air Act and certain provisions of
Environmental Protection Act. The Board has its establishment at Bangalore and three regional
offices located at Mysore, Davanagere and Dharwad. The Board is also functioning as a collecting
authority for collection o f Cess under Water Cess Act.

GENERAL ELECTION RESULTS

The election results in the State reflect the political mood and changes in the administrative
set up in the State. Though for the elections of 1957, 1962 and 1967 the number seats secured by
each of the political parties alone in respective elections is presented here, after 1972, the number
of candidates winning from each party and the percentage of votes obtained by each party are also
mentioned.

L ok Sabha -1957: (Total No.of seats 26) (Double member constituencies 3) Indian National
Congress - 23; Praja Socialist Party - 1; Scheduled Castes Federation -1; Independent -1.

Legislative Assembly 1957: (Total No.of seats: 208) (Double member constituencies -29)
Indian National Congress -149; Praja Socialist Party -18; Scheduled Castes Federation - 2; Peasants
and Workers Party - 2; Communist Party of India - 1; Independent - 36;

Lok Sabha -1962: (Total N o.of seats - 26;) (Double member constituencies were abolished)
Indian National Congress - 25; Lok Sevak Sangha -1 .

Legislative Assembly, 1962: (Total No.of seats - 208;) (Double member constituencies were
abolished) Indian National Congress - 138; Swatantra Party - 8; Praja Socialist Party - 20;
Maharashtra Ekikarna Samithi -6; Lok Sevak Sangha -4; Communist Party of India -3; Socialist
Party -1; Independents -28.
24 A Handbook o f Karnataka

* Lok Sabha 1967 : (Total No. of seats -27:) Indian National Congress -18; Swatantra Party -5;
Praja Socialist Party -2; Samyukta Socialist Party -1; Independent -1.

Legislative Assembly, 1967: (Total No.of seats 216:) Indian National Congress -1 2 3 ; Praja
Socialist Party -22; Swatantra Party -17; Samyukta Socialist Party -6; Bharatiya Jan Sangh -4;
Communist party of India -1; Independents -41.

General Election to the Lok Sabha, 1971.

Name of the party No.of seats No. of seats Percentage of

contested won votes polled
1 2 3 4

National Congress (J) (Later R) 27 27 70.87

National Congress (O) (NCN) 17 - 16.36
Socialist Party 1 - 1.03
Jan Sangh 2 - 1.90
Communist Party 1 - 0.68
Independents 44 - 4.23
Praja Socialist Party 5 - 1.27
Swatantra Party 5 - 3.66

General Elections to the State Legislative Assembly, 1972

1 2 3 4

Indian National Congress I 212 165 52.17

Indian National Congress Organisation 0 176 24 26.22
Bharatiya Jan Sangh 102 - 4.30
Socialist Party 29 3 1.69
Swatantra Party 28 - 0.57
Communist Party of India (CPM) 17 - 1.03
Communist Party of India (CPI) 4 3 0.99
Janata Paksha (JP) (A local party) 2 1 0.16
Independents 250 20 12.87

Total 820 216

Introduction 25

General Election to the Lok Sabha, 1977

1 2 3 4

Indian National Congress I 28 26 56.80

Bharatiya Lok Dal (BLD) (Janata Party) 28 2 39.89
Communist Party of India 3 - 0.40
Republican Party of India (K) 2 - 0.33
Independents 37 - 2.58

Total • 28

General Elections to the Legislative Assembly, 1978

Name of the Party No.of seats Elected Percentage

contested
1 2 3 4

Indian National Congress (I) 214 149 44.25

Janata Party (former BLD) 222 59 37.95
Indian National Congress (O) 212 2 7.99
Communist Party of India 6 3 1.19
Communist Party of India (M) 10 - 0.50
Republican Party of India 2 1 0.18
Republican Party of India (K) 7 - 0.12
Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam 3 - 0.13
All India Anna DMK 4 - 0.16
Independents 485 10 7.53

Total 1165 224

General Election to the Lok Sabha, 1980

1 2 3 4

Indian National Congress (I) 28' 27 56.25

Indian National Congress (Urs) 27 - 16.69
Janata Party 28 1 22.93
Janata Party (S) 12 - 1.22
Communist Party of India 1 - 0.25
Communist Party of India (M) 1 - 0.22
SUCI 1 - 0.01
Independents 92 - 2.43

Total 190 28
26 A Handbook o f Karnataka

General Elections to the Legislative Assembly, 1983

1 2 3 4

Janata Party (JNP) 194 95 33.09

Indian National Congress (INC) 221 82 40.42
Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) 110 18 7.93
Communist Party of India (CPI) 7 3 1.25
Communist Party of India (CPM or Marxist) 5 3 0.90
All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam 1 1 0.13
Independents and others 747 22 16.28

Total 1365 224

General Election to the House of People (Lok Sabha), 1984

1 2 3 4

Indian National Congress 28 24 51.63

Janata Party (JNP)* 23 4 35.05
Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) 6 - 4.67
Communist Party of India 2 - 1.00
Communist Party of India (M) 1 - 0.10
Lok Dal (LKD) 7 - 0.49
Independents 267 - 7.03

Total 334 28

* Headed by Chandrasekhar at the National Level

General Election to the State Legislative Assembly, 1985

l 2 3 4

Janata Party 207 139 43.48

Indian National Congress 224 66 41.10
Bharatiya Janata Party 117 2 3.84
Communist Party (CPI) 8 4 1.08
Communist Party of India (CPM) 7 2 0.86
Indian Congress (Socialist) (ICS) 5 - 0.08
Lok Dal (LKD) 37 1 0.42
Republican Party of India (RPI) - - -
All India Anna DMK 2 - 0.18
Independents 1188 11 8.57

Total 1795 224

Introduction 27

General Elections to the Lok Sabha, 1989

1 2 3 4
Indian National Congress 28 27 48.90
Janata Dal (JD) 27 1 28.34
Janata Party (JP) 26 - 10.59
B.J.P 5 - 2.55
C.P.I 1 - 0.77
L.D (B) 4 - 0.52
Karnataka Rajya Raitha Sangha (KRRS) 10 - 2.69
Republican Party of India 3 - 1.24
Others and Independents 138 - 6.95

Total 242 28

General Elections to the Legislative Assembly, 1989

1 2 3 4
Indian National Congress 219 176 43.77
Janata Dal 208 24 27.30
Janata Party 215 2 11.40
Bharatiya Janata Party (JP) 119 4 4.13
Karnataka Rajya Raitha Sangha (KRRS) 111 2 3.63
C.P.I 18 - 0.59
Communist Party of India (CPM) 7 - 0.54
A.I.A.D.M.K 1 1 0.18
Muslim League 13 1 0.43
Republican Party of India (RPI) 10 - 0.10
Bahujan Samaja Party (BSP) 4 - 0.03
Independents and others 1086 12 7.90

Total 2011 222

Tenth General election to the Lok Sabha, 1991

1 2 3 4

Indian National Congress (INC) 27 22 41.98

Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) 27 4 28.68
Janata Dal (JD) 20 - 18.55
Janata Party 6 1 3.95
C.P.I 1 - 0.66
Communist Party of India (CPM) 1 - 0.19
Lok Dal (LD) 2 - 0.02
Karnataka Rajya Raitha Sangha 10 - 3.84
Independents and others 269 - 2.13

Total 363 27

Election in Dharwad South Parliamentary Constituency was countermanded due to the

death of an Independent candidate.
28 A Handbook o f Karnataka \\

General Election to the Legislative Assembly, 1994

Name o f the party No.of seats No.of seats Percentage of

contested won votes polled
1 2 3 4

Janata Dal 221 115 33.56

Bharatiya Janata Party 223 40 17.00
Indian National Congress 223 36 27.40
C.P.I (M) 13 1 0.49
C.P.I 8 - 0.23
Janata Party 36 - 0.16
AIADMK 4 1 0.24
Bharatiya Republican Party 3 1 0.13
Bahujan Samajawadi Party 78 1 0.76
Karnataka Congress Party 218 10 7.28
Karnataka Rajya Ryata Sangha (KRRS) 112 1 2.73
Independents and others 1358 18 10.04

Total 2497 224

 29

Chapter II
HISTORY
Karnataka has many sites of pre-historic period, and most of them are in the river valleys. The
pre-historic culture of Karnataka, the hand-axe culture, compares favourably with the one that
existed in Africa and is quite distinct from the pre-historic culture of North India. The corn ragi is
found commonly in pre- historic sites of Africa and Karnataka. The early inhabitants of Karnataka
knew the use o f iron far earlier than the North, and iron weapons, dating back to c. 1200 B.C have
found at Hallur in Dharward Dt.

Parts of Karnataka were subject to the rule of the Nandas and the Mauryas. Maurya
Chandragupta (either Chandragupta I or Samprati Chandragupta, Ashoka’s grandson) is believed to
have come to Shravanabelgola and spent his last years in this place of piligrimage. Eleven Ashokan
edicts, four in Bellary Dt., three in Raichur Dt., and three others in Chitradurga Dt. and one at
Sannati, Gulbarga Dt.testify to the extent of the Mauryan Empire. «

The Shathavahanas (30 B.C to 230 A.D of Paithan) also ruled over extensive areas in Northern
Karnataka; some scholars even argue that this dynasty hailed from Karnataka, as Dharwad and
Bellary Districts are called Shathavahanihara (or the Shathavahana region). Some of their rulers
were called kings of Kunthala. At Sannati in Gulbarga Dt., Vadgaon - Madhavpur near Belgaum
and Brahmagiri in Chitradurga Dt. remains of the monuments of their period have been found.
Banavasi in Uttara Kannada saw their inscription of a queen, and at Vasan in Dharwad Dt. remains
of a brick temple. Sannati had many Buddhist stupas of their times covered by fine sculptures found
on them. Karnataka fell into the hands the Pallavas* of Kanchi, and the Chutu Shathakarnis,
feudatories of the Shatavahanas, ruling from Banavasi after the fall of the Shathavahanas, seem to
have accepted the overlordship of the Pallavas. Pallava domination was ended by two indigenous
dynasties, the Kadambas of Banavasi and the Gangas of Kolar, who divided Karnataka between
themselves.

Birds’s-eye View
A bird’s-eye view of Karnataka’s political history can be presented here after this period: the
Gangas and the Kadambas ruling from c. 345 A.D; the Chalukyas of Badami in Bijapur Dt. (540
to 753 A.D)overthrowing the Kadambas and subjugating the Gangas; the Rashtrakutas o f Malakhed
from Gulbarga Dt. (753 to 973 A.D) succeeding the Badami Chalukyas, and they in turn being
overthrown by the Chalukyas o f Kalyana (973 to 1189 A.D), modern Basava Kalyana, in Bidar Dt.
The Gangas continued in the Southern parts, earlier as sovereign rulers (350 to 550 A.D) and later
as allies or feudatories o f Badami or Malkhed rulers till 1000 A.D when their territory, Gangawadi,
(Southern Karnataka) was occupied by the Cholas. The Cholas who dominated over Southern
Karnataka from about 1000 A.D were overthrown by Hoysala Vishnuvardhana in 1114 A.D.

During the Kalyana Chalukya rule came the Kalachuri Interregnum (1162-1184). The Kalyana
Chalukyas were overshadowed by their feudatories, the Sevunas of Devagiri and the Hoysalas, who
divided Karnataka between themselves; when the armies of the Delhi Sultan overthrew these two
dynasties, the Vijayanagara Empire (1336) and the Bahmani Sultanate (1347) came to rule over
Karnataka, and the former had control over the greater part of Karnataka. O f the five Shahi Sultans
who succeeded the Bahmanis, the Adilshahis of Bijapur (1489-1686) and the Baridshahis o f Bidar
(1504-1619) ruled over parts of Karnataka. In 1619, the former dynasty was overthrown by the
30 A Handbook o f Karnataka

latter. The city of Vijayanagara was captured by Shahi Sultans in 1565, and the capital of the empire
was shifted to the South, beyond the frontiers of Karnataka till 1646.

O f the successors of Vijayanagar in Karnataka, their feudatories, the Mysore Odeyars and the
Keladi Nayakas were the most important. The Northern regions were under the control of the
Adilshahis of Bijapur till 1686, when they were overthrown by the Mughuls. With the weakening
of the Mughul power in the North, the Marathas came to have control over the northern districts of
Karnataka. Haidar A!i, who usurped power from the Odeyars of Mysore, merged the Keladi
Kingdom in Mysore in 1763. Karnataka came under British rule after the overthrow of Tipu,
Haidar’s son in 1799 and the Marathas in 1818 (when the Peshwa was defeated). After having been
subjected to a number' of administrations during the British rule, Karnataka became a single state
in 1956.

The Kadambas .
The Kadamba Dynasty was founded'by Mayurasharman in c. 345 A.D. He was a brahmin
student from the celebrated Talagunda Agrahara (an Agrahara is a settlement of scholarly brahmins,
engaged in religious and academic
pursuits) from modern Shimoga Dt. He
had gone with his grandfather to the
ghatika of Kanchi for higher studies.
Subjected to some kind of humiliation at
the Pallava capital, this young brahmin
gave up his hereditary priestly vocation
and took to the life of a warrior and
revolted against the Pallavas. The
Pallavas were forced to recognise him as
a sovereign when he crowned himself at
Banavasi in Uttara Kannada Dt. One of
his successors, Kakusiha Varman (c.
435-55) was such a powerful ruler that
even the Vakatakas and the Guptas
cultivated marital relationship with this
family during his time. The great poet
Kalidasa seems to have visited his court.

The first Kannada record found at

Halmidi, was issued by this dynasty. The
Kadambas built fine temples and bastis
and the Kadamba Nagara Shikhara in
temples is their contribution. They also
created first rock-cut shrines of Vedic
tradition at Arvalem in Goa (which was under their control) in a laterite hill range. The* tanks at
Chandravalli and Gudnapur are among the many irrigation tanks they built. They had lion as their
royal insignia. They were overthrown by the Chalukyas of Badami in c. 540, and later two branches
of the family (one from Hanagal and the other from Goa) ruled as subordinates of the Chalukyas
of Kalyana. A branch of the Kadambas was also ruling from Orissa as subordinates ol the Gangas
ofK^linca
History 31

The Gangas-
The Gangas started their rule from c. 350 from Kolara and later their capital was shifted to
Talakadu (Mysore Dt.). They had an elephant as their insignia. Till the advent of the Badami
Chalukyas, the}' were almost a sovereign power. Many Ganga princes were scholars and writers,
and they also patronized scholarship.
Later they continued to rule over
Gangavadi (which comprised major parts
of South Karnataka) till the close of the
10th century as subordinates of the
Badami Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas.
It is the Gangas who withstood the
efforts of the Pallavas and the Cholas to
subjugate South Karnataka. Durvineetha
(c.555-605) was one of the great kings of
this dynasty. He was a scholar and he
wrote both in Kannada and in Sanskrit.
The Sanskrit poet Bharavi lived in his
court for some time. The ancient
kingdom Punnata (in the modern
Heggadadevanakote taluk region) was
merged in his kingdom. His great
grandson Bhuvikrama (669- 79) was a
strong ally of the Chalukyas, and at the
Battle of Vilande (c.670) which was fought between the Chalukyas and the Pallavas, he helped the
former gain victory by defeating Pallava Parameshwara Varman and snatching as a war trophy, the
Pallava ruler’s necklace called Ugrodaya.

A later prince of this family, Shreepurusha (726-88) not only was a strong ally of the
Chalukyas, but resisted the Rashtrakutas who tried to subdue him after the overthrow of the
Chalukyas of Badami by them in 753. Shreepurusha killed Paliava Parameshwara Varman II at
Vilande in 731 and assumed the Pallava ruler’s title Permanadi, and this was his assistance to the
Chalukyas in theirwar against the Pallavas. This great ruler also wrote a Sanskrit work
Gajashasthra, a study on elephants.He shifted hiscapital to Manne near Bangalore. His son
Shivamara II (788-816) and grandson Rachamalla I (816-43) continued to resist Rashtrakuta power.
In the end, Rashtrakuta Amoghavarsha (814-78) sought reconciliation with the Gangas by marrying
his daughters to the Ganga princes. At a later date, when the Cholas became strong, the Ganga king
Butuga II (938-61) allied himself with the Rashtrakutas against the Cholas, and helped Rashtrakutas
Krishna III (939-67) to humiliate the Cholas. Finally their territory came to be subdued by the Cholas
in 999, and thus the Ganga rule ended. A branch of the Gangas ruled from Orissa from 496 A.D
and became celebrated in history as the Eastern Gangas.

Gangas dotted the country with many tanks, and Kolar, the core country of their initial rule,
and also Mysore Dt. have many irrigational sources of their times. Their line temples are also seen
at Kolar, Talakad, Begur, Nagavara and Narasamangala. The last named has wonderful stucco
figures of remarkable beauty. They also built Jaina bastis as Kambadahalli and Shravanabelgola.
32 A Handbook o f Karnataka

The Gommata monolith at the last named place, 58’ in height is the creation of their minister called
Chavundaraya in c. 982 A.D.

The Badami Chalukyas

It is the Chalukyas of Badami who brought the whole of Karnataka under a single rule. They
are also remembered for their contributions in the field of art. Their monuments are found at Badami,
Aihole and Pattadakal. They are both rock-cut and structural with wonderful sculptures wrought in
hard sandstone. The first great prince of the dynasty was Pulikeshin I (c. 540-66 A.D) who built the
great fort of Badami and performed
ashwamedha (horse sacrifice) after
subduing many rulers including the
Kadambas. His grandson, Pulikeshin II
(609-42) built a vast empire which
extended from the Narmada in the north
to the Cauveri in the south. In the east,
he overthrew the Vishnukundins and
appointed his younger brother
Vishnuvardhna, the viceroy of Vengi.
This prince founded the Eastern
Chalukya Dynasty which ruled for five
centuries in Andhra. (A later prince of
this Vengi line, Kulottunga succeeded to
the Chola throne in 1070). Harsha of
Kanauj was also defeated by Pulikeshin
II. The Chalukya army has been
described as ‘Karnatabala’ and also
described as invincible in contemporary
records and inscriptions. He exchanged embasssies with Persia and Hiuen Tsiang visited his court.
The Pallavas conquered Badami in 642 after defeating Pulikeshin II’s army. His son Vikramaditya
I (655-81) reconquered the Chalukyas capital and reorganised his father’s vast empire. He retained
the fame of invincibility of the ‘Karnatabala’.

Vikrama’s son Vinayaditya (681-96) defeated the ruler of Kanauj, Yashovarman who claimed
to be the paramount lord of the North (Sakalottarapathanatha). He even sent an expedition to
Cambodia. The Arabs who had conquered Sind (711) tried to make inroads into the Deccan; they
were defeated by the Chalukya feudatory in South Gujarath called Avanijashraya Pulikeshin in 739.
The Arabs were forced to leave Sind after this defeat. The Chalukyan empire included not only the
whole of Karnataka and Maharashtra, but the greater part of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra,
and also parts of Orissa and Tamilnadu. Vikramaditya II (693-734) in the line defeated the Pallavas,
entered the Pallava capital Kanchi victorious. But he did not loot Kanchi as the Pallavas had done
at Badami in 642. He made grants to the Rajasimheshwara at Kanchi. His queen built the Virupaksha
and Mallikarjuna temples at Pattadakal to commemorate his victory. But the Chalukya power was
weakened in the long run by its wars with the Pallavs. Temples of their time are also found at
Alampur, Gadwal, Satyavolu and Bichavolu in Andhra Pradesh.
History 33

The Rashtrakutas
In 753, Danthidurga, the Rashtrakuta feudatory of the Chalukyas, overthrew the Chalukya king
Keerthivarman II and his family inherited the fortunes of the Chalukyas. He claims that he did this
by defeating the ’Karnatabala’ of the Chalukyas described as ‘invincible’, in those days. We owe
the engraving of the celeberated monolithic Kailasa temple at Ellora (now in Maharashtra) to
Danthidurga’s uncle, Krishna I (756-74). Krishna’s son, Dhruva (780-93) crossed the Narmada, and
after defeating celebrated princes like Vathsaraja (of the Gurjaia Pratheehara family of Central
India) and Dharmapala of Bengal, extracted tribute from the ruler of Kanauj, ‘the seat of India’s
paramountcy’. His son Govinda III (793-814) also repeated the feat when he defeated Nagabhata,
II, the Gurjara Pratheehara and Dharmapala of Bengal and again extracted tribute from the king of
Kanauj. His ‘horses drank die icy liquid bubbling in the Himalayas’ says record testifying to bis
victorious march in the North. The. achievements of the Chalukyas of Badami and ^^jEtas^atfakutas
by defeating the rulers of Kanauj have made the name of their era "Age of Imperial Kanauj", a
misnomer.lt can be called the "Age of Imperial Karnataka".
Son of Govinda III, Amoghavarsha Nripatunga (814-78) had to face the threat o f the Eastern
(Vengi) Chalukyas, who challenged his very existence. But he succeeded in subduing them after
defeating Chalukyas Vijayadithya II at Vinagavalli. He was a peace-loving monarch who used
matrimony as one of the weapons in diplomacy. But he killed as many as six contemporary political
potentates who created trouble for him. But he did not conduct digivijayas like his father and
grandfather. He succeeded in maintaining the empire intact. Himself a scholar, Amoghavarsha was
a great patron o f scholars, and great Jaina savants Veerasena, Jinasena, Gunabhadra, grammarian
Shakatayana and Mathematician Mahaveera adorned his court. Great Jaina works o f all-India,
importance. Adipurana and commentaries on the Shatkhandagamas called as Dhavala, Jayadhavala
and Mahadhavala were written in his court. Kavirajamarga is the first extant Kannada work is of
his times. His great grandson Indra III (914-29) even captured Kanauj and held it under his control
for two years. One of his feudatories, Arikepsarin of Vemulavada patronised Sanskrit writer
Somadeva (of Yashastilaka fame) and Kannada poet Pampa.

Rashtrakuta Krishna III (939-67) subdued the Cholas in the South and established a pillar of
victory at Rameshwaram. In fact the so-called ‘Age of Imperial Kanuaj’ was the Age of Imperial
Karnataka, when the prowess of the Kannadiga was felt all over India. Even Rajashekhara, the
celeberated Sanaskrit writer, has called the Karnatas great experts in the techniques o f war. Soldiers
from Karnataka ware employed by the Palas of Bengal. One such Kannada warrior founded the
Sena Dynasty of Bengal and other the Karnata Dynasty of Mithila (modern Tirhath in Bihar). The
Rashtrakurtas sponsored the engraving of many Hindu rock-cut temples on the Buddhist model like
the Dashavathara Shrine at Ellora, the Jogeshwara near Bombay and the one at the Elephanta Island.
(Some scholars ascribe the last named to their Kalachuri feudatories). Arab traveller Suleiman tells
us that the Rashtrakuta empire was the largest in India and he ranks it with the greatest empires of
the world like the Eastern Roman, the Arabic and the Chinese Empires. He visited India in 851 A.D.
Both the Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas constructed many tanks. The Shiggaon copper plate of
the former speaks of 14 tanks in Dharwad Dt. These two dynasties popularise animal husbandry by
donating cows in thousands. The stones commemorating such grants (gosasakallu) are seen in
hundreds all over.

The Kalyana Chalukyas

The Chalukyas of Kalyana who claim to be the successors of the Badami Chalukyas, overthrew
the Rashtrakutas in 973, and Taila II (Trailokya Malla), the first ruler o f the dynasty later defeated
34 A Handbook of Karnataka

Chola rulers like Utttiama and Rajaraja I, and even killed Paramara Munja of Dhara. His soil
Sathyashraya (997-1008) patronised the great Kannada poet Ranna. Someshwara I (1043- 1068),
Sathyashrya’s grandnephew, succeeded in resisting the efforts of the Cholas to subdue Karnataka,
and he built a new capital, Kalyana (modern Basava Kalyana in Bidar Dt.). The Chola king
Rajadhiraja was killed by him at Koppar in 1054.

His son Vikramaditya VI (1076-1127) has been celeberated in history as the patron of the great
jurist Vijnaneshwara, (work: Mitakshara, standard work on Hindu law), and the emperor has been
immortalised by poet Bilhana (hailing from Kashmir) who chose this prince himself as the hero for
his Sanskrit poem, Vikramankodeva Charitam. Vikramaditya defeated the Paramaras of Central
India thrice and once even plundered their capital Dhara. In the South he caputerd Kanchi from the
Cholas in 1085, and in the East, he conquered Vengi in 1093. His commander, Mahadeva built the
Mahadeva temple at Itagi (Raichur Dt.) the finest Chalukyan monument. His son Someshwara III
(1127-39) was a great scholar. He has written Manasollasa, a Sanskrit encyclopaedia and
Vikrati\ankabhyudq.yatn, a poem o f which his father is the hero. Manasollasa is a great work
introducing cultural conditions in South India as it has sections on architecture, painting, jewellery,
cookery, dance, music etc. It has 100 sections discussing various aspects of human activity.

T h e .Kalachuris,, who were feudatories of the Chalukyas, overthrew the Chalukyas and
caputered Kalyana in i 162. Bijjala, the first emperor of the dynasty, was the son of a daughter pf
Vikramaditya VI. He had Basaveshwara, the celeberated religious leader, as his treasurer, th o u g h
the Chalukyas staged a come back in 1184, their power was overshadowed by their feudatories, the
Hoysalas and the Sevunas of Deyagiri, who encroached upon the Chalukyan territory, and finally
divided Karnataka between themselves. The Chalukyas were great builders, and their beautiful
temples renowned for their fine and intricate engravings are found at many places like Itagi, ,Gadag,
Dambal, Lakkundi, Belgami, Kuruvatti and Chaudadanapura. They were great patrons of scholars*
and Sanskrit writers like Vadiraja and Kannada poets like'Ranna, Durgasimha, and Nayasena lived
in their times. The Virashaiva movement saw the advent of Vachana literature in Kannada initiated
by Jedara Dasimayya. It grew during the Kalachuri Interregnum when Basava, Allania and
Akkamahadevi lived,, Vira&aivism preached equality of men, tried to emancipate women, 'ahd
Stressed the importance of bread labour by calling it Kayaka as the means of worshipping God. ’

The Sevunas
The Sevunas (or Yadavas) who were feudatories of the jRastrakutas and the Chalukyas of
Kalyana, became a sovereign power from the days of Bhillama V (1173-92) who founded the new
capital Devagiri (modern Daulathabad,in Maharastra). Earlier they ruled from Sindhinera (modern
Sinnar) near Nashik. Bhillama V caputered Kalyana in 1186, and later clashed with Hoysala Ballala
II aj. Sorarturu in 1190. Though he lost the battle, he built a vast kingdom, extending from the
Narmada to the Krishna. His son Jaitugi (1192-99) not only defeated Paramara Subhata Varman,
but also killed the Kakatiya kings of Orangal, Rudra and Mahadeva.

Singhana II (1199-1247), the greatest of the Sevunas, extended the Sevuna kingdom upto the
Tungabhadra. But the Sevunas were defeated by the army of the Delhi Sultan in 1296, and again
in 1307 and finally in 1318, and thus the kingdom was wiped out. The Sevunas have become
immortal in history by the writings of the mathematician Bhaskaracharya, of the great writer on
music, Shamgadeva, and of the celebrated scholar Hemadri. The Sevunas and the Hoysalas drained
History 35

their energy in mutual warfare, and thus

the south could be easily subdued by the
armies o f the Delhi Sultan.

Sharngadeyas’ work Sangita

Ratnakara is the basis for the growth of
classical music, and Vidyaranya during
the 14th century wrote Sangitasdra
based on Sangita Ratnakara. The
Sevunas built fine temple called
Hemadaparithi structures which are
found all over M aharashtra (and
Vidarbha). The Virabbadra temple at
Yedur in Belgum Dt. is one of their
structures. They renovated many temples
in Dharwad district.

The Hoysalas
The Hoysalas continued the great
traditions of their art-loving overlords,
the Kalyana Chalukyas, and their fine
temples are found at Beluru, Halebidu
and Somanathapura. The first great ruler
of the dynasty, Vishnuvardhana
(1108-1141) freed Gangavadi from the Cholas (who had held it from 999), and in commemoration
of his victory, built the celebrated Vijayanarayana (Chennakeshava) Temple at Belur. His kingdom
was visited by Ramanujacharya, who
stayed at Melkote, Tonnur and other
places in Karnataka for long.
Vishnuvardhana patronised the saint as
he had turned a Srivaishnava though his
family religion was Jainism: He had been
earlier influenced by Srivaishnava Chola
officers in Ganagavadi. As he wanted to
be an emperor by challenging his
overlords, the Kalyani Chalukyas,
expediency forced him to perform
certain Vedic rituals like agnishtoma and
hiranyagarbha sacrifices (yajnyas).
Jainism did not sanction such
performances. But he continued to
patronise Jainism a$' many of his
commanders and his accomplished
queen Shantala were Jainas. His
commander Ketamalla built the famous
(Vishnuvardhana) • >Hpysalesh^vara;
temple .at Halebidu. ?.} :
36 A Handbook o f Karnataka

The Agraharas in Karnataka which were numerous by then had created such a healthy
intellectual atmosphere that a rebel against Vedic tradition, Basaveshwara’was born as the son of
the head of an Agrahara at Bagewadi and Ramanuja from Tamilnadu could get a hearing to his
teachings from the intellectuals in Karnataka, which was denied to him in his own state of birth.
Even his life was under threat there.

Though Vishnuvardhana did not fully succeed in his serious effort to overthrow the Chalukyan
yoke, his grandson Ballala II (1173-1220) not only became free, but even defeated Sevuna Bhillama
V at Soraturu in 1190, after having defeated Chalukyas Someshwara IV in 1187. When the Cholas
were attacked by the Pandyas in Tamilnadu Ballala II drove the Pandyas back and thus assumed
the title "Establisher of the Chola kingdom". Later, in the days of his son Narasiniha II (1120-35),
Hoysalas even secured a foothold in Tamilnadu and Kuppam, near Srirangam became a second
capital of the Hoysalas.

Ballala III (1291-1343), the last great Hoysala, had to struggle hard to hold his own against
the invasion of the Delhi Sultan. He died fighting the Sultan of Madhurai. It was his commanders,
Harihara and Bukka, who founded the Vijayanagra Kingdom, which later grew to be an empire.
Hoysala age saw great Kannada poets like Rudrabhatta, Janna, Harihara and Raghavanka. Hoysala
temples at Beluru, Halebidu, Somanathapur, Arasikere, Amritapura etc., are wonderful works of art.

Vijayanagara Empire
When the armies of the Delhi Sultan destroyed the four great kingdom of the south (the
Sevunas, Kakatiyas of Orangal, Hoysalas and of the Pandyas of Madhurai) it looked as if a political
power following a religion quite alien to the South was going to dominate the peninsula. Many
princes including heroic Kumara Rama,
a feudatory from Kamapila in Bellary
dist. perished while resisting the
onslaughts. The people were bewildered
over the attack on their religious places
and the barbaric cruelties perpetrated on
the vanquished cities by these invaders
from the North. Poems and ballads on
Kumara Rama illustrate this
bewilderment. When the Vijayanagara
kingdom was founded by the Sangama
brothers, people wholeheartedly
supported them. Tradition says that sage
Vidyaranya had caused a shower of gold
to finance the Sangama brothers. Perhaps
the sage succeeded in securing financial
help from various quarters for the
founders of Vijayanagara. To the guru of Vidyaranya, Bharatiteertha, Harihara and his brothers
made some grants at Sringeri 1346. This grant had a supplementary donation on the same day by
Hoysala Queen Krishnayi Tayi, who appears to have been present on the occasion.

Harihara founded the kingdom in about 1336, and he secured control over northern parts of
Karnataka and Andhra from coast to coast; after the death o f Ballala III (1343) and his son
Virupaksha Ballala (in 1346), the whole o f the Hoysala dominion came under his control. The above
History 37

grant noted at Sringeri with the Hoysala queen, and the kingdom glorifying Kumara Rama
demonstrates its efforts as successors of these potentates that had perished. His brother Bukka
(1356-77) succeeded in destroying the Madhurai Sultanate. He sent an embassy to China. It is this
prince who sponsored the writing of the monumental commentary on the Vedas, Vedarthaprakasha,
engaging several scholars, working under the celebrated scholars Sayana and Madhava. The work
was completed in the days of his son Harihara II (1377-1404)

Harihara II extended his domination in Konkana, beyond Goa upto Chaul. In the East he
conquered Panagal to the north of the Krishna. Efforts made by Firuzshah Bahmani to conquer this
fort were foiled by Devaraya II (1424-49), the greatest of the Sangamas, defeated the Bahamins
when he was the crown prince, and this resulted in the shifting of the Bahamani capital to the North,
to Bidar in c. 1426. He defeated the Gajapatis of Orissa twice, and foiled the efforts o f the Bahmanis
to wrest Mudgal. One of his commanders invaded Ceylon and extracted tribute, and the princes of
Pegu and Tenesserim in Burma also owed him allegiance. He highly patronized the Veerashaivas.
The Hazara Rama Temple at Hampi is also his creation. Abdur Razzak, the Persian visitor to his
court, says of the capital that "nothing in the world could equal it." Himself a scholar, Devaraya II
patronized Gunda Dindima a Sanskrit poet and Shrinatha, a Telugu poet.

The weak and vicious kings who followed Devaraya II in the Sangama dynasty would have
caused the dismemberment of the empire, had not Saluva Narasimha, an able commander assumed
power (1485). Later, there was second
usurpation, by the Tuluva Krishnadevaraya
<\ 509-1529) the greatest emperor, and a great
warrior, scholar and administrator. He secured
Raichur Doab in 1512, and later marched
victorious into the capitals of his enemies like
Bidar (1512) Bijapur (1523) and in the East,
Cuttack (1518), the capital of the Gajapatis. "A
great ruler and a man of great justice" (in the
words of Portuguese visitor Paes)
Krishnadevaraya was a man of letters and a
patron of scholars. He himself wrote a Telugu
work Amuktamalyada. He had eight great
Telugu poets in his court, and among them was
Allasani Peddana. He built the Krishnaswamy
Temple in the capital. It was during his time that
the Portuguese conquered Goa from Bijapur
rulers in 1510. They had a flourishing trade with
Vijayanagara to which they supplied horses.
Portuguese rule in Goa had far-reaching effects.
They introduced new flora like groundnuts,
Sri Krishnadevaraya chillies etc., from the New W orld and
introduced printing.

In the days of Aravidu Ramaraya (1542-65), Krishnadevaraya’s son- in-law, the four Shahi
Sultans attacked the empire, and after killing Ramaraya at Rakkasathangadi (Rakkasagi-Tangadagi)
in 1565, destroyed the capital Vijayanagara.
38 A Handbook o f Karnataka

Vijayanagar patronized all religions. The Portuguese visitor Barbosa testifies to this catholic
outlook of the emperors. Every existing temple was provided with a strong enclosure, a lofty tower
at the entrance and vast mantapas. Literary activity in all South Indian languages was encouraged.
The empire took upon itself the responsibility of conserving Indian traditions in religion, science,
thought and literature. Vijayanagara played a great role in conserving local religions and cultural
tradition. In addition to the commentaries on the Vedas, Sayana compiled many works to conserve
Indian tradition like Yajnyatantra Sudhanidhi, Ayurveda Sudhandhi, Purushartha Sudhanidhi,
Subhashita Sudhanidhi and Alankara Sudhanidhi. Madhava (Vidyaranya) wrote Sarvadarshana
Sangraha introducing all religions of Indian origin. His Parashara Madhaviya is a commentary on
Parasharasmriti, a work on Hindu life and law and Parashara Madhaviya has clearly stated the
Sati (suicide by a widow) is "Kalivarjya”, to be abhorred totally in Kaliyuga.

The Emperors not only built fine temples of all denominations (Shaiva, Vaishnava,
Srivaishnava, Jaina etc.,) but renovated many temples destroyed prior to their rule. All existing
temples were provided with huge prakaras (compounds) and tall impressive entrance towers called
as Rayagopuras found not only at Hampi but also at Srishailam, Kalahasti, Tirupathi, Srirar.gam,
Chidambaram, Kanchi etc., In addition, they also provided the existing temples with v\st and
impressive Kalyana mantapas or Sabha mantapas which were open pillared pavilions. Each mantapa
had scores of tall monolithic pillars which were soild pieces of art. These public works provided
jobs to thousands.

Sanskrit, Kannada, Tamil and Telugu literature flourished during their time. The Veerashaiva
religions saw a renaissance. Karnatak music came to blossom by the works of Vidyaranya,
Kallinatha, Ramanamatya, Purandara Dasa and Kanakadasa. Purandara Dasa did a lot to popularise
it by composing primary composition to teach this music, and he has been rightly called ‘Father of
Karnatak M usic’ by saint Tyagaraja.

The Bahmanis
The Bahmanis Sultans are remembered for the great contribution they made in the field of
Indo-Sarasenic art in the South. Founded by Alla-ud-Din Hasan at Gulbarga in 1347, the Bahmani
Kingdom clashed with Vijayanagar all through its history. Alla-ud-din Hassan built the famous Jami
Maszid at Gulbarga fort in 1367, a huge monument of enduring beauty. Domes, vaultings and arches
and use of mortar were introduced by them in the buildings of Karnataka.

Firuzshah 1397-1422, who was a great Sultan in the line and was the grandson of the founder,
extended the kingdom in the East by capturing Rajamahendri from the Reddis. He took pleasure in
the society of learned men and patronized Surhindi, a scholar, and Hassan Gilani, an astronomer.
He erected an observatory at Daulatabad.

Ahmed (1422-36), succeessor of Firuz shifted his capital to Bidar, where fine palaces came to
be raised in course of time. The Solah Khamb mosque is a fine creation of his time. He was highly
devoted to Sufi saint Bande Nawaz. The prince himself was called ‘V ali’ (saint) and his tomb at
Ashtur near Bidar is highly venerated.
Another great figure in Bahmani history is Mahamud Gawan, a great minister who was born
in Persia (1411). On his visit to Bidar (1445) he was given an important position in the Bahamani
court, and he was the chief administrator of the kingdom from 1461 till his death in 1481. He
administered the territory during the minority of two Sultans, and extended it in the South upto
Hubli, in the W est to Goa and the Konkan coast, and in the East by capturing Kondavidu an .
History 39

Rajamahendri. A scholar and writer himself, he founded a college at Bidar and provided it with a
library from his own personal income. The college building (Madrasa) is a fine structure. Gawan
fell a victim to court intrigues and was ordered to be executed by Sultan Muhammad whom Gawan
had educated ntid brought up. With him vanished the glory of the kingdom, and soon it broke up
into five Shah* kingdoms of the Deccan. The fine Indo-Sarasenic buildings at Gulbarga, Bidar and
Ashtur are the contributions of this Sultanate.

The Adilshahis
Of the five Shahi kingdoms that rose from the ruins of the Bahamanis, the Adilshahis of Bijapur
ruled over the greater part of Karnataka. The dynasty was founded in 1489 by Yusuf Adilkhan, a
commander and governor under the Bahmanis. The Adilshahis were great partrons of art and men
of letters. Yusuf has been called "a powerful and prosperous king" by Verthema, the Italian visitor.
His son Ismail (1510-35) was recognised as a ruler by the Shah of Iran and he sent an embassy to
Bijapur. Ismail’s grandson, Ali I (1557-80) was in friendly terms with Ramaraya of Vijayanagara
who had adopted Ali as his son. But other Shahi Sultans forced Ali to join the confederacy against
the Vijayanagara empire, whose army was defeated in 1565. The Jami Mosque at Bijapur with a
wonderful design was raised by him.

Ibrahim II (1580-1626), Ali’s nephew is the greatest Adilshahi king. He merged the Baridshahi
kingdom of Bidar into his own territory in 1619. He was tolerant ruler, and was nicknamed
‘Jagadgun:’. He built the temple of Narasimha Saraswati (Dattatreya) in the citadel of his fort. A
lover of Hindu music, he had 300 singers in his court. He composed Kitab-e-Nauras in Urdu,
introducing, Hindu music to the Muslims. The book begins with an invocation to Goddess Sraswathi.
He patronised great historians like Ferishta and Shirazi, and raised beautifiil buildings like Ibrahim
Rauza, Malika Jahan Masjid and Anand Mahal. His son Muhammad (1626-56) extended the
kingdom in the South upto Bangalore, and in the South-East upto Vellore. Bangalore and the
surrounding regions were granted as jahgir to Shahji Bhosle, Shivaji’s father. The Marathas retained
Bangalore till 1686. It is this prince who has built the magnificient Gol Gumbaz at Bijapur. The
Adhilshahi kingdom was annexed by Aurangzeb in 1686. Adilshahi buildings at Bijapur like Asar
Mahal and Ibrahim Rauza have paintings. Ragmala paintings and personal portraits of members of
the royal family including Chand Bibi are preserved in the Bijapur Museum.

Some of the Bijapur rulers were Shiahs and celebration of Moharram by installing tabuts
became common in Karnataka. A form of Urdu also developed in their court.

The Mughuls extended their territory to the South. They conquered Bangalore in1686 and
leased it out to Chikkadevaraya of Mysore. They made Sira in Karnataka and Arcot in Tamilnadu
their important administrative centres. Sira has some fine Mughul buildings. The Nawabs of
Savanur, Sira and Advani administered the Kannada territories under the Mughuls, and some
Kannada districts were also administered by the Nizam, another feudatory of the Mughuls.

Keladi Kingdom
The Keladi Nayakas, who were Feudatories o f Vijayanagara, became practically free in the
days of Venkatappa Nayak I (1586-1629), who merged the coastal territories like Gersoppa into his
kingdom. Shivappa Nayaka (1645-60), a great soldier and statesman ousted the Portuguese from
their possessions on the West Coast, Mangalore, Honavar and Basrur. He reformed the revenue
system, and it is renowed as ‘sisthu’. He helped reclamation of land on a large scale. Keladi enjoyed
a rich overseas trade, especially in spices, textiles and rice. Their capitals are in Shimoga Dt.
40 A Handbook o f Karnataka

His daughter-in-law, Chennamma

(1571-97) is renowed for her heroism as
she gave shelter to Maratha Chatrapati
Rajaram (son of Shivaji) and braved
Auranzeb’s army. Her successor
Basavappa (1697-1714) wrote
Shivatattva Ratnakara, a Sanskrit
encyclopaedia. They have raised fine
temples at Keladi, Ikkeri and Nagar and
a wonderful hill fort at Kavaledgurga.
Keladi was caputred by Haidar Ali in
1763, and the kingdom was merged with
Mysore.

O f the other feudatories of

Vijayanagara the Kempegowda family
raised the fort and new city of Bangalore
in 1537, and the Chitradurga Nayakas the
magnificient hillfort at Chitradurga.

The Marathas, who were encroaching upon the Bijapura dominions came to have control over
the parts of Karnataka to the North of the Tungabhadra. Shivaji built forts at Ramadurg, Nargund,
Parasgad, Gajendragad, Katkol etc., places in Dharwad and Belgaum district. In the South they had
their Bangalore jahgir administered first by Shahji (1637-63) and later by his son Ekoji. Mysore
royal family secured Bangalore and it surroundings from the Mughuls in 1689 on lease. The
Mughuls had conquered these areas in 1686 from Maratha ruler Ekoji, a feaudatory of Bijapur. Later
the Marathas had secured the right of collecting chauth and sardesmukhi, a part of the dues to the
Mughuls from the southern feudatories in the days of Chatrapati Shahu (Shivaji’s grandson) from
the Mughul emperor in 1719. In fact, Peshwa Balaji Rao had conquered Dharwad in 1753. Haidar
and Tipu wrested Dharwad area from the Marathas. But the Dharwad area was restored to the
Marathas in 1791. But they finally lost it after the fall of the Peshwa in 1818.

Mysore Rulers
The Mysore royal family, which was also a feudatory house under Vijayanagara, took
advantage of the weakening of the empire and became free. Raja Odeya (1578-1617), secured
Srirangapattana (in 1610), the seat of the viceroy. Kanthirava Narasaraja (1638-59), the first
sovereign ruler, successfully resisted the efforts o f Bijapur to subdue him, and extended his territory.
He built the Narasimha temple at Srirangapattan. He isssued his own coins called ‘Kanthirayi
panams’.
Chikkadevaraya (1673-1704) not only resisted the Marathas at Bangalore and Jinji successfully
but also extended his dominions in Tamilnadu. He secured Bangalore and its surroilndings (which
the Mughuls had conquered from Ekoji) from the Mughuls on lease and accepted Mughul suzerainty.
He made Mysore a rich principality by his able revenue policies. He was him self a great scholar
and writer, and he patronized many Kannada writers like Thirumalarya, Chikkupadhyaya and
Honnamma. All these were Shreevaishnavas. Weak rulers succeeded him and this finally led to the
usurpation of power by Haider Ali in 1762.
History 41

The defeat of the Marathas at

Panipat in 1761 helped Haider to follow
an aggressive policy. He merged the
Keladi Kingdom with Mysore and
extended M ysore in all directions. He
successfully used cavalry on a large
scale. Mysore came to have 80,000
square miles of territory under him.
Haider built the palace at Bangalore,
strengthened its fort and began the
Lalbagh Garden. He built the Dariya
Daulat palace at Srirangapattana in the
middle of a fine park. He challenged the
British in Tamilnadu and defeated them.
But he was humiliated by Maratha
Peshwa Madhavarao more than once.
Haider allied himself with the French
against the British.

His son Tipu Sultan (1782-99)

continued his father’s anti-British policy,
and he dreamt of driving the British out
of India. He sought the assistance of the
French and Napoleon, and also the rulers
of Turkey and Afghanistan. Tipu was a
scholar and a bold general. He
introduced sericulture in Karnataka, and
took firm steps to establish centres
producing quality paper, steel wires for
musical instruments, sugar and sugar
candy. He was very keen on promoting overseas trade and initiated state trading and founded stores
not only in centres of his kingdom but also at Kutch, Karachi and Basrah in the M iddle East. He
had a curious mind and was keen on introducing novel things in every walk of life. But his ambition
of driving the British failed and he died in 1799, fighting against the British. Mysore fell into the
hands of the British who handed over parts of it to the Marathas and the Nizam, and crowned the
Hindu prince, Krishnaraja Odeyar III as the ruler over the Mysore territory.

The British who had made the Nizam their tributary, defeated Tipu in 1799 and crowned a
tributary Hindu prince at Mysore. They secured the territory to the North of the Tungabhadra by
defeating the Peshwa in 1818, and became masters of Karnataka. Kodagu (Coorg) a small princely
tributary state was also annexed by them in 1834. They dethroned Chikkavirarajendra of Kodagu.

British Rule
The advent of British rule brought about many changes in Karnataka, as elsewhere in India.
Three districts, Dharwad Bijapur (then called Kaladagi) and Belgaum, taken from the Peshwa, were
merged into Bombay Presidency in 1818. The Kanara District, now the districts of Uttara and
Dakshina Kannada and Bellary taken from Tipu, were added on to the Madras Presidency. In 1862
the Kanara District was divided into two, and the latter, North Kanara (Uttara Kannada) was tagged
42 A Handbook o f Karnataka

on to Bombay Presidency. In 1834 the

feudatory monarchy in Kodagu (Coorg)
was ended and the state was handed over
to a Commissioner under the supervision
of the Madras Governor.

Mysore was retained as a separate

principality; the prince of the Odeyar
dynasty, Krishnaraja III, was yet a boy
when he became the ruler in 1799. The
areas in the modern districts of Gulbarga,
Raichur and Bidar were handed over to
the Nizam of Hyderabad. In addition to
the Nawab of Savanur, there were over
15 other princes, ruling over small
Kannada principalities. M ost of them
were Maratha rulers who included the
princes of Jamkhandi, Ramdurg,
Mudhol, Sandur, etc.

Mysore as a nucleous of Karnataka,

grew to be a progressive state. It nurtured
Kannada, culture and encouraged
Kannada literature and scholarship. But
for the Mysore State, Karnataka would
have lost its identity. Purnayya was made
the Chief Administrator (Dewan) during
the minority of Krishnaraja III, and later
in 1810 Krishnaraja him self assumed administration. But the Nagar Uprising of 1831 resulted in
the East India Company assuming the Mysore administration in 1831, and M ysore came to be ruled
by a British Commissioner for 50 years.

Modern Mysore
The prince, who was a great scholar and lover of literature, spent the rest of his life in literary
and artistic pursuits. The M ysore court became a major centre of Renaissance in Karnataka. He
founded the Raja School for teaching English in 1833, which became the nucleus of the Maharaja’s
high school and later M aharaja’s College (1879). He also started a lithographic press, Ambavilasa
(1841) and started printing books in Kannada.

O f the Commissioners that ruled Mysore between 1831 and 1881, two are the most notable
viz., M ark Cubbon (1834-61) and Lewin Bowring (1862-70). Tothesetw o goes the credit ofmaking
Mysore a modern State by organizing the administration on European lines and bringing it on par
with the other districts in the British Presidencies. They also encouraged education by increasing
the number of schools. By building roads and railways, and by introducing the telegraph, an
infrastructure was provided for industrial progress, which they had not anticipated.

The year 1881 saw the Rendition, when Chamarajendra Odeyar, the adopted son of Krishnaraja
III, secured the throne. He was assisted by able Dewans like Rangacharlu and Sheshadri Iyer. The
History 43

first dewan, Rangacharlu, founded the

Representative Assembly in M ysore in
1881, and thus prepared the ground for
responsible government. He encouraged
Kannada scholarship. The prince was
also a great lover of literature and fine
arts. The prince died in 1894, and young
Krishnaraja Wadeyar IV was crowned
the king, and the Queen-Mother
Vanivilas became the Regent. Sheshadri
Iyer continued as Dewan till 1901.

Economic Changes
Dewan Purnayya raised a dam at
Sagarakatte to improve irrigation. The
first railway line between Bangalore and
Jalarpet was laid during the regime of
Cubbon, started functioning from 1864.
Cubbon was also responsible for the
construction of new roads exceeding
1600 miles in length, with 300 bridges.
Coffee plantations, also started by him,
covered over 1 1/2 lakh acres. He also
founded the Public Works and Forest
Departments. Districts Savings Banks
were started in Mysore in 1870.
Rangacharlu got the Bangalore-Mysore
rail line ready by 1882. The work on the
line was started as famine relief during
the severe famine of 1876-78, which
took the toll of one million lives in
Mysore state alone.

Sheshadri Iyer started gold mining

in Kolar region in 1886, created the
Departments of Geology (1894), and
Agriculture (1898), launched the
Vanivilasa Sagara Irrigation Scheme in
Chitradurga Dt. and began the
Shivanasamudra hydro-electric project,
which supplied power to Kolar Gold
Fields in 1902, and Bangalore city in
1905; it was the first such major project
in India. The Bangalore Mill was started
in 1884 and it was taken over by the
Binnys, Bangalore Woolen, Cotton and
Silk Mills in 1886.
C hikkavirarajendra of kodagu
44 A Handbook o f Karnataka

It was about this time that elsewhere in Karnataka too industrialisation started and railway and
road transport facilities began to improve. Harihara-Pune railway line was completed in 1888.
Mangalore was connected by rail with Madras in 1907. The Gokak Spinning Mill (1885) had been
founded by securing power from the Gokak Falls (1887) and Magalore had some tile factories, first
initiated by the Basel Mission (1865). A spinning and weaving mill was also started at Gulbarga in
1888. Gold mining had started in the Hutti region of Raichur District after investigations in 1886.
Hubli and many ginning mills by then. Thus Industrialization gave impetus to urbanisation and
modernisation. Agriculture was also receiving great fillip because of better irrigation and demand
for raw materials. The like ‘Cotton Boom’ of the 1860s of the American Civil War days gave
impetus to raising cotton crop, and though demand from Manchester fell after the 1860s, new
factories founded at Bombay and Sholapur did purchase cotton from North Karnataka area. But
spinning, a domestic industry which provided jobs to lakhs of women by assuring a wage equal to
a farm worker, was totally destroyed after the Industrial Revolution, and so was weaving. Thus
pressure on land increased.

Anti-British Uprisings
Karnataka did not tamely submit to the foreign rule of the British. There were anti-British
violent uprisings between 1800 and 1858. The earliest of these was of Dhondia Wagh, who after
the fall of Tipu, unfurled the flag of revolt against the British in 1800 from the Bidanur-Shikaripur
region; many former princes joined him. His revolt spread from Jamalabad to Sode in Coastal
Districts and above the ghats upto Belgaum and Raichur Districts. He was killed at Konagal in
September 1800, and his colleague Krishnappa Nayak of Belur (Balam) was killed in February
1802. This was followed by the Koppal
Rebellion led by one Virappa 1819. The
year 1820 saw the Deshmukh rebellion
near Bidar. A strong revolt was
witnessed at Sindagi in Bijapura District
in 1824. The revolt of Kittur Chanamma
in 1824 and of Sangolli Rayanna in the
same kingdom in 1829 are famous. This
was followed by the Nagar Uprising of
1830-31 accompanied by similar
agrarian revolts in the Kanara District in
1831. Sarja Hanumappa Nayak of
Tarikere also joined the insurgents.
Though this revolt failed, it cost
Krishnaraja III his throne. There was an
uprising in Kodagu during 1835-37,
which was also strong in Dakshina
Kannada (Sullya and Mangalore). One
former official o f the Peshwa called
Narasappa Petkar organized a revolt
against the British in 1841. Karnataka responded to the 1857-58 uprising evidence all over India.
In Nov. 1857, the Halagali Bedas revolted against the Arms Act. The rulers of Naragund and Surapur,
joined by Mundargi Bheemarao, a Zamindar and the Desais of Govanakoppa, Hemmige, Soraturu
History 45

etc, also revolted in 1858. There was a long revolt in Supa jointly led by men from Goa and Uttara
Kannada who included some Siddis (Negroes) in 1858-59.

Though the uprisings were suppressed, their lesson were not totally forgotten. It was the Nagar
Uprising which resulted in the founding of Mysore Representative Assembly in 1881. The British
learnt to respond to the grievances of the people quickly. Local self- government bodies in towns
were founded in 1850s and 1860s. People also learnt that without proper organisation, it is not
possible to free the country from the British. The British also felt the need to improve the means o f
transport and communication to enable them to meet situations of breach of peace. Communication
facilities served their colonial economic purposes also.

Beginning of Renaissance
The new administration everywhere helped the spread of modem education. Christian
Missionaries also started education on Western lines. There were over 2000 primary schools in
Mysore by 1881. B ombay Karnataka areas had over 650 primary schools by that time. Though there
were only Marathi schools in Bombay Karnataka, men like Elliot and Deputy Channabasappa strove
to introduce Kannada medium. A Government college was founded at Bangalore in 1870 (named
Central College in 1875) and later Bangalore saw a second institution, the S tJoseph’s College, in
1882. The Maharaja’s College of Mysore was started in 1879. The Government College of
Mangalore was founded 1869, followed by the St. Aloysius College in 1879.

Christian Missionaries started printing in Kannada in 1817 (first from Serampore near Calcutta)
and the first newspaper named ‘Mangalura Samachara’ was started by the Basel Mission in 1843.
Many old Kannada classics were printed. All these developments helped literary activity on new
lines. Prose became popular and secular themes appeared in literature.

Many newspapers and journals were published in Kannada. They include ‘Kannada
Samachara’ (Bellary 1844), ‘Chandrodaya’ (Dharwad 1877), ‘Karnataka Prakashika’ (Mysore
1865) and ‘Arunodaya’ (Bangalore 1862). These are a few of the many such efforts. Lyrical poetry
in Kannada also came to be composed, beginning with the prayer songs composed by the
Missionaries. Mysore court also encouraged many writers. Mudramanjusha (1823) by
Kempunarayana was the first important prose work. M any English and Sanskrit plays were
translated. The first original Kannada social play was Iggappa Heggadeya Prahasana (1887) by
Venkatarama Shastry. The first original Kannada social novel was Suryakanta (1892) by Gadagkar,
though social novels had been translated from English, Marathi and Bengali too by then.

The stage and music also were influenced by these changes. New drama troupes came into
existence at Gadag (1874) and Halasangi and there was a troupe at Mysore too. The visit of Marathi
troupe from Sangli in 1876-77 and the Victoria Parsi Company in 1878 to Karnataka revolutionized
stagecraft here. Veena Venkatasubbayya, Sambayya and Chikkaramappa were some of the great
veena maestroes at the Mysore court at this time. A distinct Mysore school of Karnatak music was
evolved during this period. * ■
I
In architecture, Western impact was seen. The C entrji College building (1860) in the Gothic
style, the Athara Kachery (1867) with Ionic pillars and the Bangalore Museum Building (1877) in
the Corinthian style were built during this period. The Basel Mission introducing light tiles from
Mangalore revolutionised architectural patterns. Churches too introduced the Western style. Our
Lady of Sorrow Church (Mangalore 1857), St. Mary’s Church (Shivajinagar, Bangalore, 1882),
46 A Handbook of Karnataka

St. Joseph’s Seminary Church (Mangalore 1890) and St. Mary’s Church (Belgaum, 1869) are some
such early examples.

Many social movement stirred Hindu society and social changes received an impetus. The
propoganda o f the Christian missions was also responsible for this, especially of the newly founded
Protestant missions, though in a negative way. The Theosophical Society started its work in Mysore
State in 1886. Brahma Samaj started its activities in Mangalore in 1870 and also in Bangalore. This
was followed by the Depressed Classes Mission, founded by Kudmul Ranga Rao at M angalore in
1897, which started many schools for the depressed classes. Bangalore had the Indian Progressive
Union in 1894. Mysore State banned the marriage of girls below eight. Sheshadri Iyer started
separate schools for the untouchables as they were hesitating to attend other regular schools. The
M aharani’s school for girls founded in 1881 at Mysore by palace Bakshi Ambil Narasimha Iyengar
which became ahigh school in 1891 and the M aharani’s College in 1901. The Ramakrishna Mission
was founded in Bangalore in 1904. These developments mainly helped emanicipation of women
and attempted eradication of untouchftbility.

It was in this atmosphere that t h e ^ t o r y of the State also came to be written. Fleet’s Dynasties
o f Canarese Districts (1882), Bhandarkar’s Early History o f Dakhan (1884), Rice’s Epigrahia
Camatica volumes (beginning from 1886) and Sewel’s A Forgotten Empire (1901) helped the
recovery of Karnataka’s history,which made the people of Karnataka feel proud of their past.This
paved the way for the high renaissance and the national awakening in the 20th century.

The Karnataka Vidhyavardhaka Sangha of Dharwad (1890), the Mythic Society of Bangalore
(1909), the Karnataka Ithihasa Sambhodhana Mandala of Dharwad (1914) further helped the
Renaissance. An all-Karnataka literary
and cultural forum was founded in 1915,
and this was the Karnataka Sahitya
Parishat, with its headquarters in
Bangalore. It had the active support of
the Mysore Government and its
president, H.V.Nanjundaiah also became
the Vice-Chancellor of the newly
founded Mysore University (1916).
Aluru Venkatarao wrote , Karnataka
Gatha Vaibhava in 1917, introducing to
the Kannadigas in Kannada, the history
and cultural-achievements o f Karnataka.
Written in a tone highly charged with
emotion, the work played an important
role in inculcating national feeling. He
was the Father o f the Karnataka
Unification Movement also.

Modernisation
Princes of M ysore ’w ere aU
enlightened administrators and by their
History 47

genuine interest in the progress of the State, won them the affection and the respect of the people.
All of them were patron^ of learning, literature, music and other fine arts. Krishnaraja Wadeyar IV,
who ruled from 1902 to 1940, led an unsostentatious life and combined piety with a modem outlook.
During his reign the state made rapid progress in all directions; His younger brother Kanthirava
Narasimharaja Wadiyar, the Yuvaraja of Mysore, was also a generous patron o f the fine arts; for
many years he was the Honorary President o f the Kannada Sahitya Parishat. His son, Jayachamaraja
Wadeyar, who came to the throne in 1940, proved as enlightened as his uncle. W hen the country
won independence, Mysore acceded to the Indian Union. Jayachamaraja W adeyar served as
Governor, and won an enduring place in the affection of the people.

The Dewans in charge of the administration in Mysore made the principality hot only a modem
state but a model state, as.already observed. Dewana P.N.Krishnamurthy (1901-6) improved the
administration by introducing up-to-date methods followed in British India in office procedure and
maintenance of records, and he founded the Co-operative Department in 1906. The next Dewan
V.P. Madhava Rao, founded the Legislative Council (1907), the second chamber, and took measure
for forest conservation. The Central Co-operative Bank was also his creation. A great economist
and administrator, M. Visveswaraya became the
Dewan in 1912. He was a man p f Vision and a
dynamic ^m in istrato r and during the brief
period of Ms administration, he founded many
industries and'undertook such progressive and,
far-reaching administrative measures that he has
come to be known as "the Maker of M odem
Mysore". The M ysore Chrome Tanning Factory
(1918), Sandalwood Oil Factory, of Mysore
(1916), Government Soap Factory in Bangalore
and the Wood Distillation Factory at Badravithi
1were also founded by Sir: M: Visveswaraya. The
iron unit at Bhadravati was also his brain-child.
He founded the Engineering College at
Bangalore (1917), the Agricultural school
(1913, the nucleus'for the future University of
Agricultural Sciences), the Medical school at
Bangalore (4917), and the Mysore University
(1916). The Mysore Bank was also started in his
time (1913) and so was Mysore Chamber of
Commerce (1916).

Another important Dewan was Sir Mirza

M. Ismail (1926-41). Who was responsible for
making M ysore one of the best known Princely
States in India by expanding its industries,
founding new ones and undertaking major
irrigation projects. Mysore State served as a
strong nucleus of Karnatak? by its economic
progress and cultural achievements.
48 A Handbook o f Karnataka

Plantation industries was expanded

both in Mysore and Kodagu.
Kannambadi project commissioned when
§ir lylirza was the dewan* gave impetus
to sugarcane growing and helped the
founding o f sugar-factories at the later
date. Under Dewan Mirza Ismail, the
Cauveri Upper Canal was commissioned,
benefiting over one lakh acres of land.
Industrialization in Mysore was in full
swing. The Bhadravathi Iron factory had
been founded by Visveswaraya. Sir
Mirza Ismail expanded it by adding a
steel unit.

The District Saving Banks, attached

to District Treasuries were started in
1870. Bangalore saw three banking
companies in 1868, and a total 24 such
institutions were seen by 1876 in the city,
though not many survived. Chitradurga
Savings Bank was founded in 1870.
Madras Presidency Bank had founded its
branch at Bangalore in 1863. South
Kanara had its banking companies like
the Canara Bank (1906) and the Canara
Banking Coporation (1906). Later came the Pangal Nayak Bank (1920), Jayalakshmi Bank (1923),
Karnataka Bank (1924), Udipi Bank (1925), Catholic Bank (1925) and the Syndicate Bank (1925).
The Town Co-operative Bank was started at Hospet in 1915. Dharwad District saw many Co-op,
Socities beginning with the one at Kanaginal in 1906, most of them in Gadag area. The Dharwad
D.C.C. Bank was started in 1916. Co-operative movement also made great strides in Kodagu and
Dakshina Kannada.

Tile industry was expanded i n South Kanara and cashewnut husking units were also started in
1924 such as the Pierce Leslie and the Mallya Cashew. Beedi rolling in South Kanara and agarbathi
production in Mysore State were started as domestic industries in an organised way. The Swadeshi
Movement gave a fillip to industrial activity in the British districts of Karnataka. A big oil mill,
B.T.MiIls, was started at Davangere in 1918, and several cotton ginning factories had been started
in the town, even earlier to this.

Sir Mirza Ismail was responsible for the founding of many new industries in M ysore State as
already noted. He founded the cement and paper factory at Bhadravathi, the sugar factory at Mandya,
the Belagola Chemical and Fertilizers factory(the first of its kind in India) atid the glass and porceline
factories at Bangalore to mention only a few. It was he who intiated plans to produce power at
Shimsha and Jog and the most important industry initiated during his time was Hindustan Aircrafts
in 1940. Kaiser-I-Hind Wollen Mill had started production in 1922, and it was followed by the
History 49

Minerva Mills. Thus industrialisation was in full swing, and the Second World War gave a further
fillip. At Harihara was started the Mysore Kirloskars machine shop in 1941. The Davanagere Cotton
Mills started in 1939 gave a fillip to the founding of more such mills in the town. A sugar factory
was founded at Hospet in 1935, followed by the Munirabad Sugar M ill in 1944. The Faruk Anwar
Oil Mill was started at Raichur in 1944. Oil mills, soap units, saw mills, etc., came to be founded
in small towns too. Banks and the Co-operative sector provided the necessary finance.

Cultural Developments
The High Renaissance of the 20th century saw many great development in the fields of music,
drama, painting and literature. The Mysore court patonized great artistes like Veene Sheshanna,
Lakshminarayanappa, Bakshi Subbanna, Vasudevacharya, Mutthayya Bhagavathar and Bidaram
Krishnappa. The younger generation also had its great masters like T.Chowdiah, who evolved the
seven stringed violin, and B.Devendrappa. There were great classical dancers like Jatti Thayamma
and Muguru Subbanna in princely Mysore. In the field of drama, M ysore saw great artistes like
Varadacharya, Gubbi Veeranna, Subbayya Naidu, and Smt.Malavalli Sundaramma. There were
equally great artistes from North Karnataka area like Shirahatti Venkoba Rao, Sadashiv Rao Garud
and Vamanarao Master. Kailasam and Ballari Raghava were great amateur artiste. Kannada films,
too, appeared. The North Karnataka area had great Hindusthani vocalists like Savay Gandharva
(Rambhau Kundgolkar), Panchakshari Gavayi, Puttaraja Gavayi and Mallikarjuna Mansur. Painting
also received patronage at the hands of the Mysore prince. He sent K. Venkatappa to
Shanthinikethan for training and this painter won world renown. He was also a sculptor. Another
noted sculptor from Mysore was Siddalingaswamy. The Chamarajendra Technological Institute
(Mysore) was founded to train artists and Jaganmohan Place was converted into an art gallery. The
traditional Gudigaras of the Malenadu (Sagar-Sirsi area), imbibing modern techniques and ideas,
started producing fine figures in wood and ivory, which secured a world market. Their handiwork
can be seen in the decoration of Mysore palace and the Vidhana Soudha.

The Renaissance had its impact on literal ire too. Prose writing became popular and journalism
also grew. Several forms of literature-the shon story, the essay, the novel, drama and lyrical poetry,
for instance-developed in Kannada. Masti Venkatesha Iyengar, Panje Mangesha Rao, M.N. Kamath
and Kerur Vasudevacharya were some of the early short story writers followed by ‘Ananda’
‘Anandakanda’, A.R.Krishna Sastry, K.Gopalakrishna Rao, Krishnakumar Kallur, ‘Anakru’
(A.N.Krishna Rao). ‘Bharathipriya’ (Venkata Rao), Gorur Ramaswamy Iyengar, Dr. R.S. Mugali,
Gauramma and ‘Raghava’ (M.V. Seetharamaiah). Shivaram Karanth and ‘Anakru’ (A.N. Krishna
Rao) are the two celebrated novelists. English Geethegalu (1921) by B.M. Srikantiah is the first
collection of modern lyrics in Kannada. He was followed by Govinda Pai, Dr. D.V, Gundappa,
Dr.Bendre, P.T. Narasimhachar, G.P. Rajarathnam, Panje Mangeha Rao, Kadengodlu Shankara
Bhatta, Dr.V.Sitharamaiah, Dr.V.K. Gokak and Dr.K.V. Puttappa. Govinda Pai was the pioneer in
discarding the rhyme (1911). Modem Kannada play had its pioneers like B.M. Srikantiah, Samsa,
Kailasam .Sreeranga and Shivaram Karanth. ’

Publication of Epigraphia Carnatica volumes, covering epigraph from all districts by Rice and
R.Narsimchar is a pioneering and uparallelled achievement of the erstwhile Mysore State. Dr.
R.Shama Shastry (who discovered Kautilya’s Arthashasthra), and Prof.M.Hiriyanna by their
Indological studies, brought world fame to Mysore and Karnataka.
50 A Handbook o f Karnataka

Printing became widespread.

Newspapers played an important role,
helping literary growth, spreading
modern and scientific ideas, propagating
patriotism and progressive social views
and trying to encourage everthing that is
good in arts. .In Mysore,
M.Venkatakrishnaiah was running
‘Vritthantha Chinthamani’ (1885). The
'M ysore Standard’, the ‘Mysore Star’
etc, were some other newspapers from
Mysore State. South Kanara had the
‘Suvasini’ (1900), the ‘Krishna Sukthi’
(1905) and the ‘Swadeshabhimani’
(1907). ‘The Karnataka Vrittha’ (1890),
(edited by Mudavidu Krishna Rao), the
‘Kannada Kesari’ (Hubli 1902) and the
‘Rajahamsa’ (Dharwad, 1891) were
periodicals from North Karnataka. The
freedom movement stimulated the
publications of many new newspapers.

Fight for Freedom

The freedom movement and the
demand for the Unification of Karnataka
became very strong in Karnataka after 1920. They are the climax of the trends witnessed in renascent
Karnataka. The freedom movement influenced literature, journalism, arts, industries and even
society. It sponsored with great zeal the programme of eradication of untouchability and
emancipation of women. The achievement of social unity and undoing on an large scale of caste
prejudices was also the work of thq movement. The Veerashaiva Mahasabha (1904), the Okkaligara
Sangha (1906), and other such organisation helped the spread of education and the creation of a
consciouness of their rights among the backward classes. In 1917 was founded the Praja Mitra
Mandali in Mysore and in 1920 Bramanetara Parishat at Hubli with similar goals. Though these
movements were against Congress which spearheaded freeedom struggle, in the long run, they
whole-heartedly joined Congress in its struggle for freedom.

Four persons (one from Belgaum and three from Beliary) from Karnataka went to attend the
first session of Congress at Bombay in 1885. The impact of Bala Gangadhara Tilak and his journal
‘Kesari’ on Karnataka was great. The Bombay State Political Conferences were held in Kannada
districts, at Dharwad (1903), Belgaum (1916) and Bijapur (1918). There was picketing of liquor
shops in Belgaum in 1907 (during the Swadeshi movement, following ‘Vangabhanga’ or Partition
of Bengal) and 15 people were imprisoned. National schools were founded at Belgaum, Dharwad,
Hubli, and Bijapur. Theosohists earlier had founded the National High School at Bangalore in 1917.

The first Karnataka State Political Conference was held in Dharwad in 1920, and acccording
to its decision, nearly 800 people from Karnataka attended the Nagpur Congress in 1920. At Nagpur,
History 51

Karnataka secured a separate provincial Congress committee (1921). Gangadhararao Deshpande of

Belgaum was the first K.P.C.C. President.

Non-Co-operation Movement of 1921-22 saw many lawyers giving up their practice and many
students boycotting schools and colleges. Khilaphat Movement was also launched with this. Nearly
50 national schools were started in Karnataka and over 70 persons from the British Districts courted
arrest. Picketers were fired on in Dharwad and Bangalore, and three Khilaphat workers died in
Dharwad and two in Bangalore Cantonment. A worker from Karnataka, Dr.Hardikar, organised
Hindusthani Seva Dal, a voluntary corps with Hubli as its all-India headquarters. The Belgaum
Congress of 1924, presided over by Gandhiji was a grand success, and was greatly responsible for
helping awakening in the State. Gangadhararao Deshpande. Hanamantharao Kujalgi, Shrinivasarao
Kaujalgi, Tekur of Bellary and Karnad Sadashivarao of Mangalore were some of the early leaders
of Congress from Karnataka.

The Civil Disobedience Movement

launched by Gandhi ji in 1930 began with
Salt Sathyagraha at Ankola, followed by
various programmes of law breaking like
jungle sathyagraha, picketing of liquor
shops, non-payment of pasteur tax
(hullubanni) and finally No-tax
Campaign when peasants refused to pay
land revenue. Over 2,000 people courted
arrest in the British districts, Belgaum
District’s quota being the biggest, 750.
The movement was resumed in 1932
after the nine-month lull following the
Gandhi-Irvin Pact, with greater vigour.
The No-tax Campaign launched in
Siddapura and Ankola taluks was an epic
struggle. The lands of over 800 families
were confiscated and 1000 people went
to jail in Uttara Kannada alone; among
them were one hundred women, and
most of them were illiterate and even
conservative widows with shaven heads.
They got their lands back only in 1939,
and till then they suffered in silence.

Programmes and propaganda to eradicate untouchability were launched in Karnataka when

Gandhiji undertook a fast over the issue in 1932. The highlights of the programme were taking
Harijans to the Marikamba Temple of Sirsi and the Basavangudi of Bangalore. Gandhiji also toured
Karnataka as a part of his programme of upliftment of Harijans in 1934 and 1936. Harijan Sevak
Sangh’s Karnataka unit was founded with Sardar Veerangauda Patil as the President.

Though there were no agitations in princely states till 1937, the people of Mysore State founded
Mysore Congress in that year, and launched the Flag Satyagraha in 1938. The Vidhurashwatha
tragedy followed soon after in which 10 were killed by police fire. This was followed by the
movement for responsible government in 1939. T.Siddalingaiah, H.C.Dasappa, S.Siddayya,
52 A Handbook o f Karnataka

K.C.Reddy, H.K.Veeranna Gowda, K.T.Bhashyam, T.Subramanyam, K.Hanumanthaiah,

S.Nijalingappa, M.N.Jois and Smt.Yashodhara Dasappa were some of the important leaders of
Mysore Congress. Similarly the Hyderbad Congress was launched in 1938, and it made a strong
demand for responsible government. In other princely states of Karnataka too had a strong demand
for responsible government under the guidance of the National Congress.

"Quit India" 1942-43.

The Quit India Movement saw unprecendented awakening in Karnataka. Students in all
colleges and schools went on strike. Labourers in Bangalore and other places, numbering over
30,000, also struck work for over two weeks. Over 50 people (of whom 11 from Bangalore alone)
fell victims to firing by the police. Seven from Bailhongal, seven from Davangere, six from
Shravanbelgola were martyrs of the Quit India Movement. Death of Mailara Mahadevappa and two
of his companions in Dharwad Districts
was a unique tragedy. The Isur village in
Shimoga Dt. which demonstrated
unbridled fury against the British had
five of its heroes hanged. A total of
15,000 people (out of which 10,000 from
princely Mysore alone) went to jail in
1942-43 from Karnataka. Dharwad and
Belgaum District evidence heroic
sabotage and subversive works by
organised group of patriots, which
became famous as "Karnataka Pattern"
and praised by Jayaprakash Narayan.

Even after India becoming free in

1947, Hyderbad could be liberated only
after the Police Action in 1948. Among
the men who organised Congress,
Ramananda Teertha, Janardanrao Desai,
G.Ramachar,Krishnacharya Joshi,
A.Shivamurthy Swamy and
Sharanagauda Inamdar were the noted
leaders from Hyderabad Karnatak area.
In Mysore State an agitation was
launched for the establishment of
responsible government. The agitation
succeeded, and a team of ministers headed by K.C.Reddy as the Chief Minister, took charge of the
administration in October, 1947. K.C.Reddy was succeeded by K.Hanumanthaiah (1952) and
Kadidal Manjappa (1956). To Hanumanthaiah goes the credit of raising Vidhana Saudha, the biggest
building in granite of modern times.
Daily newspaper like the ‘Taruna Karnataka’ (Hubli), the ‘Samyuktha Karnataka’, (Belgaum,
and laterHubli), the ‘Janavani’ the ‘Tayinadu’, and ‘Navajeevana’, ‘Veerakesari’ and ‘Vishwa
Karnataka’ (allfrom Bangalore) and ‘Kodagu’from Madikeri rendered yeoman service to the
movement. Women also came to the fore and participated in processions and the picketing of liquor
shops and pro-British establishments braved lathi blows and went to jail with babes in arm. Mention
History 53

can be made of Kamaladevi Chattopadhyaya, Umabai Kundapur, Krishnabai Panjekar, Yashodhara

Dasappa, Siddamma Ballari and Gauramma Venkataramaiah who were in the forefront of the
movement.

Unification of Karnataka
After independence, a persistent effort had to be made for the Unification of Karnataka. The
movement for Unification, had been, in fact, launched together with the movement for freedom in
Karnataka.

Karnataka had been distributed among as many as 20 administrations before independence,

and the handicaps and sufferings of the people of Karnataka in those days were severe. In a Kannada
area like Mudhol, ruled by a Marathi prince, there were no Kannada schools, and administration
was conducted in Marathi. This was the case with many Marathi States. In Hyderbad State, Urdu
dominated. In a big British Presidences like Bombay or Madras, where Kannada districts were few
and the Kannadigas were in a minority, their sufferings were many. They had no just share in the
development activities. They could not secure minimum facilities like roads or bridges. Everywhere
the voice of the Kannadiga was a voice in the wilderness.

The Renaissance had also created a strong yearning for Unification. Dharwad was the centre
of the movement, and Alur Venkatarao was the brain behind it. He had supporters like Mudavidu
Krishnarao, Kadapa Raghavendra Rao and Gadigeyya Honnapurmath. The Karnataka Sahithya
Parishat was founded (1915) at Bangalore partially by the efforts of these people, and it provided
a forum for the writers and intellectuals of Karnataka. The writers and journalists met annually at
the Kannada Literary Conference organised by the Parishat and finally the first Karnataka Slate
Political Conference at Dharwad (1920) decided to agitate for Unification through the Congress
organisation too. The Nagpur Congress agreed to establish the K.P.C.C. in that year. Thus
Unification, intially an idea of the Kannada writers and journalists,secured the support of the
politicians. The first Unification Conference was held at Belgaum in 1924 during the Belgaum
Congress, Siddappa Kambli presiding. Nine such conferences were held till the dawn of
Independence, and afterwards, Karnataka came under five administrations in 1947. (1) Bombay and
(2) Madras States, (3) Kodagu, (4) Mysore and (5) Hyderbad, instead of 20). M inor princely states
who numbered 15 like Jamkhandi, Ramadurg, Mudhol, Sandur etc. had been merged with
neighbouring districts soon after Independence.

From 1947, Unification was a demand that had to be urged upon the Government of India.
But this also had to be a serious movement. In 1953, the Akhanda Karnataka Rajya Nirmana
Parishat, a newly founded party with K.R.Karanth as the President, had to launch a serious
Sathyagraha and 5,000 people courted arrest. Finally, the Fazl Ali Commission was appointed, and
according to tis recommendation, united Karnataka came into existence on the 1st November 1956,
and was named as Karnataka in 1973

Governors of Karnataka from 1956

1. Jayachamaraja Wodeyar 1956 to 1964

2. Gen. S.M.Srinagesh 1964 to 1965

3. V.V.Giri 1965 to 1967

4. G.S.Pathak 1967 to 1969

5. Dharmavir 1969 to 1972

54 A Handbook o f Karnataka

6. Mohanlal Sukhadia 1972 to 1976

7. Uma Shankar Dixit 1976 to 1977
8. Govind Narain 1977 to 1983
9. A.N.Banerji 1983 to 1988
10. P.V enkatasubbaiah 1988 to 1990
11. Bhanu Pratap Singh 1990 to 1991
12. Khrusheed Alam Khan 1991 till date

Chief Ministers of Karnataka from 1956

S.Nijalingappa 01.11.1956 19.04.1957
S.Nijalingappa 19.04.1957 16.05.1958
B.D.Jatti 16.05.1958 09.03.1962
S.R.Kanthi 14.03.1962 20.06.1962
S.Nijalingappa 21.06.1962 05.03.1967
S.Nijalingappa 05.03.1967 28.05.1968
Veerendra Patil 29.05.1968 18.03.1971
President's Rule 27.03.1971 20.03.1972
D.Devaraj Urs 20.03.1972 31.12.1977

President’s Rule 31.12.1977 28.02.1978

D.Devaraj Urs 28.02.1978 07.01.1980

R.Gundu Rao 12.01.1980 06.01.1983 .

Ramakrishna Hegde 10.01.1983 29.12.1984

Ramakrishna Hegde 08.03.1985 13.02.1986

Ramakrishna Hegde 16.02.1986 10.08.1988

S.R.Bommai 13.08.1988 21.04.1989

President’s Rule 21.04.1989 30.11.1989
Veerendra Patil 30.11.1989 10.10.1990

President’s Rule 10.10.1990 17.10.1990

S.Bangarappa 17.10.1990 19.11.1992

Veerappa Moily 19.11.1992 11.12.1994

H.D.Devegowda 11.12.1994
 Chapter III
PEOPLE
Geographically Karnataka occupies the Centre tableland of the Deccan Plateau. At times, it
has been termed as an anthropological museum, where the people of different racial traits are seen.
Apart from the so-called Dravidians and Indo-Aryan races, the land has notable strains of people
of other categories. The Musilm dynasties that ruled over the region attracted considerable number
of Turks, Afghans and other people from the Middle-East. Proximity to Goa made many run-away
Negro slaves from that region to come and settle down on the territory bordering Goa, especially
in Uttara Kannada and these people are called Siddhis. O f late, certain settlements of the Tibetans
have also come into existence. Some places on the coast like Bhatkal has people o f Arabic origin,
having settled down there for centuries.

The Christian population here have a considerable strain of European element in them, as the
Portugese in Goa had married local women and considerable sections of Goan Christians have
migrated to Karnataka. The contact of the coastal people had with the Arab traders helped their
co-mingling with the local population. The various racial elements including the indigenous, the
various religious movements and regional customs have helped in evolving a Karnataka culture
which has shaped the life of the people.

Demography
According to 1991 census Karnataka with an area of 1,91,791 sq km. has a population of
44,977,201 with 22,951,917 males and 22,025,284 females. Karnataka State ranks eighth among
the 25 States and 7 Union Territories in the Indian Union both in respect of area and population as
per 1991 Census and Karnataka’s population constitues 5.8% of India’s population.

As can be seen from the trends in growth of population, there was a fall in growth and a
decrease during 1911-21 due to the epidemics plague and influenza. In the 30 years between 1901
and 1931 the population increased only about a million and a half. The rate of growth of population
has accelerated from 1951 onwards. The percentage growth rate of population during 1981-91 was
21.12 (Rural 17.65 and Urban 29.62) as against 26.76 during 1971-81 (Rural 19.07 and Urban
50.65). Among the districts, during 1981-91, Bangalore District has recorded the highest growth
rate 38.44 per cent and Kodagu has registered the lowest rate of 5.57 percent.
The districtwise population of the State in 1991 and the percentage o f decennial increase
between 1981 and 1991 are as follows: Bangalore (48,39,162-38.44%); Bangalore Rural
(16,73,194-15.23%); Belgaum (35,83,606-20.24%); Bellary (18,90,092-26.92%); Bidar
(12,55,799-26.12%); Bijapur (29,27,900-21.91%); Chikmagalur (10,17,283-10.37%); Chitradurga
(21,80,443-22.67%); Dakshina Kannada (26,94,264-13.31%); Dharwad (35,03,150-18.93%);
Gulbarga (25,82,169-24.12%); Hassan (15,69,684-15.57%); Kodagu (4,88,455-5.75%); Kolar
(22,16,889- 16.34%); M andya (16,44,374-15.96%); Mysore (31,65,018-21.92%); Raichur
(23,09,887-29.49%); Shimoga (19,09,663-15.27%); Tumkur (23,05,819-16.58%); and Uttara
Kannada (12,20,260-13.83%).
Sex Ratio: The sex ratio is defined as the number of females for every 1000 males in a given
area. The sex ratio of population in 1991 was 961 females for every 1000 males. The rural ratio
was 975 females for every 1000 males and that of the urban sex ratio was 930. As compared to the
figures that of 1981 (Rural 978, Urban 926; Total 963). The sex ratio has almost remained the same
56 A Handbook o f Karnataka

for the total population of the state with a slight decrease in the number of females whereas in the
rural areas the ratio was higher and in the urban areas it was a little less during 1981. During 1991,
the districtwise sex ratio was as follows: Bangalore (904); Bangalore Rural (950); Belgaum (959);
Bellary (966); Bidar (954); Bijapur (965); Chikmagalur (979); Chitradurga (944); Dakshina
Kannada (1063); Dharwad (945); Gulbarga (962); Hassan (1000); Kodagu (989); Kolar (966);
Mandya (964); Mysore (953); Raichur (980); Shimoga (961); Tumkur (959) and Uttara Kannada
(967). These figure indicate that the sex ratio in the districts of Bangalore Rural, Chitradurga,
Dharwad, Bidar and M ysore was less than the State’s average and Malnad has a higher sex ratio
than other areas. Hassan district has a balanced sex ratio whereas in Dakshina Kannada the number
of females is more (1063) for every 1000 males.

Density of Population: The number of persons for every square kilometre area is called the
density of population. The density of population in the state was 235 in 1991 as against 194 in 1981.
Which is less than that of the country (273 in 1991 as against 230 in 1981). Among 25 states in
the country Karnataka occupies the 13th position in density.

According to 1991 census among the districts of the state, Bangalore District has registered
the highest density of 2,195 persons per sq km and the lowest of 118 persons per sq km. being
shared by Kodagu and Uttara Kannada districts. The density of population in the urban areas of
Bangalore district in 1991 was 11,453 per sq km and next comes Chitradugra district which has
density of 10,000 per sq km in the urban areas. Apart from Bangalore, Dakshina Kannada and
Mandya districts have a density of more than 300 persons per sq km. Those with a density between
250 and 300 are Bangalore Rural, Belgaum, Dharwad, Kolar and Mysore disrtricts; with a density
between 200 and 250 are Bidar, Chitradurga, Hassan and Tumkur. Bidar, Hassan, Mysore, Tumkur
and Raichur districts have an urban density of more than 5,000.

Urbanisation: Karnataka stood 10th in the descending order in the level of urbanisation in
1981 census and has moved to 11th rank in 1991 census among the States and Union Territories in
India. The rate of urbanisation is faster in Karnataka when compared to India. This trend has been
observed highest from 1901 till 1991. In 1991 census, there are 306 places in the State classified as
towns as against 281 towns in 1981 census. The State is becoming steadily more urbanised. It has
a larger proportion of its population living in urban areas, than the average for the country as a
whole. The districtwise total number of towns as per 1991 census was as follows: Bangalore (33)
Bangalore Rural (9); Belgaum (22); Bellary (12); Bidar (5); Bijapur (18); Chikmagalur (10);
Chitradurga (10); Dakshina Kannada (27); Dharwad (20); Gulbarga (19); Hassan (13); Kodagu (19);
Kolar (15); Mandya (11); Mysore(18); Raichur (13); Shimoga (16); Tumkur (12); and Uttara
Kannada (14).
Urban Agglomeration and Cities: There were 22 Urban Agglomerations in Karnataka as per
1991 census and they were Bangalore, Mysore, Mangalore, Belgaum, Gulbarga, Davanagere,
Bijapur, Shimoga, Tumkur, Raichur, K.G.F.; Bhadravathi, Hospet, Bidar, Udupi, Hassan,
Chitradurga, Gangavathi, Shahabad, Sirsi, Arsikere and Wadi. The number of towns in each class
and their growth rate during the decade 1981-1991 in the State are as follows: Class I- population
1,(50,1)00 and above (21, + 42.14), Class II- population 50,000 to 99,999 (17,+ 47.34); Class III -
population 20,000 to 49,000 (82, + 28.71); Class IV - population 10,000 to 19,999 (70,+ 27.27);
Class V - population 5,000 to 9,999 (2.08,-5.85) and Class VI population less than 5,000 (24,+
23.42); the first figure indicates the number of towns and that of the second figure indicates the
growth rate.
People 57

Rural areas: The rural areas include all villages such as forest, and settlement not falling
within the limits of a village. They comprise all areas not classified as Urban. A village without any
inhabitants is referred to a ‘uninhabited’ or ‘bechirack’. Bechirack literally means ‘without any
lights’. According to 1991 census the districtwise rural population and the percentage to the total
population in the districts are as follows: (The first figure in the bracket indictes the rural population
and that of the second figure indicates the percentage to the total population of the district).
Bangalore (6,69,909-13.84%); Bangalore Rural (13,69,908- 81.87%); Belgaum
(27,41,820-76.81%); Bellary (13,25,692-70.13%); Bidar (10,10,096-80.43%); Bijapur
(22,39,244-76.48%); Chikmagalur (8,45,422-83.11%); Chitradurga (15,91,765-73.00%); Dakshina
Kannada (19,31,670-71.70%); Dharwad (22,79,259-65.06%); Gulbarga (19,72,366-76.38%);
Hassan (12,96,962-82.63%); Kodagu (4,10,514-84.04%); Kolar (16,99,906-76.68%); Mandya
(13,77,570- 83.77%); M ysore (22,24,724-70.29%); Raichur (18,29,765-79.21%); Shimoga
(14,03,621-73.50%); Tumkur (19,23,656-83.43%); and Uttara Kannada (9,25,744-75.86%).
Migration: Migration is one of the key factors in changing the size and structure of the
population. It may be temporary or permanent. Temporary migration may be seasonal and it may
be continued to a period in a year. Generally people from plains move to Malnad districts both
during sowing and harvesting seasons and later return to their houses. The migration o f females is
mainly due to marriages. Other socio-cultural factors like Education and employment also contribute
for the migration of the people. The number of irnmigrats from the neighbouring States of Karnataka
has increased considerably between 1971 and 1981 and these figures are as follows: Andhra Pradesh
by 62,000; Kerala by 60,000; Maharashtra by 67,000 and Tamil Nadu by 1.53 lakhs. There were
11.88 lakh persons hailing from other States in India, 21,394 persons from other Asian countries
and 2,859 persons from non- Asian countries as in 1981.
SC and ST Population: ‘Scheduled Castes’ mean such castes, races, or tribes or parts or
groups within such castes, races or tribes as are deemed under Article 341 of the Constitution of
India. Scheduled Tribes means such tribes or tribal communities as deemed so under Articles 342
of the Constitution. In 1976, the Government of India by an amendment to the Scheduled Castes
and the Scheduled Tribes order published a list of Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes for
the whole State of Karnataka. According to 1981 census there are 101 Scheduled Castes and 49
Scheduled Tribes in Karnataka. A vast majority of people of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes
live in rural areas. According to 1991 census there were 73,69,279 Scheduled Castes people in the
State (54,45,186 in Rural and 17,24,093 in Urban) which is about 16.38% of the total population
of the State and there were 19,15,691 Scheduled Tribes people (16,29,496 Rural and 2,86,195
Urban) which is about 4.26% of the total population of the State. Both the Central and the State
Government have taken up a number of welfare measures for the upliftment of Scheduled Castes
and Scheduled Tribes and voluntary organisations are also functioning for the benefit of the weaker
sections of the community. (See Chapter Social Welfare Measures).
Disabled Population: The census of disabled population was stopped since 1941 and however
it has been continued during 1981, the International Year of the Disabled. The data on crippled has
been collected during 1981 for the first time in the history of Indian Census. According 1981 Census
the disabled population in the State is(the first figure in the bracket indicates for Rural areas and
the second figure in the bracket is of the Urban areas) Dumb (14,970; 2,643); Blind (15,162; 2,944)
and Crippled (15,208; 3,803). For a population of 10,000 there were six totally blind six totally
crippled and six totally dumb persons in rural areas and the corresponding figures for the urban
areas were three, four and three respectively. Incidence of disabilities is greater in rural areas than
in urban areas and this might be due to the lack of public health services, sanitation, personal hygiene
58 A Handbook o f Karnataka

and cleanliness and food and nutrition in rural areas. The Central and the State governments and
many voluntary organisations have come forward with various kinds of programmes for the
rehabilitation of the disabled. (See chapter Social Welfare Measures).
Literacy: A person is treated as a literate if he can read and write with underatanding in any
language. No minimum educational standard or formal education is required. All children of the
age group 0-4 are treated as illterate. The percentage literacy in the State according to 1991 census
is 47.05% as against 38.41% in 1981; 31.52% in 1971 and 25.40% in 1961. These figuress indicate
that there is a steady increase in the proportion of literates to the total population. The trend has
been maintained for both male and female literacy in the State. Among the males it has improved
from 41.62 percent in 1971 to 48.61 percent in 1981 and 56.41 percent in 1991. Among the females,
the literacy percentage has increased from 20.97 percent in 1971 to 27.83 percent in 1981 and 37.31
percent in 1991. The male literacy rate has been increased from 9.9 percent in 1901 to 56.41 percent
in 1991 and that of the female literacy rate has increased from 0.6 percent in 1901 to 37.31 percent
in 1991. In all the districts, literacy both among the males and females has considerably improved.
Newly created Bangalore district has topped the list in the districtwise literacy rate in 1991 followed
by Dakshina Kannada and Kodagu. Raichur has the lowest literacy rate in the State. The districtwise
literacy rate according to 1991 is as follows: Bangalore 65.94%; Bangalore Rural 47.71%; Belgaum
44.10%; Bellary 37.21%; Bidar 36.44%; Bijapur 45.70%; Chikmagalur 52.32%; Chitradurga
46.41%; Dakshina Kannada 65.51%; Dharwad 58.83%; Gulbarga 30.02%; Hassan 48.44%; Kodagu
58.49%; Kolar 42.74%; Mandya 41.18%; Mysore 40.06%; Raichur 28.78%; Shimoga 52.01%;
Tumkur 46.41%; and Uttara Kannada 56.44%.
Languages: As many as 15 languages are recognised in our Constitution as the main languages
of the country. Though Kannada is the principal language of the State, accounting for more than
65% of the total population (according to 1981 census) there are people who speak some of the
other major languages also. According to 1981 census the number of persons speaking some major
languages in the State is as follows: Assamese 157; Bengali 10,226; Gujarathi 36,390; Hindi
6,57,561; Kannada 2,41,99,576; Kashimiri 94; Konkani 6,40,738; Malayalam 5,90,709; Marathi
13,91,311; Oriya 2,118; Punjabi 9,536; Samskrita 509; Sindhi 11,597; Tamil 13,85,313; Telugu
29,93,501; Tulu 12,17,834; and Urdu 35,12,831.

Religions
Karnataka is a land of many religions. Every religion has contributed in its own way to the
shaping of the life and activities of the people and to promote the culture of Karnataka. Majority of
people in Karnataka are adherent to Hindusim and the other major religions of the State are
Buddhism, Christianity, Jainism, Islam and Sikkhism. According to 1981 census the population and
the percentage of the total population of different religions and religions not stated are as follows:
(The first figure in the bracket indicates the population and the second figure is the percentage of
the total population). Buddhists (42,251; 0.05); Christians (7,73,500; 2.08); Hindus (3,18,52,029;
85.77); Jains (2,84,508; 0.77); Muslims (41,63,691; 11.21); Sikhs (6,401; 0.02) other religious and
persuations (12,901; 0.04) and religions not stated (433, negligible).
Hinduism: Hinduism comprises of several sects and faiths. The Hindu Code denotes all
persons who profess Hindu religion either by birth by Hindu parents or by conversion. All Indians
who are not Muslims, Christians, Parsees or Jews, can be termed as Hindus and Hinduism according
to Hindu Law includes followers of Vedic tradition, Sikhs, Jains, Buddhists, Veerashaivas, Arya
Samajists, Brahmins and the followers of aministic cults including Bhuta worship. There are a
number of cults and worshipping practices, among Hindus. Gokarna is an important Shaiva centre
of great antiquity. Talagunda temple is one of the oldest among the Shiva shrines of India.
People 59

Shankaracharya (788-820) visited Karnataka and the Sringeri Peetha is one of the four mathas
believed to have been founded by him in India. He preached the doctrine of Monism or Advaita,
according to which Brahman or the Supreme Being alone is real and the universe is illusiory or
Maya. He advised people to worship any of the six deities, Shiva, Vishnu, Shakti, Kartikeya,
Ganapathi or Surya. In addition to Sringeri, Shankara Mathas were also founded later at Kudali,
Shivaganga, Avani and Sankeshwara in Karnataka. Many groups of Brahamanas like the
Badagandu, Mulukanadu, Babburakamme, Hoysala Karnataka, Uluchukamme, Kota, Karade and
Chitpavan are adherents of the school of Shankara in Karnataka.
Veerashaivism is a full blown offshoot of earlier Shaivism. Five Acharyas had earlier taught
this cult. It was popularised by Basava (circa 1131-1167) the Treasurer of Kalachuri Bijjala of
Kalyana), Basava and his contemporaries preached their religion in Kannada. The Veerashaiva
teachers preached through Vachanas
(poetic-prose) and they propagated the worship
of Shiva and the leading of a life of morality and
condemned social evils like caste differences
and untouchability. Basava stressed the dignity
of labour by his statement ‘Kayakave Kailasa’,
( ‘worship through work’) and wanted every
Veerashaiva to follow some useful profession to
earn his livelihood. Jedara Dasimayya and
Ekantada Ramayya, two saints who had
preceded Basava, and contemporaries of Basva
like Allama Prabhu, Channabasava,
Siddaharama, Madivala Machayya (a
washerman), Kakkayya (a cobbler), Hadapada
Appanna (a barber) and women like
Akkamahadevi, Akkanagamma, Neelambika
and Muktayakka were among those who
composed Vachanas, and propounded the
philosophy. The Veerashaivas are a major
section of people and are recognised by the
Ishtalinga they wear on their body. The practice
of ‘dasoha’ led to the starting of free hostels by
the Veerashaiva Mathas and in the long run
educational institution. The Veerashaivas are
rendering yeoman services to the field of education in the state.
Natha Pantha, believed to be a blend of Mahayana Buddhism and Shaivism, was also popular
in Karnataka. Natha Pantha M athas are found in many parts of Karnataka begining from Handi
Badaganath in Belgaum District to Kadre and Vittal in Dakshina Kannada. Adichunchangiri in
Mandya was once a centre of this cult. Dattatreya worship (influenced by the Natha Pantha) is a
popular cult in Karnataka. Narashima Saraswathi (1378-1455) believed to be an ‘avatara’ of
Dattatreya had visited Bidar and is described to have cured Bahamani Sultan, Allaudin of some
serious sickness. Ganagapur in Gulbarga district, Kurugadda in Raichur District and Baba Budangiri
in Chikamagalur district are notable centres of Dattatreya worship in Karnataka.
Another form o f Shaivism that was and is popular in Karnataka is the worship of M ailara and
his consort Malachi (M alaw a). Centres of this worship are found at Khanapur in Bidar District,
Mailara in Bellary district, Adi and Mangsuli in Belgaum district, Guddadaguddapur in Dharwad
60 A Handbook o f Karnataka

district and Bellur in Mandya District. Promoters of this cult, wearing red robes and a cap made of
bear skin are found even today and are called Goravas or Vaggayyas.
Vaishnavism in another oM religion of
Karnataka. Some of the early Ganga rulers were
also Vaishnavas. Ramanuja (1017-1137) who
was born in Tamil Nadu, came to Karnataka
during the beginning of the twelfth century.
Ramanuja taught qualified monism or
Vishishtadwaitha. Vishnu is the Supreme Deity,
accompained by his consort Lakshmi and she
represents Divine grace. Lakshmi is the
mediator between God and men and that is why
this religion is called Srivaishvanism. Ramanuja
initiated people of all castes into his sect and
even admitted the ‘untouchables’ into the
temples on specified days in a year and he made
a beginning in the direction of the emancipation
of the untouchables. Many fine Vaishanava
temples including the one at Belur of the
Hoysalas were constructed during this time.
Melkote has a famous temple graced by
Ramanuja’s presence, and Mysore City has the
famous Parakala matha of this cult. After
Ramanuja came Acharya Madhwa (1238-1317)
who was born at Belle near Udupi. He preached
the philosophy of Dualism or Dwaita and
worship of Vishnu, who is the Supreme Diety
according to him. The teachings of both
Ramanuja and Madhwa, who propounded
Bhakti (devotion) gave an impetus to the Bhakti
Movement of North India. He founded the
Krishna Matha at Udupi and also started eight
Mathas to conduct the worship of the Lord in
turns. Uttaradi M atha at Hospet and
Raghavendra Brindavana at M antralaya in
Andhara Pardesh are other noted centres of this
religion.
Worship of Shakti or the Mother Deity is
found in various forms in different parts of the
State. Most of the villages have village deities
who are believed to protect villages. The
epidemics like cholera, small pox, plague etc.,
are believed to be caused by the anger of the
Mother Deities. These deities are alsc sailed
Gramadevatas under different names like
Maramma, Malagamma, Yellamma,
Madhwacharya Renukamma, Durgamma, Dyamavva and
People 61

Kalikadevi in different parts of the state. A village deity is often represented by an image, a shapeless
stone or some other symbol and in many places, She has a shrine built for Her. There can be vooden
images also, some of them gaily painted. Blood sacrifice was also offered to these deities. Yeilamma
at Saudatti, Kolaramma at Kolar, Marikamba at Sirsi, Mayakka at Chinchli (Belgaum District) and
Chandralamba at Sannati are some notable centres of such deities. The Jatra of Madduramma at
Huskur (where the priests are from the Scheduled Castes) near Bangalore is attended by scores of
thousands.

B uddhism : Buddhism was popular in Karnataka from the time of Ashoka. It is believed that
Ashoka had sent his Buddhist missioneries to Banavasi. Hiuen-Tsiang who visited Karnataka in
about 640 says that Banavasi country had hundreds of Viharas. At Sannati (Gulbar^a District)
remains of Stupas of Shatavahana times have been unearthed. There are Buddhist monuments of
Chalukyan times at Badami and Aihole in Bijapur district. Tarabhagavati images ha\ -- been found
at Belgavi (Shimoga Dt) and Koliwada (Dharwad Dt). Many, Buddhist remains were unearthed in
and around Hampi. Some of the centres of Buddhist worship as in Kadire later were converted into
centres of Shaiva worship and Manjushre became Manjunatha. They came under the influence of
the Natha Panthis. There are wonderful 10th Century bronze images at Kadhv which include
Lokeshwara. There is Mahabodi Society at Bangalore active both in social and spiritual activities.

Jainism: Jainism has been an important religion of Karnataka and it has contributed quite
substantially to the culture of Karnataka. Bhadrabahu, the last Shrutakevalin, migrated to Karnataka
with a large number of followers including a Maurya prince and spei : his last years at
Shravanabelgola. The Gangas highly patronised
Jainism, and famous Gomata monolith at
Shravanabelgola was erected (Circa 982) by
Chavundaraya noted scholar and Ganga general.
Bastis were built at Shravanabelgola, Manne
and Kambadahalli during the Ganga rule. There
were Jaina scholars like Pujyapada (Devanandi)
and Kundakunda in the Ganga court and
Kannada authors Nemichandra and
Chavundaraya were also Jains. The Kadambas,
the Rashtrakutas, and Chalukyas of Kalyana
were the great patrons of Jainism. Great
mathematician Mahavira, the earliest Kannada
poets Srivijaya, Pampa, Ponna and Ranna were
Jains. Gomata monoliths were erected at
Gommatagiri in Hunsur Taluk (Mysore district),
Karkala (1432), Venuru (1603) and recently at
Dharmasthala (1982) in Dakshina Kannada
District. The Jains in Karnataka are mostly
followers of the Digambara sect and Swetamabaras came in recent years from Gujarat and Rajasthan
mainly to trade and are found mostly in commercial towns and cities.
62 A Handbook o f Karnataka

Sikhism: Sikhism also has left its imprint on Karnataka. Guru Nanak is believed to have visited
Bidar and there is Guru Nanak Jhira Sahib in his memory. One of the close disciples (Panch Piyares)
of Guru Govind, Bhai Sahib Chand (later known as Sahib Singh), a barber, was from Bidar and he
was among the five who were initiated to the Khalsa. Considerable number of Sikhs took service
uuder Hyder and Tipu and many have come and settled down in the cities of Karnataka in recent
decades. There are Gurudwaras at Bangalore and Hubli.

Gurudwara, Bangalore

Islam : Islam entered Karnataka soon after its propogation in Arabia as Arabs were trading at
the ports of Karnataka. Some of the Arabs had settled on the West Coast, and inscriptions speak of
them as Tajjikas. As testified by Sanjan plates, the Rashtrakutas had a Tajjika Governor and Arab
travellers also speak of Muslims settlements in the major commercial centres of Rashtrakuta empire.
Their guild called Hanjamana (Anjuman) is mentioned in the records of the Kadambas of Goa,
Alupas of Dakshina Kannada and of Vijayanagara. The Navayats and the Mapilles (Moplas) are the
Muslims from Karnataka Coast, who follow the Shaft sect like the Arabs. The Afghans, Turks,
Persians etc., are called Dakhni Muslims, who speak Urdu and belong to Hanafi sect. Islam
introduced the Persian and the Arabic languages into Karnataka and Dakhni Urdu also developed
in the South. Fine Indo-Sarasenic monuments at Gulbarga, Bidar, Bijapur, Sira and Srirangapatna
have the pride of place in the history of the arts of Karnataka. The Sufi sect is also popular in
Karnataka and the tomb of Bande Nawaz Gesu Daravaz at Gulbarga is higly venerated by all. The
Sufi received royal patronage by Bahmani rulers and they were active at Gulbarga, Bidar and
People 63

Bijapur. The Muslims introduced coffee, paper industry and agarbatti (joss stick) industry into
Karnataka. Tipu introduced sericulture.

Christianity: With the advent of the Portugese, Catholic Christians entered Karnataka.
Portugese founded their factories at Mangalore, Kundapura and Honavar where they also tried to
secure converts to their religion, in the days of Vijayanagara. Inquisition, epidemics and famine
forced many Catholic Christians to leave Goa and enter Karnataka and Keladi rulers encouraged
their migration as the Christians had acquired new techniques of agriculture and animal husbandry.
Keladi Channamma granted a site to build a chruch at Mangalore. During the beginning of the 19th
century, Protestant missions like the Basel Mission, the London Mission and the Wesleyan Mission
entered Karnataka. The London Mission was first founded at Bellary in 1810 and from there they
came to Bangalore in 182Q. The Wesleyans started their activities in princely Mysore from 1821
and the Basel Mission started its activity in Mangalore in 1834 and later spread to other places like
Dharwad, Hubli, Haveri and Gadag. The Basel Mission started the first Kannada news paper,
‘Mangalura Samachara’ in 1843 and printed Kannada classics which were found written on palm
leaves. Both Catholics and Protestants popularised English education in Karnataka by opening
schools at Mangalore, Madikeri, Bangalore, Bellary and Belgaum. They also took up service in the
field of healing and ran many hospitals.
64 A Handbook o f Karnataka

St. Philomena’s Church, Mysore

Modern Religious Movements: The modern religious movements like Brahama Samaj, Arya
Samaj, Theosophical Society, Ramakrishna Mission, Chinmaya Mission and Prajapitha Brahma
Kumari Ishwariya Vishwavidyalaya have influenced the life of Karnataka by starting their activities
in the State. The Theosophical Society started functioning in the State in 1886 with its first Lodge
at Bangalore City followed by Bangalore Cantonment Lodge in the same year and subsequently it
started its branches in various places like Mangalore (1901) andDharwad (1902). The Ramakrishna
Mission was first started at Bangalore in 1904 followed by one at Mysore in 1927. Swamy
Vivekananda had visited Belgaum and Mysore in 1892 and the then Mysore ruler Chamaraja
Wodeyar extended financial help to Swamy Vivekananda for his journey to Chicago. A trusted
follower of Vivekananda, Alasinga Perumal (1865-1909) was from Chikmagalur and he founded
the journaTBrahmavadin’ from Madras at the Swamy’s instance.

Brahama Samaj opened its first branch in Karnataka at Mangalore in 1870 followed by
branches at Bangalore and Mysore. Kudmul Ranga Rao, who started Depressed Classes Mission at
Mangalore in 1897 was influenced by Brahma Samaj. Sir Narayan Chandavarkar of the Prarthana
Samaj hailed from Honavar in Uttara Kannada.

Arya Samaj was started functioning in Mysore State by early 1880s and a branch was opened
at Bangalore in 1922 and Mangalore in 1919. The modern religious movements have not only played
 Western G ha t Hitiy Range, n ear Chikmagalur.

M onolithic Granire boss, near Lingum gur Tank. Raichur Dist.

Sundur Hilis and Valleys, Beiiary Dist.

Yana Limestone and Dolomite Knobs.

M ushroom Rock in K olur Dist.
Natural Granite arch at Koppal, Raichur Dist.
 Binaga Beach.

St. Mary Island Columnar Basalt.

la,i,1 halls.
 Pair o f Timers.

Crocodile at Ranganthittu, near Srirangapattana

 Family o f Elephant

S p o t t e d P eer, Handipur.
P a i n t e d s t o r k f a m i l y . K o k k r e h c H u r at M t i n d v a Disi
Red Wattled Lapwing, Ranganathittu.
Weaver Bird.
M ay flower

Coffee fruits.
 Ditrga Temple, Auu>le, Bijapur Dist.

V idyashimkara temple, Sm igcrt, i'htkt !m Dist.

A Scene o f Hum pi ruins, Bellary Dist.

C h i t r u d u r hurt.
Ibrahim Rauza, Bijapur.
 Gagiui Mahal, Bijapur.

Gumbaz- Tombs o f lly tk r Ah, & Tipu Sutkm. S r i m n g u p a t M M .

People 65

an important role in social reforms such as work against untouchability and emancipation of women
but also in promotion of moral education. Men like Sir Sheshadri Iyer, the Dewan of Mysore was
influenced by these movements and enacted laws aimed at social reform.

Festivals and Fairs

The Hindus have several religious holy days, occasions of festivals and fasts throughout the
year. Some of the important festivals for Hindus are: New Year Day or Ugadi (the first day of
Chaitra month); Ramanavami (the birth day of Lord Rama, the ninth day of Chaiira); Basava
Jayanthi the birth day of Basaweshwara (Akshayatritiya); Shankara Jayanthi, birth day of Acharya
Shankara (Vaishakha Shuddha Panchami); Kara Hunnime (full moon day of Jyestha. a festival for
peasants); Ashadha Ekadashi (the elventh day of the bright half of Ashadha); Bheemana Amavaysa
(New Moon day of Ashadha); Nagapanchami the festival of Serpent God (on the fifth day of
Sharavana); Gokulashtami, the birth day of Lord Krishna (the eight day of the dark fortnight of
Shravana); Ganesh Chaturthi (fourth day of the bright half of Bhadrapada when God Ganesh is
worshipped); Navarathri or Dasara (first ten days of Ashweeja Masa); Deepavali (thirteenth day of
dark half of Ashvija) and the festival of light and day to worship Goddess of Wealth Lakshmi (lasts
for five days); Bhogi and Makara Sankranthi (on the 13th and 14th January, respectively);
Mahashivaratri (13th or the 14th day of the dark fortnight of Magha, a festival in honour of God
Shiva); and Holi or Kamana Habha, marking the death of Kama (God of Love) on the full moon
day of Phalguna, marked in places with much noise and gay abandon.

In many places, Navarathri is also celebrated as Nada Habba (National festival) and in Mysore,
on Vijayadashmi day (the victorious tenth day), the statue of Goddess Chammundeshvari is taken
in a colourful procession to Bannimantapa with all pomp and pageantry, consisting of tableaux of
historical episodes, infantry, mounted horses, Bharat Scouts and Girl Guides, N.C.C., Bharat Seva
Dal etc. Rama Navami and Ganesh Chaturthi are marked by public celebrations accompained by
speeches and dance and music recitals. Kodavas have three important festivals like Koil Mahurta,
Cauvery Sankramana and Huthri (harvest festival).

The chief Muslim festivals are Id-ul-fitar or breaking the fast, which marks the conclusion of
Ramazan; Idul-ul-Zuha or Bakrid which is held on the ninth day of the month called Zil-hajah; and
the Shab-e-Barat which is celebrated during the evening of the fifteenth day of the month of Shaban.
Moharram is celebrated publicly in many places by honouring symbols called tahuLs.

The Christians observe the New Year day, Good Friday, Feast of St. Joseph, Easter Sunday
(the Day of Resurrection), birth day of Mary, Christmas (the birth day of Christ), Ascension day,
Thanks giving, Harvest festival and chruch anniversary.

The Jains celebrate most of the Hindu festivals in their own way and according to their own
tradition and they give importance for fasting, praying and hearing the recitation of the religious
texts. Some of the important festivals observed by them are Chaitra Pratipad (Ugadi) to
commemorate the victorious Digvijaya of Bharata, son of Teerathankara Adinatha (Vrishabhadeva);
Mahavira Jayanthi (Chairtra Shukla Trayodashi); Dasara (Vijayadashami is believed to be the date
when Adinatha attained Kevala Jnana or enlightment and the date when his son Bharatha secured
his disc Chakraratna); Deepavali (celebrated as the date of Mahanirvana of Mahavira and they
worship Lakshmi, as Mukthi Lakshmi and Jnana Lakshmi) and Shivaratri (clebrated as Jinaratri as
Adinatha is believed to have attained salvation on the dark 14th of Magha).
66 A H an dbo ok o f Karnataka

T h e Si kh o bs e rv e G u r u N a n a k ’s birth da y o f K ar teeka P o u r n i m a and G u r u d w a r a i na u g u r a ti on

d a y at N a n a k Jhira, Bidar wi th e n t h u s i a s m and p o m p with ‘a k ha n d p a t h a n ’ o f G u r u G r a n t h Sahi b.
Kirtan and S a t s a n g attract a large n u m b e r o f Sikhs from m a n y places.

Jatras: E v e r y year, the Jatras (fairs) are held in h o n o u r o f village deities ( g r a m a d e v a t ha s )

g e ne r al ly after the h ar ves t takes place. In Hi ndu templ es. M u s l i m s da rg ah s, Jain bastis a nd in other
holy places o f w o r s h i p p eo p l e celebrat e aim a I festivals. M e n , w o m e n , p eo pl e o f rural a nd urban
areas take part in these Jatras wi t h full e n t h u s i a s m wi t h ou t the di sc ri mi na ti on o f caste, c r ee d and
religion. Itinerary M e r c h a n t s open their stalls to sell items like toys, sweet s, sarees, vessels, b a n gl e s
and other i tems d u r i n g these Jatras. Cat tl e lairs are also held in m a n y pla ce s d ur i ng the Jatras and
t hese are the ce nt r es o f large trade and c o m m e r c e . Jatras p r o m o t e social and r eli gi ous h a r m o n y
a m o n g v a r i o u s sect ions o f the society.

A list of some important Jatras and U ruses their time in the year is given
below, districtwise

D eity/Saint in No. Apprr/.xi-

M on th* whose honour She nuite
jatra is held days alt -
dance

1 2 3 4 5

B a n g a lo r e dt.
B a n g a l o re Ap r. D harm araya 1 5 la k h s
(K araga)

Bangalore No v. Basavanna ! 50,000

( G r o u n d n u t fair)

K u m ;u a s h a ila , I l a n u m a n t h a n a g a r , A u g. K um ar asw am y 3 3 lak h s

Bangalore

l l u s k u r , A n e k a l tq. F e b . M ar. M adduram m a 1 40,000

Magadi Apr . R anganatha Sw am y 1 1 lakh

M e l m a j u g a n a h a l h , D o d d a b a l l a p u r tq Dec. Ghati S u b ra m a n y a 1 1 lakh

S w a n iy

B e lg a u m dt.
P an lh B a le k u n d r i , B e l g a u m tq. Oct. D a t t a M a h a ra j 3 25,000
Saundatti A p r. M a y Y e l l a m m a D ev i M ore
N o v. Dec. than
(B i-annual) 1 lak h .

H am li B a d a g a n a l h a , K h a n a p u r tq. Feb. K alabhairava 2 50,000

(S h i v a ra t r i )

C h m c h l i . R a ib a g tq. Feb. M ayakka 1 1 lak h

* Hie m o n t h sli g h t l y v a r i e s w h e r e l u n a r T ith i is f o l lo w e d .

People 67

1 2 3 4 5

Bellary dt.
Mailara, Hadagalli tq. Apr. Mailaralinga 4 2 lakhs
Swamy
Hampi, Hospet tq. Feb. Virupaksha Swamy 4 2 lakhs
Bellary Feb. Malleshwara 7 80,000
Swamy
Kurugodu, Bellary tq. Apr. Basaveshwara 2 50,000
Sandur Nov. Kumara Swamy 4 20,000
Yeshavantanagar, Sandur tq. Apr. Siddarameshwara 2 50,000
Kottur, Kudligi tq. Jan. Feb. Basaveshvara 4 50,000

Bidar dt.
Basavakalyan (Shawwal) Hazrat Syed 5 25,000
Tajuddin Bagsawar
Urus
Basvakalyan Apr. May Ba-iaveshvara 3 50,000
Humaabad Dec Veerabhadra 7 30,000

Bijapur dt.
Bijapur Jan. Feb. Siddheshwara 8 30,000
Sivayogamandir, Badami tq. Jan. Feb. Hanagal Kumara 4 50,000
Swamy
1
Chikmagalur dt.
Inam Dattatreya Peetha, Mar. Dattareya-Baba- -3 25,000
Chikmagalur tq. budan
; *■
Antaraghatta, Tarikere tq. Feb. Durgamba or 10 1 lakhs
Antaraghattamma

Chitradurga dt.
Nayakanahatti, Challakere tq. Mar. Guru Thippe 15 45,000
Rudra Swamy
Davangere March (once Duggamma or 1 80,000
in 3 years) Durgamma
Elebethur, Davangere tq. Jan. (once Marikamba 1 80,000
in 3 years)

Dakshina Kannada dt.

Dharmasthala Nov. Manjunatheshwara 3 1,00,000
Udupi Jan. Once Lord Krishna 7 50,000
in 2 years Paryaya
Kollur, Kundapur tq. Nov. Mookambika 10 1,00,000
Subrahmanya. Sullia tq. Dec. Subrahmanya 1 25,000

Dharwad dt.
Shishuvinal, Shiggaon tq. Mar. Shishunal Shariff 1 20,000
68 A Handbook o f Karnataka

1 2 3 4 5

Guddaguddapur, Ranebennur tq. Sep. Oct. Mailara 2 25,000

Lingeshwara
Yamanur, Navalgund tq. Mar. Apr. Raja Bagh Savar 1 20,000
Urus
Dharwad Aug. Ulvi Basavanna 1 30,000
Dharwad Feb. Murugendra 1 30,000
Swamy
Gadag Apr. Thontada 1 20,000
Siddhalingeshwara
Mukti Mandira, Dharmakshetra, Feb. Dharma 7 More
Shirahatti tq. (Shivaratri) Rathotsava than
1 lakh
Hubli Feb. Siddharudha 1 lakh

Gulbarga dt.
Gulbarga Mar. Sharana 15 1 lakh
Basaveshvara
Gulbarga Zekhaida Khaja Bande 3 1 lakh
Nawaz
Diggi, Shahapur tq. Aug. Sangamanath 3 50,000
Ganagapur (Deval) Afzalpur tq. Feb. Dattatreya 5 50,000

H assan dt.
Shravanabelagola (Once in 12 Mahamastaka- 13 2-3
Channarayapatna tq. years) bhtaheka of lakhs
Gomaieshwara
%
Kodagu dt.
Bhagamandala, Madikeri tq. Oct. Nov. Cauvery 2 20,000

K olar dt.
Thoranahally, Malur tq. Jan. Sappalamma 10 30,000

Avani, Mulbagal tq. Feb. Ramalingeshwara 10 30,000

Swamy
Thalakayalibetta, Sidlaghatta tq. Feb. Venkataramana 10 25,000
Swamy
Nandi, Chikaballapur tq. Feb. Bhoga and Yoga 7 40,000
Nandeeswara
Doddakurugodu, (Viduraswatha) Apr. Viduranarayana 8 40,000
Gouribidanur tq Swamy
Devaragudipalli, Bagepalli tq. May Gadadam Venkata- 16 30,000
ramana

Mandya dt.
Melkote, Pandavapur tq. Mar. Apr. Chaluvaraya Swamy 6 20,000
(Vairamudi Utsava)
Adichunchanagiri, Nagamangala tq. Jan. Feb. Bhairava Swamy 10 30,000
People 69

Srirangapattana Jan. Ranganatha Swamy 25.000

M ysore dt.
Chamundi Hills, Mysore Oct. Chamundeshwari 3 50.000
(Teppotsava and
Car Festival)
Talakadu, T.Narasipur tq. Nov. Dec. Panchalinga 7 2 lakhs
(once in 12 Darshana
Years)
Mahadeshwara Hills, Kollegal tq. Oct. Nov. Malai 7 1 lakh1
Mahadeshwara
Nanjangud Mar. Apr. Srikanteshwara 15 75.000
Mudukuthore, T.Narasipur tq. Feb. Mar. Mallikarjuna 3 25.000
Swamy

Raichur dt.
Raichur Aug. Syed Shams Alam 1 50.000
Hussain Ali Urus
Devarbhupur, Lingasugur tq. Feb. Mar. Amareshwara 1 50.000
Koppal Jun. Gavisiddheshwara 5 20.000
Kuknur May Gudneshwara 1 50.000

Shimoga dt.
Shimoga Apr. Kote Anjaneya 3 20.000
Islapura, Shimoga tq. Jan. Guddakal 2 80,000
Siddeshwara
Pillangere, Shimoga tq. July Venkataramana 1 30.000
Sagar Jan.(Once in Marikamba 9 40.000
3 years)
Humcha, Hosanagar tq. Mar. Padmavati and 1 10.000
Parshwanatha
Swamy

Tuntkur dt.
Siddaganga, Tumkur Feb. Siddhab ngesh wara 10 50.000
Yadiyur, Kunigal tq. Apr, Siddhalingsehwara 7 50.000

Utiara Kannada dt.

Sirsi Mar. (once Marikamba Devi 7 1 lakh
in 2 years)
Sonda (Swadi), Sirsi tq. May Vadiraja 5 25.000
Ulvi, Supa tq. Jan. Feb. Channaba.save- 8 50.000
shwara
Gokarna, Kumta tq. Mar. Mahabaleshwara 1 50.000
[Shivaratri]
 Chapter IV
AGRICULTURE AND ALLIED ACTIVITIES
Agriculture provides the main economic support to the State. The importance Karnataka had
given to agriculture is indicated by the statement of famous Kannada poet Sarvajnya who says that
meti vidye (agricultural science) is superior to Koti vidye (millions of other sciences). The same poet
further states that together with meti (agricultural implement), rati (spinning wheel) must also turn
without stop. This shows that Karnataka had its peasants, specially women, also engaged in spinning
as a part time vocation. This has been testified to by many records including travellers like Buchanan
(1800) who says that a full- time worker engaged in spinning earned as much as a farm labourer.
But Industrial Revolution in England and the tariff policy in Britain resulted in India being reduced
to an agricultural country by ruining its weaving industry and other crafts. Consequently those
engaged in those crafts had to fall back on agriculture, depending on the limited land available.

In historical times, Karnataka was famous for its rice, ragi and jowar crops and rice was a
major export from its coastal ports. Spices like pepper, cardamom, cinnamon, nutmeg, ginger etc.,
were also grown in plenty, some of them being wild crops. Literary and epigraphical sources speak
of its rich rice fields and plantations of coconut, areca and plantains. Ibn Batuta, in 1347, says that
the coastal area had very rich rice fields and in their centre were houses surrounded by a garden of
flower plants and fruit trees. "These dominions are well cultivated and very fertile" says Domingo
Paes who visited Vijayanagara empire during the first part of the 16th century. "This land has plenty
of rice and Indian corn, grains, beans and other kinds of crops which are not sown in our parts; also
infinity of cotton. O f the grains there is a great quantity because besides being used as food for men,
it is also used for horses, since there is no other kind of barley, and this country has also much
wheat, and that good" Paes adds.

The Portuguese introduced maize, tobacco, groundnut, potato, chillies and tomato from the
New World and Karnataka could get the knowledge of these new crops early due to its proximity
to Goa, and further Goan Christian farmers migrated to Karnataka in good number, especially to
the coastal and Malnad area. Buchanan held in 1800 that the rice grounds here were more "neatly
cultivated" than in Malabar.

The British introduced long fibred American cotton in India and especially in Bombay
Karnataka. The Cotton Boom of the American Civil War days (1860s) gave an unprecedented fillip
to cotton cultivation. Coffee plantations were raised on a large scale by the British during the 19th
century.

Though the rulers of Karnataka paid much attention to irrigation, especially tanks, irrigated
area did not exceed five per cent before the major irrigation works were taken up in our own times.

Agriculture at present is the main source of food for the population and fodder for the cattle
besides being the source of livelihood for nearly 65 per cent of the population. Agricultural holdings,
farm implements, irrigation works and livestock represent the largest fixed capital in the State.

About 69 per cent of total population live in rural areas in the State as against 73.9 per cent
in the country. About 38.5 per cent of total population were main workers as against 34.2 per cent
in the country. Among main workers 34.2 per cent were cultivators, 28.9 per cent were agricultural
labourers and 3.6 per cent were engaged in livestock, forestry, fishing, plantations and allied
Agriculture and Allied Activities 71

activities. In Karnataka, the work participation rate of female (29.3) is higher than in the country
(22.7) as a whole. But this rate is higher in Andhra Pradesh (34.8), Tamil Nadu (30.9) and
Maharashtra (33).

In Karnataka, the cropped area is recorded survey-number wise in Rights, Tenancy and Crop
Inspection (RTC) by the village Accountants. During 1991-92, out of the total reporting area of 191
lakh ha, 65 per cent was the gross cropped area which included net area sown and area sown more
than once. Net area sown was 56.2 per cent. Fallow land accounted for 7.4 per cent. Area under
forests formed 16.1 per cent. Land not available for cultivation constituted 10.5 per cent. Other
uncultivated land excluding fallows was 9.8 per cent. The net sown area was 107.4 lakh ha in the
State as against 1,358.8 lakh ha in the country. Area available for crop growth in the State was 65.9
per cent of reporting area as against 59.4 per cent of reporting area for the country. The State income
from Agriculture (average of 1986-89) at current prices was Rs. 4,745 crores as against Rs. 82,191
crores for the country. The proportion of income originating from agriculture is 35% as compared
to 30 per cent in the country. The per ha average value added amounts to Rs.4,014 for the State and
Rs. 4,646 for the country. The per capita (rural) income from Agriculture was Rs.l ,797 for the State
and Rs. 1,564 for the country. '

According to 1990-91 Agricultural census, the total number of operational holdings in the State
was 57.76 lakhs and area operated was 123.31 lakh ha. Marginal holdings ( <1 ha) accounted for a
large share (39.2 per cent) in the total holdings followed by small holdings (1-2 ha)-27.5 per cent,
semi-medium holdings (2-4 ha)- 20.1 per cent, medium (4-10 h a )-ll per cent and large holdings
(>10 ha)- 2.2 per cent. The marginal holdings which accounted for about 39 per cent of the total
holdings had a share of hardly 9 per cent of the total operated area whereas the large holdings which
accounted for about 2 per cent of the total holdings had a large share of 16 per cent of the total
operated area. The average size of the holding in the State was 2.13 ha. The number of operational
holdings of Scheduled Caste was 6.38 lakhs and Scheduled Tribes was 2.83 lakhs. The operational
holdings of Scheduled Castes accounted for 11 per cent of all holdings, had a share of only 8.1 per
cent in the total operated area. The holdings of Scheduled Tribes which accounted for 4.9 per cent
of the total holdings had a share of 5 per cent of total operated area.

Agriculture in the State is mainly dependent on rainfall as more than 70 to 75 per cent of area
depends wholly or partially on rainfall for crop production. The rainfall is not evenly distributed
across the area as well as over time, and this gives rise to low productivity in rainfed agriculture.
South-West (June to September) and North-East (October to December) monsoons are the important
sources of rains. South-West Monsoon constitutes nearly 70 per cent of annual rainfall. During
1991- 92, seasonwise normal and actual rainfall in mm is as follows : South West monsoon - 846.6;
893, North East monsoon -199.5; 195, Cold Weather period (January to February)-4.8; nil, and Hot
Weather period (March to M a y )-137.7; 96. As regards the distribution of net area sown under rain
fall regions in the State, 66.3 per cent of the area is distributed under low rainfall region and 24.3
per cent of area under medium rainfall region.

The different soils in the State have distinct, varying morphological and physico-chemical
properties that have an influence on the unique status of the soils. The extent of coverage of different
types of soils is as follows : 1) Shallow black soils (1.3%), 2) Medium black soils (20.34%), 3)
Deep black soils (10.25%), 4) Red sandy soils (29.27%), 5) Mixed red and black soils (11.82%), 6)
Red loamy soils (15.14%), 7) Laterite soils and laterite gravelly soils (9.3%) and Coastal alluvial
soils (2.58%).
72 A Handbook o f Karnataka

Category - wise Land use in the State is outlined for selected years in the following table.

Table No. 4.1 Land in Utilisation in Karnataka - 1955-56 to 1990-91 in 000 ha.

1955-56 1960-61 1970-71 1980-81 1990-91 1991-92

1. Forest 2,707.0 2,708.8 2,890.4 3,033.1 3,074.3 3,074.8

(14.6) (14.4) (15.26) (15.92) (16.14) (16.14)
2. Land put to 853.4 811.6 937.0 1,066.5 1,188.7 1,191.6
non-agril. use (4.6) (4.3) (4.95) (5.60) (6.24) (6.26)
3. Barren and 844.0 922.8 839.2 844.3 798.6 801.1
uncultivable land (4.5) (4.9) (4.43) (4.43) (4.19) (4.21)
4. Cultivable waste 620.5 656.2 615.2 502.4 446.2 445.2
(3.3) (3.5) (3.25) (2.64) (2.34) (2-34)
5. Permanent pastures 1.744.1 1,739.0 1,619.1 1,345.7 1,097.8 1,096.7
and other grazing land. (9.4) (9.3) (8.55) (7.06) (5.76) (5.76)
6. Land under Misc. 373.9 366.4 310.9 342.5 316.7 315.9
tree crops & groves (2.0) (2.0) (1.64) (1.80) (1.66) (1.66)
7. Current fallows 669.1 834.6 811.1 1,458.7 1,289.7 983.9
(3.6) (4.4) (4.27) (7.66) (6.77) (5.17)
8. Other fallow land 665.5 513.1 672.1 557.9 457.3 411.1
(3.6) (2.7) (3.55) (2.93) (2.40) (2.26)

9. Net area sown 10,065.1 10,228.4 10,248.1 9,898.6 10,380.7 10.709.5

(54.4) (54.5) (54.1) (51.96) (54.49) (56.22)

10. Total cropped area. 10,397.6 10,587.7 ■ 10,886.7 10,660.0 11,759.0 12..393

11. Total Geographical 18,542.6 18,980,1 18,942.9 19,049.8 19,049.8 19,049.8

area a) village papers (100) . (100) (100)
b) professional 19,188.0 19,190.1 19,134.5 19,179.1 19,179.1 19,179.1

Source : Directorate o f Economics and Statistics.

Cropping Pattern
In Karnataka cropped area is recorded survey numberwise in RTC (Record of Rights, Tenancy
and Crop Inspection) by the Village Accountant and consolidated at village, at taluk and district
levels. Major crops grown are grouped as cereals, pulses, oilseeds and cash crops. Out of 12,411,000
hectares of total gross cropped area during 1992-93,4-5.86% of the area was under cereals, 13.37%
under pulses, 24.32% under oilseeds and 8% under cotton and sugarcane crops. The remaining 8.5%
of the area was under other crops.

Area under cereals has decreased from 6,273,000 hectares during 1960-61 to 56,92,000
hectares during 1992-93. During the same period, area under pulses increased from 1,306 to 1,660
thousand hectares. The area under oilseeds registered an increase of 1,526 thousand hectares from
1,247 to 2,773 thousand hectares. The total (gross) cropped area has been increased from 10,588 to
12,411 thousand hectares.
Agriculture and Allied Activities 73

Paddy, jowar, ragi, maize, bajra and wheat are the cereal crops grown in the State. Ragi, paddy
and jowar occupy about 80% of the area under cereals. Cereal crops are largely grown in Bijapur,
Gulbarga, Raichur, Belgaum, Dharwad, Bellary, Chitradurga and Mysore districts. Redgram and
Bengal gram are tfte major pulse crops which occupy about 45% of the area under pulses. Pulses are
largely grown in Gulbarga, Bijapur, Bidar and Dharwad districts. Groundnut and sunflower are the
important oilseed crops which occupy about 80% of the area under oilseeds. Oilseeds are largely
grown in Bijapur, Gulbarga, Raichur, Dharwad, Chitradurga and Tumkur districts. Cotton is
predominantly grown in Dharwad, Raichur, Bellary and Belgaum districts which occupy about 75%
of the area under the crop. Sugarcane is largely grown in Belgaum, Mandya and Bijapur districts.

Paddy is one of the major cereal crops of the State. It is predominantly grown in Shimoga,
Dakshina Kannada, Uttara Kannada, Raichur, Mysore and Dharwad districts. It was grown in 13.17
lakh ha during 1992-93. Area under this crop increased from 8.78 (1955-56) to 13.17 lakh ha
(1992-93). It is cultivated in all the three seasons i.e kharif (84%), rabi (4%) and summer (12%).
About 8.55 lakh ha of paddy area was under irrigation and 72% of area under paddy was sown with
high yielding varieties. The yield in kg per hectare under irrigated conditions is 4,238 and unirrigated
condition is about 2,641.

Jowar is another major cereal crop grown largely in northern districts. Gulbarga, Raichur,
Belgaum, Dharwad, Bellary and Bidar districts account for nearly 90% of the area under the crop.
About 23.06 lakh ha of area was under this crop during 1992-93. About 70% of the area under this
crop was grown in rabi season alone. Only 1.54 lakh hectares of this area was irrigated. About 26%
of the area under this crop was sown with hybrid varieties. The yield obtained from the irrigated
crop is 1,877 kg/ha while the yield got under unirrigated crop is only 807 kg/ha.

Ragi is largely grown in southern districts of the State. Predominant ragi growing districts are
Bangalore Rural, Tumkur, Hassan, Chitradurga, Mysore, Kolar and Mandya. About 19.8% of the
area under cereals was shared by ragi crop. About 10.38 lakh ha of area w'as under this crop during
1992-93, Only eight per cent of area was irrigated. About 87% of area was sown with high- yielding
varieties. The average yield per ha from rainfed crop is 15.5 quintals.

Maize and bajra occupied 3.75 and 3.15 lakh ha respectively during i 992-93. These two crops
together account for 13% of area under cereals. These two crops are largely grown in northern
districts of the State. Wheat, another important food crop, is grown in the rabi season. It is also
largely grown in northern districts of the State. About 2.24 lakh ha of area was under this crop
during 1992-93.

Redgram (tur) is one of the major pulse crop grown in the Kharif season in the State. Gulbarga,
Raichur and Bidar districts accounted for 70% of the area under this crop in the State. It is mainly
grown in rainfed areas. About 4.82 lakh ha of area was under this crop during 1992-93. About 30%
of area under pulses was covered by Redgram crop.

Bengalgram is one of the important pulse crop grown in the rabi season. Gulbarga, Bidar,
Bijapur, Dharwad and Belgaum districts accounted for 86% of area under this crop in the State.
About 2.1 lakh ha of area was under this crop during 1992-93. About 14% of the area under pulses
was covered by this crop.
 74 A Handbook o f Karnataka

Groundnut is an important oilseed crop of the State largely grown in Tumkur, Chitradurga,
Gulbarga, Dharwad, Raichur and Bijapur districts. These districts accounted for 69% of the area
under this crop. About 12.76 lakh ha was under this crop during 1992- 93. About 53% of the area
under oilseeds was covered by groundnut and only 21% of area under this crop was irrigated.

Sesamum is another oilseed crop of the State grown in the Kharif season in rainfed condition
only. Gulbarga, Bidar and Raichur accounted for 58% of area under this crop. About 1.24 lakh ha
was under this crop during 1992-93 and it formed 7% of the area under oilseeds.

Sunflower is an important oilseed crop grown in Bijapur, Raichur, Gulbarga, Bellary, Dharwad
and Chitradurga districts. These districts accounted for 84% of the area under this crop. This crop
was grown in 10.69 lakh ha during 1992-93 and about 23% of the area under this crop was irrigated.
About 26% of the area under oilseeds was covered by this crop.

Safflower is another important oilseed crop grown in the rabi season in rainfed areas. Bijapur,
Gulbarga, Dharwad, Belgaum and Raichur districts accounted for 91% of the area under this crop.
The share of area under the crop to oilseeds was 8.7%.

Sugarcane is an important commercial crop mostly grown in irrigated areas in the State.
Belgaum, Bijapur, Mandya and Bidar districts accounted for 70% of the area during 1992-93.
Belgaum district alone covered 39% of the area under this crop.

Cotton is an important fibre crop of the State, Dharwad, Bellary, Belgaum and Raichur districts
accounted for 75% of area under the crop. About 6.30 lakh ha of area under this crop during 1992-93.

The statistics and area under major crops in the State is outlined in the two tables hereunder.

Table No 4.2: Percentage share of area of individual crops to

total gross cropped area 1960-1990.

Area in ‘000 ha.

Crop 1960--61 1970- 71 1980- 81 1989-■90

Area % Area % Area % Area %

1. Paddy 1,028 9.7 1,170 10.7 1,114 10.5 1,183 9.8

2. Jo war 2,969 2.8 2,224 20.4 1,991 18.7 2,339 19.3
3. Ragi 996 9.4 1,065 9.8 1,057 9.9 1,167 9.6
4. Maize 11 0.1 63 0.6 157 1.5 253 2.1
5. Bajra 500 4.7 562 5.2 564 5.3 514 4.2
6. Wheat 324 3.1 343 3.1 322 3.0 248 2.0
All Cereals 6,273 59.2 5,971 54.8 5,573 52.3 5,909 48.8
7. T u r, 296 2.8 304 2.8 336 3.2 482 4.0
8. Bengalgram 158 1.5 163 1.5 140 1.3 224 1.8
All pulse.1; 1,306 12.3 1,445 13.3 1,531 14.4 1,647 13.6
9. Groundnut 915 8.6 1,027 9.4 790 7.4 1,194 9.9
Agriculture and Allied Activities 75

10. Sesamum 64 0.6 87 0.8 118 1.1 153 1.3

11. Safflower 144 1.4 159 1.5 158 1.5 198 1.6
12, Sunflower - - - - 38 0.4 581 4.8
All Oilseeds 1,247 11.8 1,398 12.8 1,251 11.7 2,265 18.7
13. Cotton 984 9.3 1,142 10.5 1,012 9.5 697 5.8
14. Sugarcane 72 0.7 104 1.0 154 1.4 265 2.2

Source: Trends in Area, Yield and Production of Principal Crops during 1960-90.

Table No 4.3: Percentage share of production of individual crops to total cereals,

pulses and oilseeds during 1960-90

Production in ‘000 tonnes

Crop 1960-61 1970-71 1980-81 1989-90

Prod. % Prod. % Prod. % Prod %

1. Paddy 1,328 37.1 2,000 38.2 2,258 39.5 2,373 36.4

2. Jowar 1,154 32.4 1,565 29.9 1,506 26.4 1,611 24.7
3. Ragi 754 21.1 892 17.1 1,064 18.6 1,331 20.4
4. Maize 12 0.3 217 4.2 381 6.7 709 10.9
5. Bajra 129 3.6 211 4.0 192 3.4 281 4.3
6. Wheat 77 2.2 130 2.5 174 3.1 125 1.9
All Cereals 3,578 - 5,235 - 5,714 - 6,512 -
7. Tur 92 26.1 153 29.9 125 25.6 182 33.3
8. Bengalgram 55 15.6 76 14.9 63 12.9 75 13.7
All Pulses 352 - 511 - 488 - 546 -
9. Groundnut 448 87.8 780 89.1 475 73.1 933 67.3
10. Sesamum 11 2.2 27 3.1 40 6.2 49 3.5
11. Safflower 25 4.9 27 3.1 81 12.5 118 8.5
12. Sunflower - - - - 16 2.5 235 17.0
All Oilseeds 510 - 875 - 650 - 1,386 -
13. Cotton 382 - 570 - 597 - 887 -
14. Sugarcane 5,184 - 8,106 - 12,127 - 21,088

Source : Trends in area, yield and production of principal crops during 1960-90,
* Production of cotton in ‘000 bales of 170 Kgs.

Soil Conservation : The main objective of soil conservation activity is to arrest the runoff
of rain water and there by conserve soil and moisture. It is estimated that 85 lakh ha. of
land require soil conservation measures. Soil conservation works include land shaping, contour
76 A Handbook o f Karnataka

bunding, bench terracing etc. The area covered under soil conservation measures as at the
end of March 1993 was 39.2 lakh ha. The Centrally sponsored soil conservation scheme in
the catchments of the River Valley Projects viz, (1) Tungabhadra 2) Nizamsagar
and (3) Nagarjunasagar are in operation.

Seeds : The State Agricultural Universities are basically responsible for the production and
supply of breeder seeds of different crops. In all, there were 71 seed farms in the State. The
foundation seeds produced in the departmental farms were being handed over to the Karnataka
State Seed Corporation for processing and further multiplication. The role of the private seed
industry has been well recognised and they have been provided with all the facilities. Many
multi- national Companies are also engaged in seed production. There are two seed testing
laboratories, one at Hebbal and another at Dharwad. About 4.16 lakh quintals of certified
seeds were distributed during 1992-93. There is one more seed testing laboratory at Lalbagh,
Bangalore under the control of the Horticulture department.

Manures and Fertilizers : Due to the high cost of chemical fertilizers, the development and
use of organic manures assumes great importance. Bio-fertilizers like Rhizobium, Blue green
algae, Azatobacter and Azospirillum are being popularised among farming community. Steps
are being taken to improve production of rural compost by educating the rural folk to prepare
it on scientific lines. Local bodies are engaged in the preparation of urban compost. The
consumption of fertilizers which was just 3,960 tonnes of nutrients during 1956-57 has reached
a record 9 lakh tonnes during 1991-92 in the State. The per hectare consumption of chemical
fertilizers is 68 kg which is still lower than the neighbouring Andhra Pradesh and Tamil
Nadu States. The Karnataka Fertilizer Concessional Price Scheme implemented from 1992-93,
makes provision for the supply of super phosphate, diammonium phosphate, muriate of potash
and complex fertilizers at concessional price.

Plant Protection : The department has taken a number of steps to popularise plant protection
measures such as supplying plant protection equipments and chemicals at subsidised rates. An
area of 63 lakh ha. was covered under plant protection measured during 1992-93, as detailed
here under in lakh ha.

1. Seed treament 24.80

2. Control of field rats 2.48
3. 1 ontrol of soil and polyphagus pests 15.18
4. Plant protection measures for
other pests 18,68
5. Integrated pest management 0.98
6. Chemical weed control 0.58

Programmes of Agricultural Development: The Department of Agriculture has been chalking

out various programmes and policies for the development of Agriculture. The department is
implementing the thrust programmes in selected districts to increase production of major crops
like Integrated Programme of Rice Development, Special foodgrains production programme
for Maize, Ragi, Jowar and Bajra, Oilseeds production programme, National Pulse development
 Agriculture and Allied Activities 77

programme etc., Besides the new programmes like Bhooguna, Hanithene and Krishi Prashasthi
have been implemented to motivate and to encourage the farmers for adopting improved
agricultural practices and to increase the production and productivity.

National Watershed Development Programme in selected 86 taluks for popularising dry

farming, soil and water conservation schemes, Danida assisted project for training farm women and
farm youth especially to teach the skills required in the farm operations were being focussed. Under
Special Component Plan, Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe farmers were provided with inputs,
implements, plant protection equipments, bullock and bullock carts etc.

C rop Insurance : Comprehensive Crop Insurance scheme is in operation since 1985 in all
the taluks except Yelandur. The scheme is operated through the General Insurance Corporation
(GIC) of India. The coverage in respect of crops insured in the State is shared between GIC
and the State Government in the ratio of 2:1. During 1992-93, 1.93 lakh farmers in an area
of 3.46 lakh ha. insured the crops for a sum of Rs. 5,261 lakhs. About 178 lakh rupees were
paid as claims to 0.25 lakh farmers.

Irrigation
The ancient rulers of Karnataka undertook construction of a large number of tanks and paid
maximum attention to irrigation. (See Chapter II on history). But in later period Vijayanagar rulers
did put up a dam across the Cauvery in
1347 near Talakadu, impounded the
waters of Kumudvati rivulet to create
Masur Magada (which is over 400 acres
in area), dug many canals from the
Tungabhadra near the capital and tapped
maximum quantity of water for irrigation
from rivers. We hear o f a hydraulic
engineer (Jalasutradhari) in one o f their
records. The Mysore ruler Kanthirava
Narasaraja W odeyar’s Bangaradoddi
Canal (17th century) drawn from the
Lifting Water by Animal Power Cauvery is famous. Chikkadevaraya
raised Chunchariakatte dam, a brick
work during the same century.

Excavating tanks or their repair was held as a meritorious duty. So wide and systematic was
the tank network all over, that one of the Commissioners of Mysore, Bowring says the following
of it: "As the country is generally undulating, and intersected by numerous valleys threaded by
natural water courses, it occurred to the natives many centuries ago, to dam up the supply thus
furnished, in order to irrigate their fields in the dry season, and in this way, as population increased
additional land was brought under the plough, a chain of such tanks was formed, gradually
increasing in size and capacity as the line was prolonged". He further adds. "In many instances,
advantage has been taken of the gorges in hills to throw up colossal embankments, which have
- withstood with fair success, the floods o f centuries". H ie arrangement was a chain of tanks, in a
single catchment area. Every reservoir in the chain received surplus water from the one at the upper
level, and thus there was no wastage to point out.
78 A Handbook o f Karnataka

During the pre-independence era, the British and Mysore State Government took up some
notable irrigation works such as Krishnarajasagar, Sagarakatte Dam, Dhupdal veir near Gokak,
Vanivilas Sagar, Marconahalli and Anjanapur.

The ultimate irrigational potential in the State at present has been estimated at 55 lakh ha.
which forms 51.4 per cent of net sown area. This would comprise of 35 lakh ha. under major and
medium irrigation projects, 10 lakh ha. under minor irrigation using surface waters and remaining
10 lakh ha. from ground water sources.

As per the master plans prepared by the State, the ultimate utilisation in Krishna basin is likely
to be 1,156 tmc. and the State’s use in the Cauvery basin is likely to be 414 tmc. The Godavari
Water Disputes Tribunal award has resulted in an allocation of 22.37 tmc for its project in the State.
The State has presently formulated projects for utilising a total quantum of 94.25 tmc in Palar,
Pennar (North and South) and west flowing rivers.

The utilisation of various river basins upto the end of March 1991 is 833.94 tmc comprising
the following: a) Krishna basin - 475.23 tmc; b) Cauvery basin - 312 tmc ; c) Godavari basin - 6.69
tmc and other basins - 40.02 tmc.

The cumulative irrigation potential under major, medium and minor irrigation (surface water)
is anticipated to go upto 24.35 lakh ha. during 1993-94 from 23.4 lakh ha. at the end of 1992-93.
The projects, both major and medium which have been completed have contributed for the creation
of an irrigation potential of 4.64 lakh ha.

As against the potential, the net area irrigated during 1992-93 was 22 lakh ha. Net area irrigated
by canal was the highest with 41% of the total irrigated, followed by wells (22%), tanks (12%),
tubewells (11 %), other sources (8%) and lift irrigation (6%). About six lakh ha. of land was irrigated
more than once bringing the gross area irrigated to 28 lakh ha. Net area irrigated for the country as
a whole was 32% of net area sown in 1989-90. In Karnataka, the percentage of net area irrigated
to net area sown which was 21.2 during 1991-92 has declined to 20.4 during 1992-93. The
Percentage of net area irrigated to net area sown for the states of Tamil Nadu and A.P. are 48 and
38 respectively.

The cumulative potential created under minor irrigation from surface water upto 1992-93 was
9.17 lakh ha. All irrigation works having an atchkat of 2,000 ha are classified as minor irrigation
works. The Karnataka Tank Irrigation Project with the World Bank assistance is being implemented
from 1981-82. An amount of Rs. 155 crores is spent upto Novemeber 1993 and 73 tank irrigation
projects were completed creating a potential of 23,310 ha. Minor irrigation works are also taken up
under Ganga Kalyana Scheme, Special Component Plan, Tribal Sub-plan etc., There were about
40,411 minor irrigation works benefiting an atchkat of 8.68 lakh ha. which comprises of 36,555
tanks with an atchkat of 6.59 lakh ha and 429 lift irrigation schemes with an atchkat of 88,367 ha
and 3,427 other minor irrigation works with an atchkat of 1,20,588 ha. .

The W orld Bank has extended financial assistance to the extent of Rs.25 crores during VII
Plan towards the National Water Management Project in Karnataka. The Project aims at
improvement of the existing canal system served by reservoirs for increasing the productivity and
farm income. The project is estimated to cost Rs.74 crores. The expenditure incurred upto end of
March 1993 was Rs.47 crores. The Command Area Development programme is intended to tackle
Agriculture and Allied Activities 79

the problem of non-utilisation of irrigation potential created and to reduce the gap between potential
created and potential utilised. During 1992-93, the area brought under field irrigation channels was
21,073 ha; the area brought under on-farm development works was 22,242 ha and about 21,500 ha
was covered under warabandi system.

The recurring droughts during the last decade has resulted in an uprecedented spurt in the
ground water usage from just about 2,000 M.cum in 1980-81 to 3,600 M.cum in 1990-91 in irrigated
sector. Likewise the number of drinking water bore wells increased from about 50,000 in 1981 to
1.5 lakhs by 1991. This extra-ordinary growth has resulted in steep decline of water table in several
parts of the State. So the systematic study of the status of ground water, its occurrence, behaviour
and remedial measures to be adopted is being undertaken by the Ground Water Cell of Mines &
Geology Department.

Flood Control and Sea Erosion : Karnataka has a coastline of about 300 km. Due to high
wave action of sea, the coastline is being eroded. It has been identified that about 73 km of
sea coast are subjected to sea erosion. A Master Plan to protect these vulnerable reaches at
a cost of Rs. 145 crores has been sent to Govt, of India for acceptance. A project report for
Rs. 15 crores has been prepared comprising of construction of sea walls to a length of 7.7
km in coastal Karnataka and protection work for river banks to a length of 4.8 km has been
submitted for Central assistance. An amount of Rs. 230 lakhs has been sent upto the end of
the Sixth Plan and a length of 9 km of Sea coast has been protected. An amount of Rs.
685 lakhs has been spent for flood control and anti-sea erosion works and 15.3 km length
of sea coast is protected at the end of March 1991.

Table No. 4.4 Completed Major and Medium irrigation projects.

Project Basin Year of Utilisa­ Irrigation

complet­ tion in in ha.
ion tmc

1 2 3 4 5

A. M ajor projects
1. Cauvery Anicut Channels Cauvery 1900 49.10 77,172
2. Ghataprabha I & II Krishna 1980 32.45 1,39,383
3. Kiishnarajasagar Cauvery 1944 52.40 79,312
4. Nugu Cauvery 1959 7.7 10,526
5. Tunga Anicut Krishna 1956 11.50 8,704
6. Vani Vilas Sagar Krishna 1908 8.2 9,190
7. Vijayanagar Channels Krishna 1600 12.05 12,210
Total (1) Krishna Basin 64.20 1,69,487
(2) Cauvery Basin 109.20 1,67,010
Major Projects Total 173.40 3,36,497

B. M edium projects
1. Ambligola Krishna 1964 1.40 2,955
80 A Handbook o f Karnataka

1 2 3 4 5

2. Anjanapur Krishna 1936 2.50 6,736

3. Areshankar Krishna 1957 0.38 1,255
4. Bachanki West-flowing 1974 0.52 1,776
5. Badra Anicut Krishna 1923 3.10 4,466
6. Byramangala Cauvery 1945 1.00 1,619
7. Chandrampalli Krishna 1972 1.90 5,223
8. Chikkahole Cauvery 1969 0.70 1,650
9. Chithwadgi Krishna 1971 0.26 891
10. Dharma Krishna 1964 2.20 5,668
11. Gayathri Krishna 1963 0.45 2,305
12. Gokak Canal Krishna 1897 1.40 5,757
13. Gundal Cauvery 1980 1.40 4,048
14. Hagari Bommanahalli Krishna 1978 2.00 2,966
15. Hathikoni Krishna 1973 0.50 2,145
16. Hebballa Cauvery 1972 0.40 1,214
17. Jambadahalla Krishna 1968 0.70 1,538
18. Kalaskop Krishna 1960 0.33 1,143
19. Kanakanala Krishna 1975 0.40 2,064
20. Kanva Cauvery 1946 1.20 2,076
21. Kolchi Weir Krishna 1953 0.53 1,275
22. Mangala Cauvery 1970 0.60 850
23. Marconahalli Cauvery 1941 4.00 4,560
24. Nagathana Krishna 1961 0.08 650
25. Nallur Amanikere Cauvery 1987 0.40 1,300
26. Narayanaput Krishna 1961 0.60 1,624
27. Narihalla Krishna 1979 0.90 1,512
28. Rajolibanda Krishna 1960 1.20 2,380
29. Ramanahalli Krishna 1958 0.44 1,943
30. Soudagar Krishna 1987 0.26 1,417
31. Suvamavathy Cauvery 1984 3.60 2,833
32. Teetha Palar 1987 0.36 1,214
33. Taraka Cauvery 1989 3.65 7,040
34. Upper Mullamari Krishna - 1.24 3,279
Total (a) Krishna basin 22.77 59,192
(b) Cauvery basin 16.95 27,190
(c) West flowing 0.52 1,776
(d) Palar 0.36 1,214
Medium projects Total 40.60 89,372
Grand Total (A + B) 214.00 4,25,869

Source : Irrigation in Karnataka, 1992-93, Irrigation Department, Government of Karnataka.

Agriculture and Allied Activities 81

Financial and potential progess of on-going Major and

Medium Irrigation Projects

SI. Name of the Project Financial (Rs. Potential (in ha)

No. in lakhs)

Estimated Expendi- Ultimate Potenti-

cost ture upto potential al crea­
March 92 ted upto
March 92

A. Krishna Basin
I. M ajor projects
1. Upper Krishna I 1,50,000 72,781 4,24,935 1,30,735
2. Hippargi 18,670 671 59,690 -
3. Ghataprabha III 37,050 14,054 1,78,064 2,54,579
4. Malaprabha 34,200 27,109 2,18,191 1,56,035
5. Bennithora 6,000 2,328 20,236 -
6. Bhadra 6,783 7,968 1,05,570 1,05,570
7. Tungabhadra LBC 11,241 11,413 2,44,381 2,42,206
8. Tungabhadra RB HLC 2,758 2,204 80,910 68,574
9. Dudhganga 2,600 607 19,668 -
10. Markandeya 7,590 - 32,375 -
11. Ramthal lift 6,416 - 22,260 -
12. Bhima flow 7,848 - 42,170 -
13. Bhima Lift 4,575 - 24,282 -
14. Upper Krishna II 78,000 - 4,15,000 -
15. Upper Bhadra 37,700 - 1,01,175 -
16. Upper Tunga 27,141 75 94,700 -

II. Medium Projects

17. Amarja 3,200 1,473 8,903 -
18. Lower Mullamari 3,145 1,250 9,713 -
19. Hirehalla 3,629 409 8,013 -
20. M&skinala 1,590 364 2,833 -
21. F.C. to Ranikere 706 631 3,238 283
22. Gandhorintala 2,789 27 8,094 -
23. Madag Masur 1,633 - 7,285 -

B. Cauvery Basin
I. M ajor Project
1. KRS Modernisation 6,700 3,177 2,125 -
2. Harangi 15,600 13,457 53,538 40,018
3. Hemavathi 58,800 45,252 2,83,596 96,143
‘ 4. Kabini 47,100 17,644 87,900 40,895
82 A Handbook o f Karnataka

5. D. Devaraj Urs Canal 7.000 3,244 32,376 395

6. Yagachi 3,538 1,539 21,450 -

II. Medium Projects

7. Manchanabele 2,767 2,191 3,845 1,288
8. Votehole 2,307 1,966 7,487 6,823
9. Arkavati 3,300 1,131 6,232 -

10. Chiklihole 1,067 759 1,184 97

11. Iggalur 1,300 " 675 4.047 1,812
12. Kamasamudra 630 469 3,104 -

13. Hutchnakoplu 690 191 2,300 -

14... Uduthorehalla 3,342 1,626 6,273 -

C. Godavari Basin:
I. Major.
1. Karanja 9,800 7,830 35,614 5,250
II. Medium.
2. Chulkinala 1,945 782 4,047

D. O ther Basins:
I. Major
1. Varahi 7,000 294 15,702 -

Development of Irrigation in Karnataka: Cumulative Potential Created in lakh ha.

End of Plan/year Major and Minor Total

Medium pro­ irrigation
jects (Surface)

1984-85 11.61 8.66* 20.27

VII Plan
(1985-1990)
1985-86 12.27 8.72 20.99
86-87 12.75 8.78 21.53
87-88 12.87 8.83 21.70
88-89 12.97 8.93 21.90
89-90 ' 13.09 9.03 ’’ 22.12
Annual Plan
1990-91 13.36 9.06 ... 22.42
1991-92 13.79 9.11 , > 22.9Q
VHI Plan
1992-93 (P) 14.23 9.17 23.40

P. Provisional ^Excludes (he area of .0.77 lakh ha. under Cauvery anicut which is accounted for Major and Medium
irrigation.
Agriculture and Allied Activities 83

Horticulture
Karnataka is a pioneer a State in horticultural development in the country. Raibag (Bagi) in
Belgaum District, was famous for its orchards in historical times. Hukeri supplied flowers to
Adilshahi court. Lalbagh was raised at Bangalore by Haider Ali. As early as during the 7th century
we hear of a guild of florists (Malpkaras) at Badami.

Agro-climatic conditions are favourable in the State for taking up of horticultural development
activities. As a result, an increasing trend in recent years both in respect of area as also in the
production is being witnessed. The department of horticulture provides equipments and technical
guidance and supplies plant protection chemicals and improved varieties of seeds and imparts
training to the persons engaged in horticultural activities.

It is estimated that ahout 11.5 per cent of the total net cultivable area is occupied by
horticultural crops. The importance of horticultural crops is recognised in dry land development,
for developing green belts, in protecting the eco-system and improving the environmental
conditions. Farmers are switching over to horticultural crops as they involve less labour and also
withstand drought conditions.

The Oil Palm project is being planned for implementation in five command areas. Priority has
been given for drip irrigation. The department is maintaining 398 horticultural farms and nurseries
spread all over the State covering an area of 7,076 ha. These farms and nurseries are serving as
centres for demonstration of improved practices and propagation.

The following is the area and production of different Horticultural crops at the end March
1993.

Particulars Area in ha Production in

tonnes

h 1. Fruit crops 2,25,389 38,26,196

2. Plantation and Spices
crops (a) Coconut 3,70,047 51,807 lakh nuts
(b) Betelvine 9,491 9,491 lakh leaves
(c) Nutmeg 322 290 lakh nuts
3. Commercial flowers 14,253 75,120
4. Vegetables 1,99,320 41,94,532

Coffee
Karnataka is the foremost coffee producing State in India. Coffee is said to have been
introduced into Karnataka by Baba B'udan, a Muslim saint in about 1670 A.D from Ethiopia. The
majority of coffee plantation are in Chikmagalur, Hassan and Kodagu districts and some in the
Biligirirangana hills of Mysore district. The two principal species of coffee that are grown include
Arabi.ca and Rpbusta. There is now a growing interest to raise coffee in the Western Ghat region^
further in other districts like Shimoga and Dakshina Kannada.
84 A Handbook o f Karnataka

The total area under coffee in Karnataka is about 1.26 lakh ha comprising 79,899 ha under
Arabica and 46,464 ha under Robusta. The average yield per ha. of bearing area of Arabica and
Robusta coffees in the State ( Kg/ha) is 640 and 799 respectively. The number of coffee
estates was 28,713 as per census of coffee estates in 1972-75. The largest number of estates is found
in the districts of Kodagu with 16,880, followed by Chikmagalur with 7,970, Hassan 3,899 and
Mysore 5. There were about 4,500 unregistered estates in the state.

Area in lakh ha and production in lakh tonnes for selected years is as follows, area being given
first and production against each year : 1970-71: 0.81 - 0.82; 1975-76: 1.02 - 0.61; 1980-81: 1.13
- 0.82; 1985-86: 1.28 - 0.84; and 1988-89: 1.18 - 0.84.

Animal Husbandry
Livestock rearing plays a very vital role in rural economy in supplementing family income
from agriculture and also providing employment. Farmers are dependent on animal husbandry
activities to utilise agricultural by-products and crop residues to convert them into animal products
with good returns. The Chalukyas and the Rashtrakutas in historical times donated cows in
thousands (gosahasra) and the gosasa stones are found in hundreds to commemorate this act. These
cows were donated to villagers all over their empire to encourage animal husbandry. There was
"benne chavadi", a department to collect ghee at the Mysore Court, Haider Ali made efforts to
promote Amritmahal bullock breed which were excellent draught animals.

As per 1990 Livestock Census, the livestock and poultry population in the State is 249.68 lakhs
and 156.94 lakhs respectively. The number of cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goats and pigs were 10,175;
4,038; 4,727, 3,889 and 304 thousands respectively.

The spread of Veterinary services has resulted in the improvement of animal health. The State
had a network of 2,817 Veterinary Institutions, comprising of 210 veterinary hospitals, 581
veterinary dispensaries, 1,263 primary veterinary centres, 590 artificial insemination centres and
173 mobile veterinary clinics during 1992-93. There were 6,557 attacks of various diseases resulting
in 1,296 deaths. Vaccination against outbreaks of various diseases were given to about 216 lakh
animals. A total of 22 lakh artificial inseminations were done and 2.68 lakh calves were born.

Cattle development is carried out mainly through artificial insemination technique. Frozen
semen technology has been adopted. There are about 2,054 veterinary institutions providing artificial
insemination facility to animals. Indigenous breeds such as Hallikar, Amritmahal, Khillari, Krishna
Valley and Deoni are being improved by selective breeding.

There are four sheep breeding farms functioning in the State. The largest farm is located at
Challakere where crossbred rams are produced. Deccani and Bandur breeds of sheep are crossed
with Corriedale and Rambulet rams.

Poultry development is facilitated through 12 poultry farms, 13 poultry extension centres and
5 Intensive Poultry Development Projects which are functioning under the control of the
Department. The eleven Regional Poultry Farms are engaged in the production of day old
commercial chicks. There are about 3,000 poultry farms producing 1,000 million eggs and 12
million kgs of poultry meat of which 60% is produced from the Bangalore Urban agglomeration
area. The production of eggs (estimated) in Karnataka was 1,278 millions during 1989-90 which
formed 6.3% of all-India production. The per capita availability of eggs is 26 and the poultry meat
is 250 gm per annum as against the requirement of 180 eggs and 9 kgs of poultry meat per annum.
Agriculture and Allied Activities 85

During 1992-93, 1.83 lakh chicks were produced and 4,129 number o f persons were trained in
poultry rearing-activities.

The Swine breeding policy aims at usage of exotic breeds of pigs like Landrace and Yorkshire.
There are three pig breeding stations functioning in the State for the development of piggery
activities. The demand for rabbit meat is mounting and to meet this demand, the department has
started 12 rabbit breeding centres and foreign breeds from America and Russia are also introduced.
These centres produce and supply rabbits to the interested rabbit rearing farmers.

Fodder development programme is being implemented to meet the demand for feed and fodder.
Intensive fodder cultivation has been taken up in all the livestock farms. These farms produce and
supply root slips and fodder seeds to the needy farmers at nominal prices. During 1992-93,90 lakhs
of rootslips, 874 quintals of fodder seeds and 3,050 minikits were supplied to the farmers.

The department is also implementing the Socio-economic programmes such as Special

Component Plan, Tribal sub-plan and special livestock breeding programme for the upliftment of
weaker sections of society.

Dairy Development
Dairy development activities under "Operation R ood" programme pertain to providing
guaranteed and remunerative market to the rural milk producers and supply of hygienic milk and
milk products to the Urban consumers. Karnataka Co-operative Milk Producers Federation Ltd
(KMF)has been designated as implementing agency for Operation Flood project. Financial
assistance for capital investments in the district M ilk Unions flows from National Dairy
Development Board. The main objective of KMF is the co-ordination o f various phases in
production o f milk and milk products like procurement, processing, marketing and distribution. The
technical input is provided by KMF through milk unions to the farmers of Dairy Co-operative
societies.

During the year 1993-94, 205 new dairy co-operative societies have been established and
45,353 farmers have been enrolled, thus bringing the total organised dairy co-operative societies
and numbers enrolled to 6,611 and 12,31,782 respectively. The production o f milk (estimated) in
the State during 1992-93 was 29.1 lakh tonnes. The total milk procured during 1992-93 was 4.01
lakh tonnes. Karnataka’s per capita milk production was only 62.6 kgs as compared to 66.9 kg for
the country as a whole.

Milk handled by the Dairies in lakh litres for the years 1985-86 and 1989-90 is as
follows:
1. Bangalore Dairy 921 : 818; 2. Mother Dairy, Bangalore 279 : NA; 3. Mysore 256 :
331; 4. Mandya Product Dairy (Gejjalagere) 179 : 391; 5. Kudige (Kodagu) 41: NA; 6.
Hassan 132 : 226; 7. Tumkur 172 : 333; 8. Dharwad 191 : 125; 9. Belgaum 54 :93; 10.
Gulbarga 47 : 78; 11. Shimoga 33 : 138; 12. Mangalore 45 : 73; 13. Bijapur NA : 63; 14.
Raichur NA : 79 15. Kolar NA : 798.

* NA- Information not available

86 A Handbook o f Karnataka

Fisheries
The State is having rich resources for fisheries development. About 25,000 sq km of continental
shelf all along the 320 km coastal line and about 4.57 lakh ha. of inland waterspread area offer
immense scope for fisheries development. Apart from this, there is 8,000 ha of brackish water area
available for the development of Shrimp Fisheries. Inland fishery resources consist 2.35 lakh ha of
tanks and ponds and 2.22 lakh ha of reservoir. In addition, it has 6,000 km of river length.

Presently an area of 5,000 sq.km of continental shelf is being exploited by small mechanised
boats. State’s mechanised fishing fleet has 2,008 shrimp trawlers, 376 purse-seiners and 991
mechanised gillnet units, including 12,000 traditional boats intensively operating in the inshore
waters. The marine fish catches fluctuated between 1.3 to 2 lakh tonnes. Fisheries play an important
role in the economy of the coastal districts of the State. Nearly 45,000 fishermen are engaged in
fishing in the coastal districts.

Less than half of the existing inland fishery potential is being utilised for fish.production,
mainly on account of shortage of fish seed. Fish seed production during 1991-92 was around 140
million fry and average inland fish production was around 60,000 tonnes. Some of the Jilla
Panchayats have taken up Inland Fisheries seriously as in Bangalore Rural district. ■

Out of 8,000 ha o f brackish water sources, about 4,200 ha are identified as suitable for prawn
farming, about 2,500 ha of Kharland and 1,000 ha of salt pans can be utilised for raising prawns.
Brackish water Fish Farmer’s Development Agency with Central Government assistance has been
established at Karwar during 1987 for the upgradation of technology for prawn and fish farming.
Eighteen fish farms, which were transferred to Karnataka Inland Fisheries Development Corporation
to manage the seed farms on commercial lines and increase production, have been taken over by
the department due to the closure of Corporation during 1990- 91.

Since 1982, an Integrated Fisheries Development project is in operation at Tadri, Uttara

Kannada district, in collaboration with DANIDA. Among infrastructure development programmes,
there are four fishing harbours viz., Karwar, Honavar, Tadri and Malpe and the Mangalore harbour
is under contruction. There are 24 fish landing centres in the State. The NCDC supported Reservoir
Fisheries Development Project has been taken up for implementation in Mysore district, through
the newly established Karnataka Inland Fisheries Federation.

The Centrally-sponsored Fish Farmers Development Agencies are functioning in eight

districts. The Department of Fisheries is implementing beneficiary oriented programmes like the
National Fish Seed Production Programme, Fisherman Welfare Scheme, Group Insurance Scheme,
Tribal sub-plan, Special Component Plan, Distress Relief Fund etc. The Department is imparting
training to rural youths in fishery activities at Krishnarajasagar and Bethamangala training centres.

Export of fish was of the order of 7,733 and 6,632 tonnes during 1991-92 and 1992-93
respectively. During 1991-92 among different States, Karnataka ranked seventh with six per cent
of total fish catch in the country. As at the end of March 1993, there were 28 fishing yards, 23,474
fishing nets, 4,198 mechanised and 11,754 non-mechanised boats, 46 cold storages and 140 ice
factories.
 Chapter V
INDUSTRIES AND POWER
Karnataka State is endowed with a large number of useful minerals, raw materials, marine
resources, besides infrastructural facilities such as transport and communication, banking, technical
man-power, industrial estates, industrial area etc.

The Central and State Governments have declared special incentives and concessions for
development of industries in the State. The mineral based industries such as iron and steel,
manganese, cement, bricks, tiles etc., have played a vital role in the state. Agro-based industries
such as cotton textile, oil extraction, processing of cashew-nuts, fruit processing and food products
are prominent. Wood-based industries such as saw mills, paper mills, plywood, poly-fibres etc., are
flourishing in the State. The need for supporting institutions relevant for development o f industries
in the State was realised by the State Government even before independence and some of the
important measures which were introduced include starting of Department of Industries and
Commerce (1913), the Mysore Bank (1913), the Chamber of Commerce (1915). Hydro electric
power was first produced at Gokak Falls on a small scale as early as in 1887 and on a large scale,
to meet the needs of Kolar gold mines in 1902 at Shivasamudram.

Traditional Industries
Many crafts and industries have flourished in the state in ancient times. O f the industries of
Karnataka, production of textile is an important traditional industry. It had centres all over Karnataka
and they included places like Binnamangala, Aigandapura (Bangalore Dt), Belgavi (Shimoga Dt),
Arasikere (Hassan Dt) and Chinmali (Raichur Dt) to speak of the most prominent centres mentioned
in inscriptions. During the medieval time Hubli, Gadag, Badami, Ilkal, Kodiyala, Guledgud,
Bangalore and Dodballapur became notable centres. The Adilshahi rulers of Bijapur started paper
and agarbathi (joss stick) industries in their territory in North Karnataka. A British factory founded
at Kadwad on the banks of the Kali in 1638 exported cloth produced at Hubli. Under Chikkadevaraya
of Mysore, Bangalore had 12,000 families of Weavers and Dodballapur also grew to be a major
centre of textile production. Under Tipu, many weavers from Baramahals in Tamilnadu settled down
in Bangalore and surrounding places. Buchanan, while speaking of the Mysore State during his visit,
says that there were a class of weavers called Togataru who wove coarse, thick, white cotton cloth
with red borders and Holiars who wove coarse, white strong cloth calledparakali. Karnataka women
spun yarn using a charkha in their spare time and Buchanan says that a full-time spinner earned as
much as a farm worker. But the Industrial Revolution ruined spinning as a profession, and also
throttled weaving on a major scale.

Weaving coarse blankets (karnbli) also flourished and inscriptions speak of Davanagere and
Dodballapur as the two centres of this industry. Dr. A. Appadorai speaks of Budihal (Chitradurga
dt.) as a centre of producing cloth from hemp fibre. Inscriptions speak of Pattegars or silk weavers
from Lakshmeshwar and Varagiri (both in Dharwad Dt). Though the raw silk was improted in
ancient times, Tipu introduced sericulture in Mysore on a large scale. Buchanan speaks of the
Khatries (Kshatriyas, people from the Southern parts of Gujarat) in Bangalore who prepared very
strong and rich clothes. They dyed much of their silk and were more wealthy than other weavers,
he adds. These people had also settled in Hubli in good numbers. They were well-versed in brocade
88 A Handbook o f Karnataka

work too. Production of oil was another flourishing industry in the state, sesame, Honge seed, castor,
coconut, Kusube (safflower) etc. were used to extract oil.

The Panchalas included blacksmiths, goldsmiths, coppersmiths, braziers and carpenters and
they are also called Vishvakarmas. An inscription of 11 th century from Mysore district speaks of a
blacksmith who was an expert in producing swords. Under Mysore Rulers, Chikkadevaraya had
Kabbinadachavadi, the iron department, perhaps to supervise production and sale of iron goods.
Tipu continued this monopoly and he also founded a state foundry at Kanakapura where even canons
were forged. Buchanan speaks of manufacture of iron from sand accumulating in the rainy season
at places like Madhugiri, Chennarayanadurga, Hagalavadi and Devarayanadurga. He gives the
technical details of iron smelting too at these places. He speaks of iron ore from Ghattipura in
Magadi taluk. He also informs us of manufacture of steel which was used to produce sword blades
and stone cutter chistles at Magadi near Bangalore and other places. He tells us that Channapatna
was a centre of production of steel wires and this had a demand all over as it was used in musical
instruments. Tegur near Dharwad, Hulgur in Mandya, Benkipura (modern Bhadravati) etc. were
notable centres of iron production and charcoal to smelt iron was available in abundance in forests
of Western Ghats, which had also abundant iron mining centres.

Production of jewellery was also a flourishing industry and Manasollasa gives a long list of
jewellery worn by both men and women. Among the Panchalas, the glodsmiths make the jewels,
earlier, they minted coins by paying a fee called tanka to the State. There were state mints at
Lakkundi, Sudi, Kudutini, Belgavi, Mangalore, Barkur and the capital cities. The Kasars or
Kanchugars (braziers) produced bronzeware which included vessels, musical instruments like bells
and trumpets, lamps of various kinds, mirrors and images of various deities. They are mentioned in
many records and the one at Laksmeshwar of the 8th century is notable among them. Carpentry was
another profession of the Panchalas and in addition to the production of agricultural implements
and household furniture, they also produced chariots, carts, boats and palanquins. They also built
palaces with decorated pillars, panels and ceilings. All old palaces were mostly wooden as can be
seen even to-day by those surviving ones at Shimoga, Bangalore and Srirangapattana,

Production of foot-wear, waterbags, shields, beds and cushions, drums, etc. was undertaken
by leather workers called Samagars (tanners) and Mochis. Footwears produced by them were of
variety of designs and colours as testified to by Manasollasa. A Badami record speaks of their guild.
The Kumbaras or potters were producing earthern vessels and tiles. The vessels were both
hand-made and wheel turned. Production of salt and lime were two other notable industries. Salt
was produced from sea water on the coast and the salt stones mined. There were uppina moles or
salt pans mentioned in records. Places like Uppina Kuduru, Uppinamogaru, Uppinapatna, Uppuru,
Uppalli, Uppinangadi etc., are remainders of the fact that these places were centres of salt
manufacture. The Uppars were the caste engaged in producing salt. This traditional industry which
supported thousands, came to be ruined after the British made salt production a state monopoly.
Buchanan speaks of the industry as flourishing at Tekal (Kolar dt) and gives details of the techniques
o f production adopted at the place. Lime was produced both from sea shells on the coast and from
lime stones mined. Buchanan also described the kilns at Kadugodi near Whitefield (Bangalore dt).
There was a community called Sunagars engaged in this industry.

Production of glass bangles was also a flourishing industry. A record of 1161 from Belgaum
district speaks of Senahalli, Kallakundarge (Kalkundri) and Nittur as centres of the industry. The
Balegars formed a seperate caste and Kannada poet Ranna belongs to this caste. Some of them had
the surname Setti as seen from inscriptions. Buchanan speaks of Muttodu in Chitradurga district as
Industries and Power 89

a centre of bangle manufacture and he mentions that these bangles were of five colours viz., black,
green, red, blue and yellow. He also states that glass produced there was opaque and coarse and
materials needed for glass making were available in the neighbourhood of the place. He also
describes manufacturing glass bangles and bottles at Channapatna and here this industry was started
under the initiative of Tipu.

Production of jaggery, sugar-candy were other notable industries. Inscriptions speak of

alemane found in many parts of Karnataka where cane juice was boiled and jaggery was
manufactured. Buchanan speaks of this manufacture as seen by him at Maddur and surrounding
villages. Palm juice was also used to produce jaggery. Tipu had made special efforts to foster sugar
and sugar candy industry and had even secured the assistance of Chinese technicians. Buchanan
speaks of sugar produced at Chikkaballapur which he describes as very white and fine and the sugar
candy of the place was "equal to the Chinese".

Manufacture of perfumes was another industry. Manasollasa in the section ‘Snanabhoga’ (on
enjoying bath) refer to perfumed oil and ointments and also speaks of the processes of their
production, using mostly the raw materials derived from vegetable sources.

A good number of craftsmen especially in villages were partly agricultural and also pursuing
their craft which was hereditary and the training was mostly imparted by father to son. The craftsmen
had their flourishing guilds, and even the Shatavahana records make a mention of these nigatnas,
nikayas or shrenis (in Sanskrit). In Kannada, the guilds were called kottali, shreni, sarnaya, satnuha
or hittu. A record of the Badami Chalukya times from the capital city speaks of the guilds of garland
makers (malekaras), cobblers etc. A record of the days of the same dynasty from Lakshmeshwara
mentions the guild of the braziers and another of Pattegars (silk weavers). The State did protect the
guilds and maintained their privileges. Inscriptions speak of saligasamaya orjedagottali, the guilds
of weavers, oddagottali (the stone-cutters guild) or telliganakhdra or oilmen’s guild. Some of the
guilds are mentioned with certain numerical suffixes attached to their professional name such as
telliga ayvattu (fifty) or ugura munnuru (300), the ugurus being pluckers of betal leaves or gale
munnuru (300), pluckers of fruits in orchards. Uguru literally means nail and they plucked leaves
by attaching a small chistle to their nails, uguruli. Gale or bamboo was used to pluck fruits.

Beginning of Modern Industries

Tipu made special efforts to introduce new industries and modern techniques in producing
sugar, glass, etc. Buchanan informs that under arrangements made by Tipu broad cloth, paper,
watches and cutlery were manufactured by new techniques. He got new techniques from China to
improve sugar production and men from Bengal to introduce sericulture and European experts,
especially the French to produce watches and cutlery. Dewan Rangacharlu had stated as early as in
1881, his clear conviction that no country can prosper unless its agricultural and manufacturing
industries were equally fostered. The later dewans like Seshadri Iyer, Sir M. Visvewaraya and Sir
Mirza Ismail also had such a conviction and they formulated their policies based on it.

In the erstwhile Mysore State, the Kolar Gold Fields had been started by an English Mining
Company (John Taylor and Sons) in 1880 when the State was under direct British rule. Laying of
railways was an added advantage. By 1900, two large scale textile mills came up ie., the Bangalore
Woollen, Cotton and Silk Mills Ltd (1884) and the Mysore Spinning and Manufacturing Company
Ltd (1894) both at Bangalore. A Central Industrial Workshop was established by the State
Government in 1897 at Bangalore. The State Government enterprises of Hydro-Electric power
90 A Handbook o f Karnataka

generation at Shivasamudra (Mandya

Dt) in 1902-03 may be said to have
initiated the modern industrial
development in the State.

Industrial development did take

place in the Old Hyderabad and Bombay
Karnataka area also. But they were
incidental and not on any planned basis.
T At Gulbarga, a textile mill, the
Mahaboob Shahi Kalburga Mills, was
established in 1884 with the active
support of the Government of Nizam of
Hyderbad. The M.S.K. Mills Co. Ltd.
was re-registered under the Indian
Kolar Gold Factory Companies Act in 1888. The Mill ran
into difficulties in the early sixties of this
century and the. State Government of
Karnataka acquired the controlling interest and took over the management in 1963 and later in 1973
the Mill was taken over by the National Textile Corporation.

Except for the English-owned textile mills established in 1885 at Gokak Falls and in 1889 at
Hubli, there was hardly any major industrial enterprises in Bombay Karnataka area. There were
however some crafts such as the Bidriware in Bidar taluk and handlooms in Bijapur and Dharwad
districts. In the thirties and forties of the 20th century, a few industries came up, the notable among
them being the Cement factories at Shahabad and Wadi (Gulbarga dt), Sugar factories at Kittur and
Ugarkhurd (both in Athani tq, Belgaum dt). The Swadeshi spirit did help the establishment of a few
minor units like Ceramic works at Khanapur in 1907. Dakshina Kannada too had many industrial
units and beedi manufacture grew here as a home industry. Beedies with regular labels came to be
manufactured from 1914 when Mahalakshmi Beedi Works was started at Penemangalur in 1914
followed by PVS Beedies (1918), Bharat Beedies and Ganesh Beedies (both in 1930). Tile
manufacture initiated by German missionaries (Basel Mission Tile Works 1865) in Mangalur was
a notable avenue. Cashew processing was another enterprise.

Economic Conference
The starting point of planned economic development as a concept and State policy began with
the appointment of Sir. M. Visveswaraya as Chief Engineer in 1909 and he dominated the industrial
scene for over five decades. It was at his instance that the First Mysore Economic Conference was
held in 1911 and its report dealt in great detail the natural resources of the State and identified a
number of industrial possibilities. The Government accepted the recommendation of the Economic
Conference and set up a seperate Department of Industries and Commerce in 1913. The Department
was reorganised in 1922 and strengthened periodically to meet the growing needs of industrial
enterprise, in both public and private sectors.

The Government Sandal Oil Factories were located in Mysore City (1915) and Shimoga (1944)
to augment the production and distillation of sandal wood oil. The manufactured items included
sandal wood oil B.P. Quality, special ‘A ’ Quality oil, sandal wood oil residue and sandalwood
baloon dust.
Industries and Power 91

The Government Soap Factory was established in 1918 in Bangalore with an objective of
manufacturing laundry soaps and toilet soap in sandal, jasmine and lavender perfumes, M ysore
Sandal Soap, shaving soap, Indo-cure quickfix, glycerine etc. The Karnataka Soaps and Detergents
Ltd., a State Goverment undertaking has taken over the management of the Government Soap
Factory at Bangalore and the Sandalwood oil factories at Mysore and Shimoga in 1980 t h e
Company is having the following units (1) Detergent Unit comissioned in 1976, (2) Fatty Acid Unit
commissioned in July 1981 (3) Soap expansion project to boost the manufacture of soap from 6,000
tonnes to 26,000 tonnes by 1983, (4) Sandal oil divisions at Mysore and Shimoga, and (5) the
agarabathi units at the Sandalwood oil divisions.

The M inerva Mills, a private enterprise was established in 1919 in Bangalore. The products
manufactured were 10s to 40s single and folded cloths - shirting, long cloth, dhoties, chaddars and
towels. The first major public sector undertaking was the Mysore Iron and Steel works at Bhadravati,
which was established in 1923 with the- objective of converting the vast iron deposits of
Kemmanugundi in the ranges of the Bababudan Hills into pig iron and manufacture of allied
products. The nomenclature was changed to ‘The Mysore Iron and Steel W orks’ with the
commissioning of cast iron pipe plant, open hearth furnace, rolling mills and a cement plant. In the
year 1962, it was changed into a company called ‘Mysore Iron and Steel Ltd.,’ with Central
Government share of 40 percent its equity. This a departmental undertaking became a Government
company jointly owned by the Central Government and the State Government of Karnataka in the
ratio of 40:60 respectively. In 1975, in order to pay tribute to its founder the name was changed as
‘Visvewarya Iron and Steel Ltd.’ Now it is under the administrative control of the Steel Authority
of India.

The Pierce Leslie and Company, Mangalore (1924), and Siddeshwara and Company, Hubli,
also came up during early twenties. The former was processing cashewnuts and the latter
manufacturing cash chests and steel furniture.

By the late twenties of this century, the old Mysore State had 26 major industrial concerns
excluding the Kolar Gold Fields, the textiles and hydro-electric works. Prior to the States
Reorganisation in 1956, the decade 1931-1941 was the most active period in the economic
development of Mysore.

The M ysore Industrial and Testing Laboratory to produce pharmaceuticals, chemicals, malt
extracts and medicinal specialities was started in 1931 as a Government concern. It was converted
into a joint stock company with the Government hold of 40 percent of its shares in 1945. The Mysore
Match Company, Shimoga, was another enterprise of this time. The Government Silk Weaving
Factory was also established in 1932 at Mysore for manufacture of high grade silk fabrics, sarees,
cholies etc.

The Government Electric Factory was started in 1934 at Bangalore to produce electric
transformers, motors, pumps, transmission towers, etc., The Mysore Sugar Company Ltd., at
Mandya was started in 1933 with Government holding about 55 percent of the shares to produce
sugar, and alcohol such as potable liquors, industrial spirits and power alcohol were the other
important products. The Mysore Paper Mills Ltd., at Bhadravati was established in 1936 with the
Government holding a portion of its shares. The products manufactured were cream laids, writing
and printing bonds, azurelaids, ledger papers and other varieties of paper. The M ysore Spun Silk
Mills at Channapatna was started in 1936 as a public limited company for manufacturing fabrics
out of silk waste. The products manufactured include spun silk yarn, raw silk fabrics, sarees, waste
92 A Handbook of Karnataka

silk druggets, pile carpets, coatings and shirtings, etc. It was under liquidation in 1960 when the
Government took it and is being run as a Government concern.

The Davanagere Cotton Mills was established in 1936 in the private sector with a view to
manufacture cotton yarn, grey and bleached mull, long cloth, dhoti, etc. The Mysore Lamp Works
Ltd., Bangalore was established in 1936 with government holding 17.6 percent o f the shares to
manufacture all types o f incandescent electric lamps, neon signs and other components. The Mysore
Stone ware and Potteries Ltd., Chikbanavar was established in 1937. The products manufactured
were stone ware pipes, and other products and it was managed by the M ysore Industrial
Development Company. The Mysore Tobacco Co. Ltd., a tobacco curing unit was established in
1937. It has curing centres at Mandya, Mysore and Kolar and a grading station at White Field.

The Mysore Chemicals and Fertilisers Ltd., at Belagola (Mysore District) was established in
1937 and it manufactured ammonium sulphate, sulphuric acid, superphosphate, nitric acid, oleum,
anhydrous ammonia and ammonium salt. It is the pioneer in the establishment of the first synthetic
ammonia plant or fertilizer unit in India.

In 1932, the Mysore Government pioneered the manufacture of insulators for the Electric
Department by starting the Government Porcelain Factory. During 1957, the Government obtained
technical collaboration of NGK Insulators Ltd, Nagoya, Japan for the first phase of expansion from
50 tonnes o f ceramics per month to 200 tonnes. The second stage of expansion to 600 tonnes per
month was completed in 1967. In 1967, it was converted into Government Company, viz. Mysore
Porcelains Ltd. In 1976, this company became a subsidary of Bharath Heavy Electrical Ltd. The
insulators manufactured by this company are unique and are of international standard.

The Mysore Vegetable Oil Products Ltd., was established in 1938 at Bangalore. The products
manufactured were hydrogenated oil (Vanaspati) and refined oil.

The Mysore Coffee Curing Works Ltd., was established in 1938 at Chikmagalur. The
manufactured products include curing coffee, steamed bonemeal and other requisites. The Mysore
Implements Factory at Hassan was established in 1939 to produce agricultural, estate and garden
implements and tools, domestic articles, cutlery, sheet-metal work, light structures, ornamental gates
and grills, etc. During 1975 the Karnataka Implements and Manufacturing Company Ltd., was
established, under the provision of the Company Act of 1956. It was formed by the merger of two
erstwhile departmental undertakings of the Government viz, Central Industrial Workshop at
Bangalore and the Mysore Implements Fcatory, Hassan. The Bangalore Factory is currently engaged
in the fabrication of 20 T and 100 T traitors. The other products are road rollers, concrete mixers,
tar boilers, white washing machines, etc. The Hassan unit is manufacturing agricultural implements
like mumties, axes etc.

The Second World War not only gave a greater impetus to all the industries but also made
them self-reliant as foreign materials, machineries and spare parts could not be imported. H ie needs
of the war front were also considerable as little could be imported. The industrial activity expanded
substantially.

Public Sector Units

Alter India became independent Bangalore was selected as the venue for many Central
enterprises. Among the public sector undertakings of the Central Government the following are
iinpornini,
Industries and Power 93

The Bharat Earth Movers Ltd., (BEML) commenced operations on January 1st 1965 in
Bangalore. It is engaged in the manufacture of high technology transportation equipment. Bharat
Electronics Ltd. (BEL) is engaged in the manufacture o f Electronic and Communication equipments
for use by Defence sector, AIR, Meteorology Dept, and Post and Telegraph Dept. The Bangalore
Complex has 19 Ancillary Units. Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd., 1976 (BHEL) has produced for the
first time truly distributed control system in the country. Hindustan Machine Tools Ltd. 1953 (HMT)
has bagged two contracts for supply of machine tools worth Rs.24.15 crore to Bulgaria and Soviet
Union during the year 1987-88. It has also entered into an agreement to render technical assistance
to telephone manufacturing unit in Algeria. It has a wrist watch unit also. Indian Telephone
Industries Ltd., (ITI) is the first public sector undertaking set up in India in 1948 in Bangalore with
five divisions, one each for manufacture of strowger, crossbar transmmission, telephones and
defence equipments respectively. It has also set up three more electronic switching units in the
Seventh Plan period.

Hindustan Aeronautic Ltd., (HAL) was established at Bangalore during 1940 by the noted
industrialist, the late Walchand Hirachand with Central and State Governments as partners. It was
orginally intended to be an automobile factory. The pressure o f the British manufacturers of cars
forced the enterprise to switch over to aircraft servicing and assembling. At the time of the Second
World War, repairing of aeroplane, over-hauling etc., was undertaken. The first fighter jet plane
was manufactured within a period of six months from the date of inception of the unit. During the
war time, the number of workers were around 16,000. After the war, the number of workers was
reduced to 3,000. The Rail Coach Division of the HAL commenced functioning from 1947. During
1951, the administration was taken over by the Ministry of Industries and Commerce and latter by
the Defence Ministry.

HAL made a major contribution for a standardisation of road transport vehicles by producing
pre-fabricated bus body which can be easily assembled by operators in their workshops. It was
during 1964 that all the Aero Engine Units were amalgamated and called the Hindustan Aeronautics
Ltd.. The rail coach division was transferrd to BML. H.A.L has a very reliable and extensive
maintenance division for the repair and over-haul of aircraft, aero engines, accssories and systems.
i

The wide product mix of HAL ranges from rotary and fixed wing aircraft of indigenous design
to the manufacture of jet and piston engines to power them, matched avionics and accessories to
obtain operations capabilities. It manufactures supersonic aircraft designed for specific strike,
combat, interception, observation and suveillance roles equipped with advanced technology power
plants, avionics, accessories and armament. The civilian needs like agricultural, passenger, training
and cargo uplift requirements are also met.

The Wheel and Axle Plant, Bangalore was commissioned on 15th Sept 1984 at a cost of Rs.
146 crores. The plant has unique features incorporating the latest designs and technology in the
manufacture of wheels. At the time of installation the estimated capacity was 56,700 wheels and
23,000 axles. With the introduction of productivity linked incentive scheme in 1990 the plant
capacity has been fixed at 67,500 wheels and 35,250 axles. In 1991-92 there were 69,887 wheels
and 43,470 axles manufactured in this plant.

In addition to these industries, Southern Railway workshops at Mysore and Hubli and others
are also noted Central Government public sector undertakings.
The Karnataka Government has been running many industrial enterprises. They are broadly
divided into seven groups viz.,
94 A Handbook o f Karnataka

Public Utilities : (1) Karnataka Electricity Board; 2) Karnataka State Road Transport Corporation
and (3) Karnataka. Power Corporation. ,,

Financial, institutions : 1) Karnataka State Financial Corporation Limited and (2) Karnataka
State Industrial Investment and Development Corporation Limited.

Development Enterprises (non-commercial) : 1) Karnataka S/C and S/T. Development

Corporation Ltd., 2) Karnataka Backward Classes Development Corporation Ltd., 3) Karnataka
State Police Housing Corporation Ltd,, 4) Karnataka Minorities Development Corporation Ltd.,
and 5) Karnataka State W omen’s Development Corporation. '

Development Enterprises (Commercial) : 1) Karnataka State Handicraft Development

Corporation Limited, 2) Karnataka Agro Industries Corporation Ltd., 3) Karnataka Film
Industries Development Corporation Ltd., 4) Karnataka Fisheries Development Corporation
Ltd., 5) Karnataka Forest Development Corporation Ltd., (?) Karnataka Compost Devlopment
Corporation Ltd., 7) Karnataka Handloom Development Corporation Ltd., 8) Karnataka Leather
Industries Development Corporation Ltd. 9) Karnataka State Electronics Development Corporation
Ltd., 10) Karnataka Cashew Development Corporation Ltd., 11) Karnataka Inland Fisheries
Development Corporation Ltd., and 12) Karnataka State Coir Development Corporation- Ltd.

Service Enterprises : (1) Karnataka Housing Board, 2) Karnataka State Warehousing Corporation,
3) Karnataka State Small Industries Development Corporation Limited, 4) Shree Kahtheerava
Studios Ltd., 5) Karnataka State Construction Corporation Ltd., 6) Karnataka Urban Development
Corporation Ltd., 7) Karnataka State Tourism Development Corporation Ltd., 8) Karnataka
Food and Civil Supplies Corporation Ltd., 9) Karnataka Land Army Corporation Ltd,,
10) Jungle Lodges and Resorts Limited, 11) D. Devaraj Urs Truck Terminals Ltd., 12) Krishna
Basin Lift Irrigation Corporation Ltd. and 13) Cauvery Basin Lift Irrigation Corporation Ltd.

Manufacturing Enterprises : 1) Mysore Sugar Company Ltd., 2) Mysore Paper M ills Ltd.,
3) Mysore Lamp works Ltd., 4) Mysore Tobacco Company Ltd., 5) Mysore Paints and
Varnishes Ltd., 6) Mysore Match Company Ltd., 7) Mysore Chrome Tanning Company Ltd.,
8) Mysore Electrical Industries Ltd., 9) Hutti Gold Mines Company Ltd., 10) New Government
Electrical Factory Ltd., 11) Mysore Acetate and Chemical Company Ltd., 12) Mysore Minerals
Ltd. 13) Mysore Cosmetics Ltd., 14) Karnataka State Agro Corn Products Ltd., 15) Karnataka
State Forest Industries Ltd., 16) Karnataka State Veneers Ltd., 17) Chamundi Machine Tools
Ltd., 18) Karnataka Implements & Machines Company Ltd., 19) Karnataka Agro Proteins
Ltd., 20) Karnataka Vidyuth Karkhane Ltd., 21) Karnataka Silk Industries Corporation Ltd.,
22) Karnataka Soaps and Detergents Ltd., 23) Karnataka Milk Products Ltd., 24) Karnataka
Co- operative Milk Producers Federation Ltd., Karnataka State Textiles Ltd., 26) Karnataka
Telcome Ltd., 27) Karnataka Plywood Ltd, 28) Karnataka Tungsten Moly Ltd., and 29) New
Government Electric Factory (Hubli) Ltd.,

Marketing and Advertising Enterprises : 1) Mysore Sales International Ltd., 2) Marketing

Consultants and Agencies Ltd., 3) Karnataka State Seeds Corporation Ltd., 4) Karnataka Meat
& Poultry Marketing Corporation Ltd., 5) Karnataka Silk Marketing Board Ltd. and 6)
Karnataka Small Industries Marketing 'Corporation Ltd.

Of the Industries of the Post-War years, REMCO is notable! The M ysore Government
established a comapny called, the Radio and Electrical Manufacturing Company Ltd.y at Bangalore,
in the year 1946 to manufacture radios and the components, electricity and water -meters, PVC wires.
Industries and Power 95

and cables. It has three divisions at present Viz Radio Division, Plastic Division and Metal Division.
The capital invested for Radio Division was Rs. 25 lakhs, the then Government of Mysore holding
60 percent of the shares. The other two divisions are wholly owned by th l State Government.
Domestic and Community radio receivers and their component parts are manufactured in the radio
division, extended plastic insulated wires and cables. It has been taken ovef as-subsidary unit of
Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd., . "

The Karnataka State Forest Industries Corporation was established during 1973 with a
proposed equity share capital of Rs.200 lakhs provided by the State Government. The following
projects have been taken up by the Corporation viz, extraction of essential oils, cultivation of pine
apple, cultivation of nutritional grasses, dehydration and pelletisatiqn of the nutritional grasses and
running of saw mills. The decorative veneer factory has been established in 1974 at lC&vachur in
Uttara Kannada District in collaboration with the Indian Plywood M anufacturing Co.T Ltd.
(Dandeli). It produces attractive wood veneers of various types and colours. The M ysore Match
Factory near Shimoga has been revived by an agreement entrerfcd into with West India Match
Company. The saw milling activities have been further expanded by creating two units in Uttara
Kannada. :

Leather Industries Development Corporation Ltd., (LIDKAR) was established in October 1976
in Bangalore. The primary objective of the corporation is to set up a common facility centre,
establishing a raw material depot, financial assistance for various leather industries and establishing
joint sector projects for tanneries, processing and manufacturing of leather goods.

The Karnataka Vidyut Karkhane Ltd, Bangalore was registered in 1976 with aVi authorised
share capital of Rs. 200 lakhs. Its important objpr.tives are to manufacture all kinds of electrical
Operators, electrical machines and equipments required for being used in connection with generation,
transmission, distribution and utilisation of electricity, and all kinds of transformers, rectifiers,
generators etc. It has secured orders for its transformers and motors from all over India and abroad.

The M ysore Lac and P aint Works Ltd., was established in Mysore City with the Government
holding controlling interest. The Thungabhadra Steel Produce Ltd., was established neaf'Hospet in
1952 which was originally started as; a machinery division of the Thungabhadra Reservoir Project.
It was converted into a Shutter manufacturing factory for the manufacture gates, hoists, and
penstocks. This is the only industrial unit which is a joint undertaking of the Government of India,
Government o f Karnataka and Government of Andhra Pradesh'.

- The New Government Electric Factory (N.G.E.F) was established in Bangalore in ,1961 in
technical; collaboration with A.E.G T^lefunkan of West Germany. It was converted into a joint stock
company during 1965. It has the most up-to-date manufacturing facilities with separate factories for
transformers, switch gears, motors, silicon power diodes and rectifiers. The new addition to the
N.G.E.F product is the line of silicon power diodes and power rectifiers. It is making a significant
contribution to the industrial development programmes in the country. _

keonics
In the industrial map of Karnataka, Electronics play a very vital role. It accounts for nearly 20
percent of the total Indian output of about Rs. 10,000 crores worth of items in 1994. In order to
expand the electronics production-base, KEONICS has promoted 10 joint ventures by participating
in equity with foreign companies and Indian industrial houses. The Karnataka State Electronics
96 A Handbook o f Karnataka

Development Corporation of KEONICS

(1976) is involved in the promotion of
electronics industries in the State.
KEONICS activities include establishment
of its own manufacturing units, promotion of
joint venture electronics units, providing
package assistance to entrepreneurs,
assisting industries in producing raw
materials and marketing of end products. It
has established an electronic city on 300
acres of land about 18 km from Bangalore
on the Bangalore-Hosur Road. Being the
centre of electronics industries Bangalore
has a large number public sector electronics
giants such as Bharat Electronics, Bharat
Heavy Electricals Ltd., Indian Telephone
Industries Ltd., Hindustan Aeronotics Ltd.,
Hindustan Machine Tools Ltd., etc., which
provide a market for the electronics goods.

Present Industrial Statas

Karnataka State has evolved from a basically agricultural economy into an industrial one. Its
ranking in the industrial scenario in 1994 is as low as VIII in the country. The growth of industrial
production in the State during the VII Plan was 6.6 percent compared to only 3.6 per cent during
VI Plan. This 6.6 per cent growth is still less than the national industrial growth of 7.6 per cent.

In 1993 there were about 723 large and medium scale industrial units with a total investment
of about Rs. 6071.6 crores, employing about 2,77,547 persons in the State. The districtwise total
number of Large and Medium Scale industries and Workers engaged in them as on 31st March 1993
were as follows: The figures in brackets indicate the workers. Bangalore 323 (1,22,404); Belgaum
30 (16,960); Bellary 21 (8,421); Bidar 16 (2,611); Bijapur 9 (4,565); Chikmagalur 5 (2,638);
Chitradurga 26 (3,211); Dakshina Kannada 34 (7,106); Dharwad 61 (9,728); Gulbarga 14 (10,508);
Hassan 5 (1,027); Kolar 13 (27,630); Kodagu 2 (375); Mysore 88 (20,020); Raichur 22 (9,576)
Mandya 9.(5,015); Shimoga 15 (14,864); Tumkur 19 (5,199); and Uttara Kannada 11 (5,689). These
figures will help to outline the distribution o f industries districtwise.-’H ie small and village industries
comprise around 1,26,000 registered units with an investment of Rs.1,275 crores and employment
of nearly 8,70,000 persons. Besides there were about 8,00,000 unregistered units spread all over the
State providing employment to over three million people. Out of total industrial units in the State
in 1993, there were 17 sugar factories in cooperative sector, two each in public sector and joint
sector and nine in private sector making a total of 30, out of which 29 units are working. O f the
important units are those producing sugar, cement, paper, electric goods and electronic items and
textiles including polyfibres. Bangalore has been termed as the silicon valley and electronic city of
India.
Industries and Power 97

The traditional industry of weaving is a major phenomenon in the State even today. There
were 83,395 handloom units in the State in 1990, of which 10,126 units under cooperative fold,
14,395 units under corporate fold and 58,874 units under private /independent/master weavers.

Sericulture
As in 1990, there were about 14,60,000 hectares of land constituting a little more than one
percent of total cultivable area under mulberry in the State. About 2,94,800 families in about 16,593
villages are engaged in mulberry cultivation and silkworm rearing. The State Government is
supporting the sericulturists by establishing 95 silk farms, 77 Government Grainages, 150 technicial
service centres, 20 model chawki rearing centres, 1,700 chawki rearing centres, four training
schools, 51 cocoon markets, one mini silk exchange with three branches, Five filatures, one twisting
and weaving unit, nine training-cum-production reeling centres and 21 mini filatures. The silk
cocoons produced in the State are produced in about 22,329 reeling basins and 26,020 charkas by
11,560 private reelers located in rural areas. Besides there are about 1,25,000 twisting spindles,
25,000 silk powerlooms and 22,722 silk handlooms operated by private enterprises. The State has
achieved a production of 57,271 tonnes of cocoons and 6,076 tonnes of raw silk by 1990. Karnataka
stands first in raw silk production in India and this labour intensive agro-based industry is fast
expanding but silk grown in Karnataka is mostly multi-voltine, and by-voltine cultivation is also
attempted to; but it is disease prone.

Handicrafts
Karnataka with a rich heritage of
tradition in arts and crafts, is one of the
leading States in handicrafts industry. The
handicrafts of the State include lacquerware,
sandalwood carving, rosewood inlay work,
pith work, toys and dolls, Bidiriware,
decorative pottery, bronze work, cane and
bamboo crafts, leather work, sculpture, gold
and silver jewellary, brocade weaving, horn
carving etc., There are about 1000 identified
master artisans and the coverage of
Handicraft Development Corporation is
included to sixty percent at present. The
assistance given by the department to the
craftsmen include supply of raw materials at
subsidised rates, training o f craftsmen and
intensive development projects in various
crafts. The Corporation has setup complexes
for sandalwood, bidriware, inlay-works and
lacquer ware. It has set up six raw material
depots and nine show rooms besides a
bronze production and design centre at
Bangalore and procurement centre for
Kinhal toys.
98 A Handbook o f Karnataka

Coir Industries
Karnataka ranks second in the
production of coconut and has great
potential for the development of coir
industries. The State Government has set up
a Coir Development Corporation for
promoting coir based industries and to
provide employment in Rural areas besides
procurement-cum-distribution and training
centres.

Khadi and Village Industries:

About 3 lakh artisans are employed in
the Khadi and Village Industries, of whom,
the Karnataka State Khadi and Village
Industries Board has been assisting 1.4 lakh
artisans. The Board has taken steps to
organise new institutions in the uncovered
areas of the State, It also extends assistance
for village industries like oil industry,
carpentry, blacksmithy, leather industry,
soap industry, mat weaving etc., It has also
initiated a concerted drive to install biogas
plants in the State. Karnataka is famous for
Sculptor producing national flags and printed khadi
silk sarees in this sector.

O f the agro-based industries, bee-keeping is also notable and the Western Ghats districts like
Kodagu, Hassan, Chikmagalur and Shimoga produce honey in large quantities.

POWER
Power generation in Karnataka is predominately hydro-based. The Karnataka Power
Corporation and the Karnataka State Electricity Board are the two organisations managing power
in the State. The Karnataka Power Corporation is entrusted with the investigation, execution
operation and maintenance of power projects, whereas the Karnatka State Electricity Board deals
with the transmission and distribution of electricity in the State. The hydro resources of the State
are the richest in India. But they depend upon the rainfall, which although is heavy and assured,
some times is uneven. In order to regulate and utilise the monsoon flow, the situation calls for
building up storages at strategic positions on each of these rivers and convserve water for the
production of energy by suitable means. In 1887, Gokak Mills (formerly Gokak W ater Power and
Manufacturing Company) by an agreement with the Government of erstwhile Bombay State, made
use of 170 ft falls of the Ghataprabha known as the Gokak Falls, to generate power at the foot of
the hills for working their cotton ginning mills situated nearby. It is said that they generated water
power with 3 units of 500 kw each in 1911 and one unit of 1000 kw in 1924 using Fancis Hydro
Turbines.
Industries and Power 99

By 1902, the east-bound Cauvery had been harnessed to generate 4.3 MW at Shivasamudram
making use of the Cauvery falls popularly known as Ganganachukki and Bhara Chukki. The
electricity of this station was supplied to Kolar Gold Mines, a distance of 147 km through 78 KV
transmission lines which at that time was the world’s longest transmission line. Subsequently the
generating station was extended by the second installation in 1903, the third in 1907, the fourth in
1914-15, the fifth in 1918 and the sixth in 1919. The seventh installations was sanctioned in 1925.
The power generated in this station was supplied to Bangalore and Mysore cities besides important
industrial concerns.

The M ahatma Gandhi Hydro-Electric Station was established during 1947-48 on the
west-flowing Sharavati near Jog Falls with an installed capacity of 48 MW. This project is producing
the bulk of energy that is consumed by the State at present.

The Bhadra Power house is at the main dam on the Bhadra river and was commissioned in
1962. The Munirabad Power Station (1962) located on the left bank of the Tungabhadra Dam near
Hospet has three generating units of 9 MW each. The Right Bank Power House releases 14.40 M W
of power to the State, which is 20 percent of the total production and the rest is utilised by Andhra
Pradesh. The Kali Hydro-Electric Project was cleared for execution in March 1971. The work on
Varahi Project has been started in 1979- 80.
The Raichur Thermal Plant is the first power plant of its kind in the State and is the first attempt
to achieve the much needed power mix. The Nuclear Power Project at Kaiga of Uttara Kannada
District put up by the Central Government, will bring in further diversification. There is a proposal
to have diesel power station at Yelahanka near Bangalore, work on which is underway.

The following are the power projects in operation in the State as on 30.4.1993

SI, particulars No.of units Total installed Avg.Annual

No. of each in capacity energy
MW MW generation
in M. Units

1 2 3 4 5

1. Sharavathi Basin:
1. Sharavathi generating station. 7x 103.5 991.8 4380
+ 3 x 89.1
2. Mahatma Gandhi Hydro Electric
Station (KEB Owned) 4x18 + 4x12 120 200
3. Linganamakki Dam Power House 2x275 55 250
4. Diversion Schemes to Linganamakki
Dam Reservoir.
Chakra and Savehaldu
K alinadi Basin:
1, Nagajhari Power House 6x135 810 1
2. Supa Dam Power House 2x50 100 / 3350
V arahi Basin:
1. Varahi Under Ground Power House 2x115 230 1060
2. Mani Dam Power House 2x4.5 9 40
continued
 100 A Handbook o f Karnataka

1 2 3 4 5

IV. Cauvery Basin:

1. Shivasamudram Power House
(KEB Owned) 6x3 + 4x6 42 140
2. Shimsha Power House (KEB owned) 2x8.6 17.2 ■ 130
V. Tungabhadra Basin: *
1. Munirabad Power House. 3x9 27 95
2. TB Dam Bank Power House
(20% of 36 MW) 4x9 7.2 . 55
3. Hampi Power House 4x9 7.2 J
4. Kalmala Mini Scheme. 1x0.4 0.4 2
S. Bhadra Dam Left Bank Power House. 2x12 + 1x2 26 l
6. Bhadra Dam Right Bank Power House 1x7.2 7.2 J 45
7. Ghataprabha Dam Power House. 2x16 32 143
8. Shivapur Hydro Electric Project
(Private Sector - Bhoruka Steel) 2x9 18 114
9. Sirwar MHS lx l 1 5
VI. Diesel sets at Yelahanka 1x20 20 120
VII. Raichur Thermal Power Station
1. State I Unit 1 & 2 2x210 420 2300
2. State II Unit 3 1x210 210 1150

Total 3151 14087

Following are the Power Projects being Commissioned in the State.

SI. Particulars No.of units Installed Annual

No. and capacity capacity energy
of each MW generating
capacity
in M. units

1 2 3 4 5

Kalinadi Basin
1. Kalinadi Stage II
Dandeli Dam Power Hous 2x30 60 212
2. Kalinadi Stage III 2x200 400 1100
Netravathi Basin
3. Sarpadi Barrage Power House 3x30 90 215
4. Netravathi Barrage Power House 2x30 60 150
5. Kumaradhara Barrage Power House 3x16 48 236
6. Gundia High Head Scheme 2x120 ' 240 770
7. Kumaradhara High Head Scheme 2x50 100 330
continued
Industries and Power 101

1 2 3 4 5

A ghanashini Basin:
8. Aghanashini Project 4x150 600 ^2000
9. Bennehole Scheme 1x50 50 210
M ahadayi Basin:
10. Kotni Dam Power House 2x10 20
11. Tailrace Daim Power House 2x125 250 828
12. Krishnapur Underground Power House. 2x150 300
Cauvery Basin
13. Shivasamudra Seasonal Scheme 2x135 270 1590
14. Mekedalu Scheme 2x180 360 722
Krishna Basin
IS. Tamanakal Scheme 4x200 800 2500
16. Krishna Barrage PH 3x9 27 96
17. Bheema River Scheme 2x60 120 293
V aranhi Basin
18. Varahi Stage II 2x15 230
19. Varahi Irrigation Dam Power House 2x20 40 150
Barapole Basin
20. Barapole Hydel Scheme 3x200 600 13000
Mini hydel scheme diversion schemes
Katta, Palna and other diversion
Schemes to Supa reservoir. 200
Diversion scheme to Linganamakki,
Talakalale and Chakra reservoir. _ . 400
T herm al Power
21. Raichur Thermal Power Station Stage
III, Unit 5 1x500 500 2675
22. Vijayanagar Thermal Plant(Hospet)
Stage I & II 3x500 1500 8025
23. Mysore Plant Stage I & II - 160 320

(Source : Karnataka Power Corporation, Bangalore).

Energy Potential
Energy consumption and demand for energy has become exponential in view o f the acute
imbalance that developed in the power sector. At the end of VII Plan, power generation was
11,108 MW, whereas the demand was 19,756 MW leaving a gap of nearly 8,648 MW. The total
import of power and contribution from Central Power sectors amounted to 3,180 MW. It is estimated
that the energy demand position in the State by 1996-97 would be about 24,000 MW as per the 14th
Survey Report.
The power crisis had become acute with the consumption touching an all-time high of 62
million units per day in February 1995. The peak load demand had touched 3,224 MW in the first
102 A Handbook o f Karnataka

week of March 1995. It was 2,800 MW in February 1994 as against the total generation of
2,350 MW in the State from all its Hydro and Hydel generating stations. The consumption of power
for the corresponding period in February 1994 was 57.7 MU, which was then considered as all-time
high. The peak load had touched a maximum of 2,821 MW. The steady rise in the consumption is
attributed to new connections being given every month,energisation of irrigation pumpsets and a
loss of 210 M W of power every day from the fourth unit of the Raichur Thermal Plant. In view of
the acute shortage of power in the State it was programmed to set up medium sized diesel sets whose
gestating period is less. The Government of India is being pursuaded to expedite laying of gas grid
along the coastal line for utilising gas from Bombay High as well as gas pipes from Southern Region
for the generation of power. Apart from the tapping electrical energy from conventional sources
like hydro, thermal, nuclear services, efforts to tap electrical energy from non-conventional sources
like wind, solar and wave energy were also made. Initially generation of electricity from wind power
was started by installing wind mills at Talacauvery in Kodagu District. But it has failed due to
technical faults. The preliminary survey revealed that the Kappatagudda near Gadag was having a
wind source over a belt of 28-30 km long. The Yelahanka Diesel Generating set is installed at the
beginning of the VIII Plan.
The power transmission and distribution system is said to be characterised by several
weaknesses. There are heavy line losses, frequent load shedding and variation in voltage. The
expenditure incurred for transmission and distribution in 1985-86 was Rs.60.63 crores. It was
Rs. 88.89 crores in 1989-90. The total allocation proposed in VIII Plan is R s .l,100.09 crores.

Energy generation in Private Sector

The Government of India has formulated scheme to encourage greater participation by private
enterprises in electricity generation, supply and distribution. The Government of Karnataka has
envisaged a proposal for the generation of at least 2,500 to 3,000 MW of power in coming years.
In case of new industrial units proposing to have captive power units exemption is proposed to be
granted for five years from paying electricity tax. The following are the projects identified for private
sector participation in the State.
I Thermal Projects : Mysore Stage I with an installed capacity of 2x250 MW and II stage
with installed capacity of 2x500 MW.

II Diesel Generating Sets : D.G. sets at Kolar, Bidar, Indi, Jamakhandi with a total installed
capacity of 7.8 MW.

III Hydel Projects : (1) Sarapadi Hydel Project in Dakshina Kannada with an installed
capacity of 90 MW, (2) Mahadayi Hydro-Electric Project in Belgaum district with an installed
capacity of 345 MW, (3) Kalinadi Hydro Electric Project Stage III and Dandeli Dam Power
House with an installed capacity of 60 MW, and (4) Bedthi Hydel Project with an installed
capacity of 210 MW.

IV M ini Hydel Schemes : 1) Kabini Dam Power House 20 MW, 2) Hemavathi RBC
2.0 MW, 3) Kelagoor 2.0 MW, 4) Hemagiri Anicut 1.0 MW, 5) Laxmanathirtha (Capacity
not available), 6) Holalu 0.5 MW, (7) Habbakawadi Branch Canal (NA) 8) Iruppu Falls
5.5 MW, 9) Manjodka 4.0 MW, 10) Balyanthara Halla 4.0 MW, 11) Kutapuzha 40 MW, 12)
Tunga Anicut 20 MW, 13) Hanumanthapura 0.4 MW, 14) Payaswini MHS 3.0 MW, 15)
Mulki Dam 4.0 MW, 16) Shivayogi Mandira 3.0 MW, 17) Karanja 1.0 MW, 18) Upper
Kaveri 3.5 MW, 19) Narayanapura Left Bank Canal 8.5 MW, 20) Yagachi 1.0 M W and 21)
Varahi Irrigation Dam 15.0
Industries and Power 103

Wind Energy Projects

Non-conventional energy production using wind power are proposed at the following places:
I Kappatagudda (Dharwad), 2) Jogimatti (Chitradurga), 3) Gokak (Belgaum District), (4) Malagatti,
(5) Hanumasagar (Raichur District) (6) Bommanahalli and 7) Hanumanamatti (Dharwad District)
. *
.. Thermal Power Project proposed to be allotted or already allotted to private sector are: (1)
Hospet Thermal Power Station (2x250 MW): (2) Raichur Thermal Power Station (2x250 MW) and
(3) Mangalore Thermal Power Station (1000 MW).
Hydel Projects: (1) Almatti-Narayanapura Dam PH and (2) Tamantkal HEP (600 MW).
Mini Hydel Schemes: (1) (a) Shahpur Branch Canal (6.55), (b) Shivapur MHS 2x9MW:
(2) (a) Anveri MHS 1.30 MW; (3) Malaprabha 2.00 MW; (4) (a) Attihalla 0.35 MW,
(b) Tipgondanahalli 0.15MW and (c) Vrishabhavathi Sites 0.25 MW; (5) (a) Link Canal MHS
Mandya, 1.5 MW and (b) Chunchanakatte Scheme 15.0 MW; (6) Madhavamanthri Anicut Scheme
3.5 MW; (7) (a) Devara Belekere MHS 3.0, (b) Maddur MHS 2.0 and (c) Mudhol MHS 1.0;
(8) Dhupdal MHS 2.8 MW; (9) Keerthi Hole MHS 0.21 MW; (10) Hemavathi Irrigation Project
Left Bank Canal MHS 15MW; (11) Anordka MHS 9.0 MW; (12) Harangi Left Bank Canal
4.5 MW; (13) Nugu MHS 2.0MW; (14) Varahi Tailrace MHS - 15MW; (15) Elaneeru MHS
15MW; (16) Kabini Right Bank Canal MHS 1.95MW; (17) CEE VY MHS 6.5 MW. In total
169.65 M W installed capacity of which Shivapur MHS is already commissioned. Out of 26 MHS,
21 MHS are allotted to 13 Indian firms and 5 MHS to two foreign firms.

Karnataka Electricity Board

Unlike the electricity boards in other states, the Karnataka Electricity Board is vested mainly
with the function of transmission and distribution. The KEB purchases power generated by
Karnataka Power Corporation at the rates specified from time to time by the State Government.
Another unique feature is that the two power houses in the Tungabhadra river situated in the State
are owned and operated by Tungabhadra Board which is represented by the State Government of
Karnataka and A.P. and the Government of India, and 20% of the energy generated by these stations
is the share of Karnataka Electricity Board. Further, there is Central allocation to Karnataka from
National Thermal Power Corporation and other agencies. Karnataka has share of 16% out of this.
The following are the salient features of KEB as in 1993 (June): 1) 53,45,805 installation; 2) 45,381
workers; 3) 354 substations of various capacities with an aggregate capacity of 8233.95 MVA;
4) 3,78,543.366 kms o f distribution lines; 5) 79,665 distribution transformers with an aggregate
capacity of 5,154 MVA; 6) 2,21,948 low tension installations and 8) 7,33,000 irrigation pump sets
energised.

Contribution to the Karnataka State Grid from different basins.

1. Sharavalhi Basin 1181.2 MW 37.26%

2. Kalinadi Basin 910 MW 28.77%
3. Raichur Thermal Power Station 630 MW 19.8%
4. Varahi Basin 239 MW 7.57%
5. Tungabhadra Basin (Krishna) 108 MW 3.4%
6. Cauvery Basin 59.2 MW 1.86%
7. D.G.Set Station 42.6 MW 1.34%

Source: Karnataka Power Corporation.

104 A Handbook o f Karnataka

Statement showing the districtwise total number of villages and towns as per 1991 Census
street lights, drinking water, I.P.sets and Bhagyajyotki,

SI. District No.of No. electrified as on 31st March 1994

No. villages &
towns as per Villages &. Hamlets Houses AEH
1991 census towns

1. Bangalore <Sk 728 (4)

2. Bangalore (R) 1,883 (9) 2,384 1,547 7,03,522 4,74,338
3. Belgaum 1,164(20) 1,139 293 2,87,975 35,185
4. Bellary 617(11) 580 429 1,18,669 14,708
5. Bidar 609(5) 593 97 70,500 6,437
6. Bijapur 1,253 (18) 1,227 148 1,57,179 12,414
7. Chikmagalur 1,113(10) 978 597 98,916 11,029
8. Chitradurga 1,478 (10) 1,250 433 1,95,714 27,450
9. Dakshina
Kannada 615 (16) 635 141 2,00,436 61,133
10. Dharwad 1,366(20) 1,320 120 2,82,425 39,846
n. Gulbarga 1,378 (17) 1,298 143 1,27,387 21,941
12. 1lassan 2,552(12) 2,273 471 1,50,144 16,886
13. Kodagu 296 (9) 284 80 34,938 10,696

14. Kolar 3,321 (13) 2,811 841 2,18,872 23,047

15. Mandya 1,478 (11) 1.339 444 1,61,114 14.546

16. Mysore 1,844(15) 1,562 648 2,68,191 54,492

17. Raichur 1,506(13) 1,382 177 1,31,560 9,205

IX. Shimoga 1,957 (15) 1,746 525 1,85,172 24,352

19. Tumkur 2,718(12) 2,438 1,182 2,50,794 27,652

20. ('tiara
Kannada 1,317 (14) 1,244 859 97,803 9,682

Total 27.,066 (254) 26,483 9,175 37,41,311 8,95,039

Sources: 1. Karnataka at a giance 1993-94 &. 2. Karnataka Electricity Board, Bangalore.

Note: Figures in brackets indicate the towns.

 Industries and Power 105

and total number of villages, towns, hamlets, houses, AEH, commercial, L.T., H.T.
electrified as on 31st March 1994 in Karnataka.

commercial L.T H.T Street Drinking I.P. sets Bhagya

lightings lights water Jyothi

1,83,745 84,182 900 70,563 1,855 92,728 64,847

30,873 16,879 128 35,388 1,127 1,01,218 58,663
14,006 6,431 98 27,330 868 31,236 32,061
8,328 2,742 78 11,673 745 34,013 22,952
22,762 10,381 65 38,041 1,134 90,066 49,975
14,508 3,812 19 12,208 681 12,406 19,721
22,721 10,469 77 30,210. 1,430 51,689 44,409

50,534 11,,446 157 22,930 756 63,958 20,205

42,418 14,191 150 60,713 1,884 42,075 62,140
24,807 8,599 79 43,280 1,447 28.390 47.755

17,754 6,102 41 31,422 1,206 21,534 37,642

6,636 1,688 12 3,993 227 3,022 4,787

25.656 8,407 45 31,921 1,501 99.864 55,739

19,972 12,895 49 26,495 868 22.226 32,430

37,929 18,060 195 49,933 1.925 39.983 44,309

21,610 7,548 90 55,467 ' 854 37,875 ' 47,196

22,129 12,468 62 28,207 1,035 20,824 38,609

22.326 11,216 43 38,375 1,180 91,332 45,583

15,013 3,753 70 18,593 511 20.442 34,411

6,03,727 2,51,269 2,358 6,36,742 21,234 9,04,881 7,63,434

[
ii
I
s'f.
106 A Handbook o f Karnataka

Average Annual growth rate in Household Consumption in Karnataka

from 1980-81 to 1992-93

SI. District Domestic A.E.H. Bhagya All

No. Lighting Jyothi Household,

1. Bangalore '

2. Bangalore (R) 7.04 12.10 39.58 10.49

3. Belgaum 12.34 19.75 34.74 20.60
4. Bellary 6.67 13.72 28.69 9.73
5. Bidar 11.02 18.29 23.50 14.56
6. Bijapur 8.36 16.51 28.28 12.04
7. Chikmagalur 7.07 11.99 27.60 9.49
8. Chitradurga 7.21 10.54 24.06 9.96
9. Dakshina Kannada 6.88 16.29 31.56 12.25
10. Dharwad 7.54 13.66 22.97 10.69
11. Gulbarga 9.61 23.44 31.34 23.96
12. Hassan 6.69 11.72 25.01 8.79
13 Kodagu 34.04 29.10 44.69 41.60
14. Kolar 5.03 11.66 29.95 7.61
15. Mandya 5.51 13.21 33.92 8.23
16. Mysore 6.12 12.51 23.10 8.43
17. Raichur 8.87 31.80 43.95 19.44
18. Shimoga 6.93 11.88 39.41 9.73
19. Tumkur 8.63 17.21 34.10 12.86
20. Uttara Kannada 7.46 13.35 28.07 11.14

Source: Report on Household Electrification in Karnataka, Planning Department - 1994

Industries and Power 107

INDUSTRIAL PROSPECTS
(Contributed by Dr. G. Thimmaiah).
In Karnataka, the State Domestic Product originating from the secondary sector is about 24.1 %,
which is almost nearer to all - India figure of 24.7%.The industrial sector of Karnataka is dominated
by the public enterprises because o f the early impetus provided to the State Government enterprises
in the erstwhile state of Mysore and also the subsequent pro-public sector policy of the Government
which was implemented under the planning regime. A recent survey indicates that 556 out of 635
companies can be classified as medium size companies, 67 companies as large companies and 12
companies as very large companies in terms of investment. This classification excludes 67 public
sector companies. The public sector dominates the services sector in transport and communication
and administration of public services.

The economic potential of Karnataka includes: 1) Superior Human Resources which includes
trained technical manpower in Engineering management and basic sciences. 2) Favourable climate
and habitat. 3) High level of research and development facilities originating from a number of
Central Government laboratories and research institutions located in Karnataka. There are 51
Engineering Colleges, 169 Polytechnics, 35 Industrial Training Institutes, 28 Artisan Training
Institutes, Government Tool Room and Training Centre, Nettar Technical Foundation, Central
Institute of Engineering Technology, Indian Institute of Management and Indian Institute of Science.
4) Harmonious industrial relations with peace loving labour. 5) Excellent communication facilities
and accessibility provided by broadgauge railway, airport, national highways and sea ports.

However Karnataka also faces certain constrains which include, 1) Alleged administrative
delay and corruption. 2) Strict labour laws preventing hiring and firing policy to make labour hard
working and imoprove productivity. 3) Power shortage and increasing cost of power. 4) Inferior
quality of telecommunication system. 5) Restriction on purchase of land in both Urban and Rural
areas.
Even so, great oppurtunities exist for investors in the following areas: 1) Production
equipments (other than electrical). 2) Electrical Equipments. 3) Machine Tools & Engineering
Products. 4) Industrial instruments. 5) Scientific Electrical and Medical Instruments. 6) High
Techology reproduction and multiplication equipment. 7) Welding Electrodes other than welding
steel. 8) All food processing industries other than milk food. 9) All packing for all processing
industries. 10) Drugs and Pharmaceuticals. 11) Software. 12) Ship building and repairs and
13) Bio-technology products.
Karnataka has got 123 associations representing various trade, banking and industrial
organisations. There are 73 associations of merchants, 19 associations of manufacturers 14 district
chambers, six associations of professionals, 5 associations of public carriers, 5 associations of
business service and 1 employer’s association. The prominent among the manufacturers association
are Karnataka State Small Scale Industries Association, Confederation of Electronic Industries of
Karnataka and Peenya Industries Association.

All the above 123 associations are affiliated to a parent body that is Federation of Karnataka
Chambers of Commerce and Industries. The FKCCI is in turn affiliated to an all - India Body ie.
Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industries.
The State Government has created several organisations and Institutions to provide
infrastructural support to the private sector enterprises. The Directorate of Industries and Commerce
108 A Handbook o f Karnataka

co-ordinates all activities required for industrial development. It allots to the entrepreneur, power,
land and water besides sanction o f fiscal incentives. Karnataka Industrial Area Development Board
acquires tracts of land for development into industrial sites with usual infrastructural facilities. The
Technical Consultancy Services organisation o f Karnataka offers expert consultancy services to
small enterpreneurs at moderate rates. The Karnataka State Finance Corporation, Industrial
Investment Development Corporation, Small Scale Industries Development Corporation and
Karnataka Electronics Corporation provide them finance, equity participation, factory sheds and raw
material supplies.

Karnataka State has got 691 firms and companies, of which 12 can be reasonably described
as large companies in terms o f capital investment and market shares in the economy. The leading
industrial companies located in Karnataka include: 1) UB Group (fertilizer, distilleries, breweries),
2) Kirioskar (machine tools and electric motors), 3) Khoday (distrileries, breweries), 4) Bhoruka
(steel products), 5) WIDIA (machine tools), 6) MICO (Auto ancilleries), 7) BPL (entertainment and
scientific electronics), 8) Manipal Group (financing & property development), 9) Tata Industries
(info-tech), 10) ACC (cement), 11) Thapar (Caustic Soda), and 12) WIPRO (info-tech)

Foreign investment approved in Karnataka during 1993-94 brought about 169 foreign investors
from Germany, Japan, USA, UK, Switzerland and Sweden. They have invested in computer
software, telecommunications equipments, electronics and electricals, machine tools and
engineering products, medical and laboratory equipments, minerals, ceremics, chemicals, leather
products, food processing and tourism.

Mallya, Laxamansa Khoday, Vijay Kirloskar, Ramesh Pai and Mohan Das Pai,
A.S.Laxamanan, V.T.Velu, T.P.G.Nambiar, A.Shivashailam, M.K.Ramachandra, R.N. Shetty,
Birla, Hasheem Pungee, S.M.Agarwal, R. Ramesh, Narayana Bhat, J.N.Hinduja, M.Y.Ghorpade,
A,K,Abdul Samad, Manmohan hattavar, Dhruva A.M. Sawhney and P.G Jindal are the noted
entrepreneurs in Karnataka.
 Chapter VI
BANKING, CO-OPERATIVES AND TRADE
Karnataka has made great strides in modern banking in India in the course of last one century.
.The functioning of organised sector of Banking was evidenced with the establishment of the
branches of the then The Presidency Banks, i.e., The Bank of Bombay (1840) and The Bank of
Madras (1843) which opened their branch offices at Dharwad in 1863 and at Bangalore Cantonment
in 1864 respectively. In course of time, many more branches of the Presidency Banks were opened
at Belgaum (1867), Mangalore (1867) Hubli (1870) and Kumta (1872-73). Dharwad branch was
opened mainly to facilitate the cotton traders of the Bombay-Karnataka area.

The Unorganised sector of banking was mainly dominated by the local Money lenders or
Sahukars, Zamindars and traders. Money-lending was a profitable business. It was commonly
practised by all communities,. The Marwadis, Gujarathis, Jains, Mahajan, Chettiyars and Multhani
bankers from the North came and settled in important trading centres of Karnataka. They are found
engaged in money lending business even to-day. Bangalore Cantonment area was dominated by the
European money lenders (including widows of army officers) together with the natives. During the
British days even special civil courts were set up to settle such money lending disputes called as
small causes courts.

In the absence of strict regulatory measures which came much later, specially after
independence, the promoting of a banking company was much easier. Small banking companies
with a limited capital base and inexperienced management were the common features. There was
a mushroom growth of banking. Even in semi-urban and rural areas banks were promoted. Nearly
half of the total number o f banks born in the State were registered during 1930-1940. The Swadeshi
movement also contributed much for the growth of commercial banking activities in the State,
specially promoted by the local traders. Most of these banks had a limited life span. In those days,
the banks were started with impressive names to attract the customers, especially on the basis of
religion, caste and community. Many a times, local community spirit reflecting itself in commercial
spirit, contributed much for the faster growth of community banking. This tendency was very much
evident specially in Dakshina Kannada (South Kanara), which is said to be the cradle of modern
banking industry in Karnataka. The contributions of South Kanara district to the modern banking
industry are unique. Branch banking was started here as early as in 1923. During the period of four
decades 1906-1945, the district became the cradle and creche in nursing as many as 22 banks.

Dakshina Kannada continues to be one of the districts in the State and in the country with
largest number of bank branches. The district ranks first in the State on the basis of per branch
deposit and population served, excepting the Bangalore (Urban) District.

In different parts of integrated areas of Karnataka, sporadic commercial banking activities were
ushered in at different times based on local demand, expertise and economic potentialities. In
princely Mysore the period of Commissioner’s rule (1831-1881) was of great significance which
ushered in an era of modernisation by adopting the British system of administration in all spheres
including banking. The establishment of Bangalore Cantonment in 1809, and shifting of the State
Secretariat from M ysore to Bangalore in 1831 gave a fillip to commercial and industrial activity in
Bangalore which was partly supported by the banking institutions.
no A Handbook o f Karnataka

The joint stock banks that were promoted in princely Mysore were Bangalore based banks i.e.,
Bangalore Bank Ltd and Mysore Bank Corporation Ltd, both registered in 1868 with a share capital
of Rs.7 Lakhs and Rs.2 lakhs respectively. As said earlier, Bangalore City including the then
Cantonment area had a rich potentiality and infrastructure which boosted the growth of banking
both in the organised and unorganised sectors.

Between 1868-1876, there were nearly 24 banking companies operating in Bangalore City
area. During the period of six decades i.e., from 1890 to 1949 about 12 banking companies were
founded in Bangalore City but all did not survive. Among the Bangalore based banks, the Bangalore
Union Bank founded in 1890 had a longest service of fifty years before its liquidation in 1940. The
Devanga Bank (1926) was amalgamated with the vijaya Bank in 1963. The Vysya Bank (1930) and
the Bank of Mysore (1913) survived, the latter becoming State Bank of Mysore later.

The royal capital, Mysore, did not lag behind in promoting joint stock banks. In 1874 (six
years later than Bangalore), two banking companie, viz., the Rajadhani Bank and the Town Bank
of Mysore were promoted here and continued to function not beyond 1913. A decade thereafter, in
1885 Nanjangudu Srikanteswara Swamy Bank was promoted. This is the only bank which served
for nearly 80 years till its licence was refused in 1965. During the period of two-and-a half decades
(1884-1908) as many as 17 joint stock companies were promoted here, combining banking and
trading. Among the oldest banks of the princely Mysore which are no more now, a mention may
be made of Chitradurga Saving Bank founded in 1870 at Chitradurga which had a record service
of nearly 96 years before its merger with Karnataka Bank Ltd in 1966.

Agricultural Banks
In the year 1894, the Mysore Government had promoted a new breed of banks styled as
Agricultural Banks, by adopting the principles of limited guarantee of joint-stock companies in their
structure and co-operative principles in their modus operandi. These banks were mainly meant for
extending agricultural credit to the poor farmers at a cheaper rate and to save the peasants from the
ruinous interest rates and exploitation by the money lenders. By 1901, there were 64 such banks in
the princely state. The credit facilities extended by these institutions at cheaper rate was misused
by the big land holders. Many of these banks became defunct and by 1917 all these banks were
closed. This was a unique experiment which failed due to lack of supervision and liberal financial
assistance by the Goverment to these institutions.

In the former Bombay-Karnataka area, where the urban co-operative movement was strong
enough, the ventures for promoting commercial banks by the local merchants were very much
limited. However, some of the earliest efforts to promote local commercial banks in this region
were: the Union Bank of Bijapur and Sholapur (1908), Bagalkot Commercial Bank (1922), Sri
Lakshmi Bank, Hangal (1929) of Dharwad Dt, Hubli City Bank (1930), Belgaum Bank, Belgaum
(1930) and the Bank of Citizens (1939) Belgaum. The earliest commercial bank to be founded for
Uttara Kannada district was Bank of Rural India founded at Karwar in 1940. By 1930-40, the
Bombay and Mangalore based banks specially Canara, Syndicate, Corporation Bank, Union Bank,
S.B.I., Central Bank of India opened their branches in the commercial towns of Bombay-Karnataka.
In the former Hyderbad-Karnataka areas, till the establishment of the State - owned Hyderabad
Bank in 1941, there were no conspicuous commercial banking ventures. However, from Gulbarga
district,the Saraswati Bank (1922), Gulbarga Banking Co. (1930), Commercial Banking Company,
Yadgiri (1938) were some of the earlier banking enterprises. Raichur had two banks i.e, Sri Sharada
Banking Co., (1937) and Osmania Aziz Bank (1933). Bidar had no commercial banks till 1946.
Banking Co-operatives and Trade 111

There have been remarkable changes in the banking in the country, specially after the
nationalisation. Out of the 20 nationalised banks in the country, four are from Karnataka viz.,
Corporation Bank (1906), Canara Bank (1906), Syndicate (1925) and Vijaya (1930), all originating
from Dakshina Kannada. Among the private sector banks the Vysya Bank Ltd., Bangalore (1930)
and Karnataka Bank Ltd., Mangalore (1930) are the leading banks of the State, having branches
outside the State also. The concept of ‘classbanking’ has been transformed into the concept of ‘mass
banking’. Now, Banks are considered as active instruments in bringing the socio-economic
transformation at the grass-root level. They are playing vital role in the implementation of economic
policies of the State and the Central Government according to plan priorities. In lending, the policy
of creditworthiness of the purpose has dominated over the creditworthiness of the person. There is
a remarkable change in the lending policy of banking institutions. Now, lending policy is target and
priority sector oriented. Both public sector and private sector including co-operative banks in the
State have actively responded continously to the national policies of banking. In the popular loan
mela programmes (1985-1987), the banks of Karnataka did not lag behind; so also in the promotion
of Grameena Banks. Tne innovative banking policies like Lead Bank Scheme, loans under D.I.R.,
IRDP, 20 Point Programmes, Anthyodaya, adoption of villages by commercial banks and
cooperatives for their allround development, and the latest services area approach to lending in rural
area etc., have been fully implemented by the banks working in the state. Many commercial banks
in the state have diversified their activities towards merchant banking, leasing, housing etc.

Since 1976-77, after the establishment of Grameena banks, better and intensive banking
services are provided in the rural areas. Now, rural area is better served than before in 1969. All the
districts of the State are covered by the Grameena Banks which have reduced the imbalanced
economic growth between the urban and the rural areas to a certain extent. There are 13 Grameena
banks in the State with 1,076 branches as in 1994 March. The Planning Commission has identified
Karnataka as one of the advanced States based on per capita income. Karnataka is considered as
better served in respect of availability of banking services.
In 1990, in terms of the ratio of number of banks serving per lakh population, Karnataka stood
in the fourth rank in the country having 9.5 number of bank offices per lakh population, as against
7.1 bank offices at the all-India level. The developed States in this regard other than Karnataka are
Gujarat, Haryana, Maharashtra, Punjab and West Bengal. From among the list of developed states,
the rank of Karnataka was 2nd. The spread of banking services in the rural areas was much better
in Karnataka when compared to some other developed States. The spread of number of banks in
rural segments per lakh population was 8 in the State, being next only to Punjab where it is 9. The
C.D.ratio of rural banks in the State was the highest among the States i.e. 107.4% in June 1990, as
against all-India C.D.R. of 65.2%. The C.D.ratio of semi-urban branches also was the highest in
Karnataka (76.9), compared to the national ratio of 50.5%. The geographical spread of rural branches
in the State which was only 25% in June 1969 has now increased to 55% in March 1989. This was
mainly due to rapid expansion of Grameena Banks all over the State. The lending of commercial
banks to priority sector including weaker sections has exceeded the stipulated target of 40% fixed
by the R.B.I. In Karnataka, of the total lending the share of the priority sector was 45% (Rs.3,487
crores) as in 1991.
Karnataka is in the 8th rank among the major States in per capita deposit, Which being
Rs.2,362. The per capita advance was Rs. 1,844 which was higher than the national average of
Rs. 1,570, though it was lower than Maharashtra (Rs.3,801), Punjab (Rs.2,201), Tamilnadu
(Rs.2,438). The deployment of credit was better in the State compared to all-India figures.
 112 A Handbook o f Karnataka

During the past decade( 1982-92), an increase in the number of banking companies newly
operating in the state is evidenced. Many banking companies incorporated outside the State, have
also entered the banking map of Karnataka. In addition to 28 public sector banks, there are 18 private
sector banks, 13 RRBs are operating in the State. There are two branches of foreign banks operating
in Bangalore viz., the A.N.Z. Grindlays Bank (June 1951) and the Hong-Kong & Shanghai Banking
Corporation (1992). There is an increased involvement of bank funds in various economic activities
of the State. The ratio of investment plus credit to deposit (ICD) worked out for the scheduled
commercial banks in the State showed an increase from 88.7% in March 1981 to 102.5% in
December 1987. This was higher than the national ICD Ratio of 69.9%. The total investment made
by commercial banks in Karnataka in the State/Central Government loans floated during 1991-92
were as follows: Central Rs. 64 crores, State Development Loan Rs.14.10 crores; other State Loans
Rs.4.50 crores (RBI Report). Recognising the growing banking business in Karnataka the RBI
opened its branch at Bangalore in 1953. The total number of employees working in the RBI
Bangalore branch office was 1,695 by Sept. 1992.

Some key indicators of commercial banks in the State as in March 1992 were as follows:-
C.D.R.: 77.2%; Loans under D.I.R: Rs. 7167.3 lakhs; Loans under 20 point economic programme:
Rs.1,21,513 lakhs; Loans under IRDP: Rs.26,174 lakhs; Priority sector advances: Rs. 3,47,005
lakhs; percentage of priority sector to total advances 42%; per branch deposit Rs.251.75 lakhs;
per branch advance Rs.194.24 lakhs; rural deposits: Rs. 1,57,318 lakhs; rural advances:
Rs. 1,24,724 lakhs.

The tables given below indicate some of the latest information of banking activities in the
State.

District-wise distribution of the number of Branches, Aggregate Deposit and

Gross Bank Credit of Scheduled Commercial Banks in Karnataka
for some years, from 1969 to 1993-94 (Amount in Crores Rs.)

Districts 1969 1975 1980 1985 1990-91 1993-94

(March)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Bangalore Branches 150 306 540 660 637 657

Deposits 101 265 792 1479 4820 6538
Advances 90 378 727 1531 4304 5493

Bangalore Branches - - - - 101 102

(Rural) Deposits - - - - 132 184
Advances - - - - 111 . 138

Belgaum Branches 64 125 201 256 282 284

Deposits 18 45 122 225 594 783
Advances 8 26 62 150 370 423

Bellary Branches 30 64 111 156 172 172

Deposits 5 14 43 80 231 329
Advances 7 17 45 97 227 289

Continued
Banking Co-operatives and Trade 113

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Bidar Branches 7 19 36 69 90 92
Deposits 1 3 11 25 99 139
Advances 1 2 8 21 72 91

Bijapur Branches 40 80 118 204 239 240

Deposits 6 17 47 101 295 404
Advances 3 11 26 73 ' 192 251

Chikmagalur Branches 31 59 79 125 130 130

Deposits 5 15 45 76 202 266'
Advances 4 15 37 67 173 210

Chitradurga Branches 21 57 80 182 195 199

Deposits 4 14 39 79 236 321
Advances 6 17 33 78 206 240

Dakshina Branches 168 288 372 427 462 472

Kannada Deposits 40 96 257 504 1370 1928
Advances 23 63 144 312 855 884

Dharwad Branches 63 134 203 286 326 332

Deposits 16 42 110 215 568 778
Advances 6 28 67 148 363 455

Gulbarga Branches 19 38 107 146 168 170

Deposits 4 10 34 74 253 360
Advances 2 5 19 56 180 217

Hassan Branches 32 59 85 129 155 155

Deposits 4 13 41 76 218 293
Advances 3 12 28 60 165 196

Kodagu Branches 27 57 68 99 108 108

Deposits 6 15 42 72 178 250
Advances 3 8 25 42 109 121

Kolar Branches 20 52 84 152 185 186

Deposits 3 12 39 71 222 302
Advances 1 7 . 22 63 163 187

Mandya Branches 16 47 72 93 127 127

Deposits 2 8 27 47 151 199
Advances 1 6 15 40 113 132

Mysore Branches 48 109 189 239 251 257

Deposits 16 42 111 211 650 896
Advances 8 27 79 178 458 545

Raichur Branches 26 52 101 151 161 162

Deposits 3 9 33 70 212 280
Advances 3 11 32 72 187 221

Continued
114 A Handbook o f Karnataka

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Shimoga Branches 36 89 111 149 175 180

Deposits 8 20 53 101 288 380
Advances 14 22 51 111 278 314

Tumkur Branches 19 55 88 147 179 182

Deposits 4 12 39 79 .244 328
Advances 1 9 23 59 154 193

Uttara Branches 34 78 105 121 157 158

Kannada Deposits 7 19 48 93 253 340
Advances 2 8 20 53 113 128

Karnataka Branches 851 1847 2750 3791 4300 4364

(Total) Deposits 255 671 1934 3676 11216 15298
Advances 186 669 1460 3213 8793 10728

* Deposits and Advances were rounded off to the nearest crore of Rupees and hence the district totals need not
tally with the State Figures.
NOTE : Since 1986 Bangalore District has been bifurcated into two separate districts Viz. Bangalore
Rural District and Bangalore District.
Source : 1. Pigmy Economic Review Feb.1984, Syndicate Bank.
2. Karnataka at a glance 1990-91 and 1993-94, Directorate of Economics & Statstics, Bangalore.

Districtwise banking particulars in Karnataka as in 1992-93

District. Commercial Bank Grameena Bank Total deposits Total loans C.D.
Branches Branches (Rs. crores) (Rs. crores) Ratio

1. Bangalore 640 12 6001 5258 88

2. Bangalore (R) 76 25 153 128 82
3. Belgaum 195 86 673 389 58
4. Bellary 93 80 268 267 100
5. Bidar 55 37 112 79 71
6. Bijapur 155 84 334 217 65
7. Chikmagalur 104 26 229 190 83
8. Chitradurga 100 - 96 262 225 86
9. Dakshina Kannada 449 22 1622 761 47
10. Dharwad 205 123 663 400 60
11. Gulbarga 94 75 302 200 66
12. Hassan 113 42 251 182 72
13. Kodagu 90 18 202 120 59
14. Kolar 120 66 251 180 72
15. Mandya 101 26 173 121 70
16. Mysore 180 73 729 515 71
17. Raichur 78 84 246 405 83
18. Shimoga 147 28 328 305 93
19 Tumkur 129 50 282 174 62
20. Uttara Kannada '132 25 287 120 42
Banking Co-operatives and Trade 115

Co-operative Movement
Karnataka has a fascinating history of Co-operative Movement. Co-operative culture in various
economic activities in the State is clearly evident. It is deep-rooted since the official launching of
the movement in 1904. Karnataka ranks the 5th in the country in the overall performance and
progress of the movement. In the State, almost every village has a co- operative society of one type
or the other. The orbit of the movement is so wide that there are as many as 33 different categories
of co-operatives in the State including Multistate units and State level Apex institutions numbering
20. The first primary agricultural credit society to be founded in the country was at Kanaginahal
(Gadag tq) of Dharwar district on 8th May 1905, and it is still functioning. Similarly, the first Urban
Co-operative credit society to be organised in the State was at Betageri on 18-10-1905 (Dharwad
Dt., now defunct). The Swadeshi Movement of 1905 inspired many local leaders and social workers
to start the co-operatives to cater to their local needs. Bangalore City Consumers Co-op. Society
started in December 1905 is said to be the first Co-operative institution in princely Mysore. By
1906, the places like Belgaum, Gokak, Mysore, Hubli, Dharwad, and Sira, were having their urban
co-operative Banks.

The erstwhile princely Mysore State had promoted a unique breed of financial institutions
called " Agricultural Banks" in i894, a decade earlier to the official launching of the Co-operative
Movement by the Government. The modus operandi of agricultural banks was such that they had
imbibed co-operative principles though their constitution was of public company, limited by
guarantee.

Since 1912, the diversification took place in the Co-operative Movement. In course Of time,
non-agricultural and non-credit socities emerged in large number all over the state. In the early
years, the Governments of Princely Mysore and the Bombay Presidency earnestly encouraged the
spread of the movement in rural areas by extending special incentives and appointment of honorary
co-operative supervisors to guide the co-operative institutions.

It is interesting to know that in order to cater to the needs of the local people, special economic
activities like fencing, hunting, bunding, cattle breeding, insurance, fanning, grain banks, fisheries,
forest labour, special marketing, education, irrigation, house building, consumer goods selling etc.,
were undertaken under co-operative sector much earlier.

Holding the taluk and district level co-operative.conferences to»review the progress of, the
movement was regular feature in Bombay-Karnataka area in 1920-1930. In order to propagate the
principles of co-operation in the rural areas and to have a mass appeal there was a special drama
troupe to propagate the idea of co-operation at Amminabhavi of Dharwar Dt. Many of the District
Central Co-operative banks, specially the banks working at Dharwad, Madikeri, Sirsi, etc., came to
the help of groaning indebted farmers during the Economic Depression of 1929-30 when the
movement in general had also received a set-back. Many of the farmers could not pay their overdues
to the banks. Though these co-operative banks purchased the pledged properties of the debtors, the
same was returned to them without any profit when the debt was cleared. This siprit of co-operation
helped those co-operative banks to grow further when the economic conditions improved. Many
banks arranged debt reconciliation Boards for settlement of loans.

Karnataka has many firsts in the co-operative ventures in the country. The Hubli Cotton Sales
Society Ltd., Hubli organised in 1915 is considered to be the first Indian co-operative marketing
society. The Farmers Service Society (FSS) sponsored by Canara Bank in 1973 at Bidadi in
Bangalore District is such first society in the country. Similarly, the Sports Promotion and
116 A Handbook o f Karnataka

Development Society at Chandargi of Belgaum district is a unique organisation o f all-India

importance founded in 1984. Hulkoti Co-op. Education Society (1921), J.G.Co-operative Hospital
at Ghataprabha (1951, Belgaum Dt.) and Rural Electricity Society at Hukeri of Belgaum Dt. (1969)
are some of the earliest special types of co-operatives in the State. The Hiranyakeshi Co-op. Sugar
Factory of Sankeswar of Belgaum Dt. founded in 1956 is considered as one of the best co-operative
Sugar Factories in the State. (These are the few examples). Karnataka is one of the leading States
in the country where the urban Co-op. Bank movement has emerged strong. Karnataka ranked 3rd
in the country next only to Gujerat and Maharashtra. Karnataka is the first State in the country to
have the Federation of Urban banks (1965).

It is conspicuous that after the Reorganisation of the State, the orbit of the Co-operative
movement has been expanded in all its spheres. Some of the apex institutions at the district and the
State level have established their record growth vertically and horizontally. Increased financial
participation in the form of share capital, subsidy, grants etc. by the Central and State Government,
N.C.D.C. etc., have facilitated the increase in the number of co-operatives. Many of the major
industries like spinning, cotton processing, textile, sugar, tiles, food processing etc. have been started
in the State in the cooperative sector.

During 1976-77, most of the economically non-viable, weak primary societies were
amalgamated. This process of amalgamation on large scale, strengthened the base of primary
societies and their number was reduced considerably.

The districtwise number of co-operative institutions (including the now defunct) in the State
as on 30th June, 1992 was as follows: Bangalore City 1,906, Bangalore rural 1,300, Kolar 1,617,
Tumkur 1,289, Chitradurga 1,183, Shimoga 918, Belgaum 2,570, Dharwad 2,324, Bijapur 1,315,
Uttara Kannada 676, Mysore 1,821, Mandya 1,252, Hassan 962, Chikmagalur 407, Kodagu 411,
Dakshina Kannada 1,186, Gulbarga 995, Raichur 719, Bellary 865 and Bidar 762.

Recognising the prominent position of the State in the co- operative sector, the Institute of
Co-operative Management was founded in Bangalore (1962). In 1990, the National Agricultural
and Rural Development Training Institute was founded at Bangalore to train the bank and
co-operative sector officials.

The tables given below indicate the comprehensive picture of the trends of growth of
co-operative movement in the State for some recent years. (See page 117)
Banking Co-operatives and Trade 117

Categorywise number of Co-operatives in Karnataka State

Sl.No. Co-operative Societies 89-90 90-91 91-92

1 2 3 4

1. Primary Agricultural Credit Societies:

a. P..A..C..S 4,448 4,448 4,212
b. Fanner’s Service Societies 214 214 210
c. Large sized Agri. Multi-purpose Soc. 19 19 19
2. Primary Co-op Agril. and Rural Dev. Banks 177 177 177
3. Grain Banks 154 154 151
4. Urban Banks (under RR ACT) 218 218 206
5. Employees Credit and other Credit Soc. 7 7 7
6. Urban Banks (Non.RBI Act) 17 17 17
7. Employees and other Credit Soc. 1533 1543 1592
8. Marketing Societies-General Purpose 187 187 189
9. Specialised Commodity Marketing Societies 210 212 339
10. Processing Societies 32 32 32
11. Sugar Factories 22 21 22
12. Milk Supply Societies:
a. Unions 13 13 13
b. Societies 5549 5559 6178
13. Live Stock Societies 57 56 72
14. Farming Societies 292 292 242
15. Irrigation Societies 661 661 564
16. Fisheries Societies 255 241 272
17. Weavers Societies 659 659 726
18. Other Industrial Societies 1339 1331 1376
19. Cold Storage Soc. 1 1 -
20. Spinning Mills 18 18 18
21. Consumer:
a. Whole Sale 31 32 32
b. Primary 1595 1597 1618
22. Housing Societies 1601 1601 1606
23. Industrial Estates 8 8 8
24. ' Labour Contract Societies 232 232 212
25. Forest Labour Societies 46 46 45
26. Transport Societies 26 26 28
27. Other Non-Credit Societies 428 441 408
28. Women’s Co-operative Societies 402 402 421
29. Students Co-operative Societies 199 199 200
30. Electricity Co-operative Societies 13 13 10
31 Multi-Unit Co-opet.Vive Societies 2 2 2
t
118 A Handbook o f Karnataka

General Progress of the Co-operative Movement in the State

SI. Particulars 1989 1990 1991 1992

No.

1. No. of societies 25,709 25,597 25,853 25,673

2. Membership (in lakhs) 112.35 114.26 117.97 128.00
3. Share capital (in crores) 409.36 420.57 431.08 441.86
4. Deposits (in crores) 906.72 917.85 940.80 964.32
5. Advances (in crores) 695.84 713.42 731.25 734.91
6. Working capital (in crores) 3042.41 3081.30 3158.33 3237.29
7. Villages covered by Co-ops. 100% 100% 100% • 100%
8. No. of Agril. families
covered by Co-ops. 88% 88% 88% 88%
9. Coverage of Membership to
total population 30.25% 30.77% 30.77% 28.57%
10. Coverage of Membership to
Adult population 51.12% 53.05% 53.05% 50.86%

Regulated Markets
Establishment of regulated markets specially for agricultural produces went a long way in
providing fair and remunerative prices to the growers. The need for the establishment of Regulated
Markets specially in respect of agricultural produces was keenly felt as early as in 1928 by the Royal
Commission on Agriculture. In different parts of integrated Karnataka efforts were made to stablish
regulated markets in a phased manner depending upon the potentialities. In the former Bombay
Karnataka area, as early as in 1927, major cash crop cotton was the first commodity to be brought
under regulation under the Bombay Cotton Market Act 1927. In the former Hyderabad Karnataka
area regulated markets came into being in 1930. In the Madras-Karnataka area, Madras Commercia!
Crop Act of 1993 was ushered in to regulate the marketing of commercial crops. In a tiny State.
Kodagu, coffee being the main commercial crop, marketing of it was covered under Coffee
Marketing Expansion Act 1942, and Coffee Act of the Central Government.

In the former Mysore State, Mysore Agricultural Produce Markets Act 1939 was enacted for
the purpose. The First Market Committee to be established in old Mysore was at Tipatur under
which the trade of copra and coconut was regulated. The Reorganisation of the State in 1956 brought
in its control 54 regulated markets governed under differnt Marketing Legislations that were in force
including marketing personnel and market committee officials. In 1966, an Act, more
comprehensive, uniform and applicable to the entire State known as Karnataka Agricultural Produce
Marketing (Regulation)was enacted and brought into force from May 1968.

There is a State Agricultural Marketing Board (1978) to guide, regulate, co-ordinate and
finance developmental activities of regulated markets in the State. The activities of the Board are
mainly promotional. Karnataka is the first State in the country to manage a college at Hubli (1964)
for training of officials and other members engaged in agricultural marketing and allied activities.
Again Karnataka is the first State to cover hamals and weighmen of the A.P.M.Cs. under group
insurance, and selected APMCs. are extending advances to farmers upto Rs. 10,000 on pledge of
produces.
 Banking Co-operatives and Trade
Districtwise Spread of Co-operatives in the state

Ac on 31-3-92

Credit Co-op. Societies Non-Credit Co-operative Societies Membership (’000)

District Agri­ Non Total Market­ Hous­ Milk Others Total Credit Non-credit
culture Agri- ing ing
Culture

1. Bangalore 49 • 309 358 6 358 155 471 990 93 598

. 2. Bangalore(R) 157 27 184 8 19 608 156 791 206 208
3. Belgaum 478 256 734 23 161 438 776 1398 344 482
4. Bellary 164 41 205 48 41 127 327 543 209 209
5. Bidar 171 13 184 7 49 256 135 447 104 144
6. Bijapur 409 121 530 49 101 344 658 1150 292 220
7. Chikmagalur 113 26 139 11 24 100 73 208 129 50
8. Chitradurga 216 87 303 55 65 194 202 516 228 150
9. D.Kannada 165 61 226 16 67 275 458 816 351 195
10. Dharwad 393 182 575 91 240 458 755 1544 291 385
11. Gulbarga 232 58 290 10 92 129 493 724 161 206
12. Hassan 161 40 201 16 35 409 120 580 170 161
13. Kodagu 73 17 90 16 4 51 261 332 97 80
14. Kolar 219 37 256 15 35 707 162 1009 279 284
15. Mandya 214 41 255 14 39 551 258 860 284 324
16. Mysore 276 131 407 33 103 538 496 1170 381 460
17. Raichur 205 24 229 86 52 121 230 489 199 155
18. Shimoga 232 64 296 17 35 251 181 484 214 169
19. Tumkur 249 73 322 12 34 538 210 794 341 247
20. Uttara Kannada 158 48 206 22 41 112 280 455 138 265

119
Total 4334 1656 5990 555 1593 6452 6700 15300 4508 4992
120 A Handbook o f Karnataka

Since the implementation of the Regulated Markets Act in 1968, efforts are being made to
bring more and more new areas and notified commodities under the regulation. By 1978-79, the
number of markets increased to 115, and that of sub-markets to 201, With this, Karnataka ranks the
6th in the country in respect of regulated markets and sub-markets. By 1991-92, the State had 116
main markets and 303 sub-markets. The Divisionwise distribution of markets and sub-markets were
as follows
Belgaum 39 (118), Bangalore 33(72), Gulbarga 26(63), Mysore 18(50) (The number in the
brackets indicates the number of sub-markets)

The largest number of Main Markets i.e., 16 are in Dharwad district followed by Belgaum and
Tumkur districts with 10 each. Even in the case of sub-markets Dharwad district has the largest i.e.,
35 followed by Belgaum district with 30. The number of Regulated Markets are more in the former
Bombay-Karnataka area because of the earlier implementation of the Regulated Markets Act and
the coverage of the wider areas under the market regulations.
During the year 1991-92 APMCs. in the State had handled the notified commodities valued
at Rs.3,347.86 crores and of them agricultural produces alone were valued at Rs.3194.43 crores and
the restwere livestock worthRs. 153.53 crores. The market fees collected for 1990-91 and 1991-92
wefle Rs.25.34 and Rs.32.57 crores respectively, while the licence fee collected accounted to
Rs.77.27 and Rs. 137.73 lakhs respectively.

Number of Regulated Markets (As on 31-3-92)

District Main Sub Total Turnover

■(Rs. Crores)

1. Bangalore 1 1 2 380
2. Bangalore (R) 2 8 10 n
3. Belgaum 10 30 40 190
4. Bellary 5 14 19 125
S. Bidar 5 9 14 48
6. Bijapur 7 25 32 164
7. Chikmagalur 2 7 9 41
8. Chitradurga 6 15 21 218
9. Dakshina Kannada 3 4 7 238
10. Dharwad 16 37 53 383
11. Gulbarga 8 20 28 101
12. Hassan 5 14 19 65
13. Kodagu 3 3 6 65
14. Kolar 8 14 22 68
15. Mandya 3 7 10 71
16. Mysore 6 13 19 121
17. Raichur 7 22 29 354
18. Shimoga 6 17 23 255
19. Tumkur 10 19 29 133
20. Uttara Kannada 7 25 32 130
Total 120 304 424 3161
Banking Co-operatives and Trade 121

Important markets
There are certain important markets for certain notified commodities, spread all over the state.
Based on the quantity of arrivals of notified commodities during 1990-91, the following are the
important regulated markets for some important produces:

Cotton : Raichur, Gadag, Hubli, Davanagere, Dharwad, Chitradurga, Bellary, Nargund,

Ranebennur, Bailhongal, Soundatti, Kundgol and Annigeri.

Groundnut: Gadag, Ranebennur, Hubli, Bijapur, Talikoti, Ramdurg, Davanagere, Badami, Gokak,
Gulbarga and Challakere

Dry Chillies : Byadagi, Ranebennur, Haveri and Hubli.

Jaggery : Bagalkot, Bijapur, Belgaum, Mahalingapur, Bhadravathi, Bangarpet, Jamkhandi,
Chamarajanagar, Mandya, Kollegal and Sankeshwar.

Areca : Shimoga, Sagar, Sirsi, Mangalore and Kumta.

Coconut : Kadur, Tarikere, Mangalore, Tiptur, Arsikere, Chamarajanagar, Mandya and
Channarayapatna.

Fruits, Flowers & Vegetable : Bangalore, Mysore, Belgaum and Dharwad.

Paddy : Mandya, Shimoga, Raichur, Harihar, Davanagere, Gangavathi, Hospet, Sindhnoor, Hangal,
Sirsi, Honnavar, Gonikoppal, Mangalore and Kollegal.

Jowar : Hubli, Gadag, Haveri, Belgaum, Bijapur, Gulbarga and Bidar.

W heat : Hubli, Gadag, Bijapur and Belgaum.
R agi : Hosadurga, Madhugiri, Davangere, Tumkur, Chintamani and Bangarpet.
Tur and D a l : Gulbarga, Bidar, Yadgir, Sedam and Raichur.
Betel leaves : Honnavar, Dharwad, Ranebennur, Savanur, Tumkur and Channapatna.
Onion : Bangalore, Chikballapur, Davangere, Challakere and Mysore.
Potato : Mysore, Malur, Chikballapur, Bangalore and Hassan.
Spices : Madikeri, Gonikoppal, Mudigere and Sakleshpur.
Silk : Ramanagar, Channapatna, Kanakapura, Sidlaghatta, Vijayapura and Kollegal
 Chapter VII
TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATIONS
Existence of early road system and flourishing trade centres in ancient Karnataka has been
recorded in the inscriptions. A big road was connecting Terdal and Halasi which were two important
commercial centres in North Karnataka, according to a record of 1123 A.D. A Chola inscription
reveals about a major road running from Tanjore to Kalyana (Basava Kalyana, Chalukyan capital).
Another big road or ‘doddamarga’ was connecting Konkan area with the interior Karnataka and a
place on the borders of Goa has that name even now. There were aravattiges (where drinking water
was provided), choultries and shady groves all along such roads. Ferries and boats were operating
across rivers and streams. Goods were transported on head load, bullocks, asses or he-buffaloes.
Carts were moving wherever roads existed. One bridge was connecting Hampi and Anegondi across
the Tungabhadra river. A similar old bridge is seen at Srirangapattan.

Construction o f roads in the Bombay Karnataka area was started after 1856. Among them,
Belgaum-Hubli road on the Pune-Harihara route and Dharwad-Mundgod-Sirsi-Kumta roads were
prominent. The oldest road in the Gulbarga area, is the road from Gulbarga to Firozabad via Kotnur,
Nandikere, Sirur and Parwatabad. The road development activity in the Kodagu area was started
actually after 1834, by the British. Some roads opened or improved in Dakshina Kannada District
between 1837 to 1843. Madras was connected with Mangalore via Bangalore, M ysore and Madikeri.
The Mangalore road which runs through Sampaje Ghat from Madikeri was started in 1837. In the
early days, condition of roads in Bijapur district were not satisfactory. There were only two roads
in 1820, and the First one was between Shikaripur to Bijapur and Sholapur while the second one
connecting sea coast with the N izam ’s territories through Bagalkot.

The turn of 19th century, saw the beginning of all-round development of road network through
out the State. From 1930 onwards the roads under Bombay Presidency, were classified as Class 1,
Class II-A, II-B and Class IE, depending on the importance of such roads. The Chiplun (Ratnagiri
dist) - Hyderabad Class I Road, was passing through Bijapur district. Another Class I road
originating from Sholapur was connecting Bijapur with Hubli. The most important link in the
northern circle of the presidency, was Pune-Bangalore road. In the days of Commissioner Cubbon,
he saw to it that Bangalore, the capital of M ysore state was connected with all district headquarters
and by the time he left ofFice (1861), the State had 1,597 miles of new roads and 309 bridges.

The road communication system in the Old Mysore State was very good in the
pre-independence period. Roads were classified as State Fund roads and District Fund roads - for
the purpose of construction and maintenance. Till 1943, there was no systematic classification of
roads in the country. Later according to the Nagpur Plan in 1943, the roads were classified into
National Highways, State Highways, Major District roads, Other district roads and Village roads.
In 1951, the road length in Dakshina Kannada was about 2,000 km. At the time of merger of Bellary
with the Old Mysore State in 1953, the length of the roads was 1,218 km. In 1956, the integrated
State had 43,182 km road length, of which 26,423 km was from Old Mysore, and the share of
Bombay Karnataka and Hyderabad Karnataka was 11,260 km and 2,478 km respectively. The
districts of Dakshina Kannada and Kodagu had a road lenght of 2,109 km and 912 km, respectively.
Transport and Communications 123

Development of Roads
In 1956, the road length including that of the integrated areas in the State was 43,182 km. The
road development in Bidar, Gulbarga, Bellary and Raichur was very poor. Special attention was
paid to the development of roads in these areas in the Five Year Plans. From 1956 to 1978, about
6,059 km new road length was added and 21,854 km existing roads were improved. During the
same period, surface of about 16,343 roads were asphalted. For providing accessibility to the
villages, about 30,543 km. rural roads were formed and 460 bridges were constructed.

For the benefit of the rural population in the State, the Rural communication programme was
launched in 1959-60. Its objective was to provide all-weather roads to important villages,
construction of missing link and construction of cross drainage (culverts) with a linear water way
of more than 20 feet on P.W.D. roads.

During the Chief Engineers’ Conference, a road development programme for twenty years
(1961-1981) was chalked out. This plan envisaged improvements to the existing roads or upgrading
or new construction of additional roads. The Public Works Department undertook a survey in
1970-71, to ascertain the number o f villages connected by all-weather roads or any other type of
road. This survey revealed that out of 26 ?86 inhabited villages, 10,299 villages were connected by
metalled and all-weather roads, 9,865 villages were connected by unmetalled roads and the
remaining 6,122 villages were not connected by any road.

The national highways are very important highways which connect metropolitan cities, State
capitals, ports etc. The length of the national highways in 1961 was 1,269 km and in 1981 about
1,968 km. They were under the control of the Central Government previously. The national
highways are maintained by the state PWD, out of the Central funds. As in 1992-93, there were
seven national highways traversing in the state, with a total length of 1,997 km. It is proposed to
declare, another 13 roads with a length of 4,765 km as national highways. During the last decade,
30 km of the national highway No.4 has been widened from two lane to four lane. About 231 km
length of the national highway nos. 9, 13, 17 and 48 were widened, from single lane to double.
Under the Asian Development Loan Assistance, a length of 25 km. of the NH-7 has been taken up
for converting it into four lanes (from Bangalore to Tamilnadu border near Hosur).

The total road length in 1981 was 98,523 kms and on account of implementation of several
road schemes, it went up to 1,21,266 in 1992. The roads which were incharge of P.W.D. increased
from 32,177 km in 1956 to 31,348 km in 1992. The quality of the roads maintained by the P.W.D.
was also improved. The cement concreted/asphalted road surface which stood at 3,858 km in 1956,
increased to 26,022 km in 1979 and was 36,229 during 1992. The length of cement concrete roads
has decreased substantially due to its recoating with black topped surface. Unmetalled roads in the
control of P.W.D. in 1956, was 2,343 km when compared to 8,935 km in 1966 and during 1992 it
was 11,089 km. In addition, 11,089 km long roads have been transferred from the control of P.W.D.
to the Zilla Parishads (1-4-1987).

The Government has retransferred 10,000 km road length from the control of Zilla Parishads
to the PWD on 18th February 1992. The aim was to improve them at the rate of 50 km per Assembly
Constituency. Besides, they are being upgraded into major district roads. For the development of
Gulbarga Division (Gulbarga, Bellary, Bidar and Raichur Districts), roads and bridges are being
constructed. During 1990-91 and 1991-92, a sum of Rs. 61.60 lakhs were spent on roads and bridges.
In 1990, a scheme for the improvement of roads under Rupees Twelve Lakhs Programme was
launched. Under this programme, rupees twelve lakhs will be spent on road works in each Assembly
124 A Handbook o f Karnataka

constituency. An amount of Rs.867.08 lakhs was spent in 1990-91 and in 1991-92 Rs. 1,694.39
Lakhs.

For providing accessibility to villages, schemes like Minimum Needs Programme and Halli
Heddari were launched. Till the end of 1991-92, the villages linked with all -weather roads were
12,649. It constitutes 47% per cent of the total inhabited villages in the State (numbering 27,028).
As many as 6,747 villages were provided with fair weather roads and 7,433 with Katcha roads which
accounted for 25 per cent and 27 per cent respectively. The rest of the 199 villages were without
approach roads. Minimum Needs Programme was started during 1974-75. Under this scheme, a sum
of Rs.53.77 crores, were spent for connecting 1,398 villages with all weather approach roads from
1974-75 to 1991-92. The Halli Heddari Scheme was started in 1984-85. Under this scheme, till the
end of 1991-92, 167 villages having a population of less thn 1000 were provided with all-weather
roads. The expenditure incurred was Rs.827.26 lakhs. The scheme, approach roads to colonies of
the Scheduled castes, was launched in 1983-84. A sum of Rs.37.13 crores were spent between
1983-84 to 91-92, for constructing about 2,099 km. road length. Integrated Comprehensive Rural
Communication Programme was started in 1972- 73. An amount o f Rs.9.63 crore was spent in the
Sixth Plan period, for constructing about 1,803 km length roads. Between 1985-86 to 1991-92, an
amount of Rs. 1.60 crore was incurred for constructing 77 km road and some other Master Plan Rural
Roads (1st Phase C.D.Works). A scheme, was started to provide cross- drainage having a linear
water way of less than six metres. Since 1985-86 to 1991-92, as many as 346 cross-drainage works
were completed.
The Sethubandhana Programme was commenced with the aim of constructing cross drainages
on non-PWD roads in the rural areas. In 1985-86 at a cost of Rs.90.07 lakhs, 184 CD Works were
completed. With an expenditure of 154.09 lakhs, 258 works were completed during 1991-92.
Construction of roads under people’s participation was launched in 1986-87, to give high priority
to the rural road works which have local people’s participation. The ZHla Parishads also executing
this programme. During 1987-88 to 1991-92 about 113 km. village limit roads were
constructed/improved and an amount of Rs.161.53 lakhs was spent.
In 1956, the number of bridges having 30.40 mts. linear water way were 304. The pace of the
bridge construction was speeded up and in 1991-92 there were 1,204 bridges in the state. Compared
to 33,066 minor bridges in 1978, the minor bridges which included culverts also of all the categories
of the roads, were 97,475 at the end of 31-3-1992.
f
Railways
The first railway line in the old M ysore Area was from Bangalore to Madras, laid by the Madras
Railway Company and was opened for traffic in August 1864. In 1877-78, construction work of
another important section, Bangalore-Mysore metre gauge tine was taken up. About 138 km long
line was completed in stages and commissioned in February 1882. The metre gauge section between
Bangalore to Tumkur was started in October 1882 and about 69 km line was opened for traffic in
1884. Later, it was extended to Gubbi (18 km) in December 1884. The Southern Mahratta Railway,
undertook the construction work of Harihara-Birur and Birur-Gubbi sections and both these sections
were opened for traffic in 1889. With the result, direct link was established between Pune-Bangalore
via Harihara. The Birur-Shimoga-Bidar line having a distance of about 64 km. was constructed by
the State itself in 1899. This line linked Shimoga with the Bangalore-Harihara sections. Later
Birur-Shimoga line was extended in stages upto Talguppa in 1940, a distance of about 161 km. For
speedy execution of the works, State Railway Construction Department was set up in June 1912.
Due to the keen interest taken by the State in developing the railway network, the total length of
the railway line rose from 657 km in 1911-12 to 913 km in 1923-24,
Transport and Communications 125

In Gulbarga area, the Raichur-Sholapur section was laid between 1861-1871, to connect
Bombay and Madras Presidencies. Another broad gauge line, passing from Wadi-Secunderbad via
Chitapur and Sedam (43 km in Gulbarga Dt.) was commissioned for traffic in 1874 and a vital llink
was established between Hyderabad, M adras and Bombay. The broad gauge line of the
Vikarabad-Parli Baijnath section, runs through Bidar district for a distance of 78.73 km. In 1885,
the metre gauge track between Hubli and Hospet was laid to serve as a link between the two coasts.
Dakshina Kannada had only 12.87 km railway track leading towards Madras before 1956.
When the Hassan-Mangalore railway line opened for traffic in 1979, the length of the railway line
in the district went up. The Pune-Harihara line traversing through Belgaum and Dharwad districts
was laid in 1882 and completed during 1887. Goa was linked up with Londa in Belgaum district.
Before 1951, the present Karnataka State was served by the then Madras and Southern Mahratta
Railway, the South Indian Railway, Mysore State Railway, Nizam’s State Railway and Great Indian
Peninsular Railway systems. In 1951, the Railways were taken over by the Central Government and
Railway Zones were formed. The Southern Railway was formed on 14-4-1951 and in October 1966
South-Central Zone, with its headquarters at Secunderabad was created.
Since 1859, large number of railway lines were opened for traffic in the State and their detailed
list is as follows:

Section Kms. Date of Commissioning

of the line.

Guntakal - Bellary 1871

Bellary - Hospet 1884
Hospet - Hubli 1876
Bellary - Rayadurga 53.67 1905
Hospet - Kottur 69.46 1905
Mangalore Station - New
Mangalore Port at Panambur 11 -
Mangalore - Hassan 189 1979
Pune-Harihara via Belgaum 1887
Mangalore - Madras 12.87 1906-07
(within the district)
Hubli-Sholapur via Gadag - 1884
Yeshwanthapur- Hindupur
(upto State border) 83 1890
Mysore - Nanjangud 24 1891
Bangarpet-Marikuppam 16 1894
Bangarpet - Kolar 1913
Chikballapur - Yelahanka 1915
Yelahanka - Yeshwanthapur 1918
Mysore - Arsikere 165 1918
Chikjajur - Chitradurga 21 1921
Dandeli - Alnavar 1919
126 A Handbook o f Karnataka

At the time of Unification of the state in 1956, the length of Railway line was 2,595 km. Out
of which broad gauge was 352 km, metre gauge 2,080 and narrow-guage 163 km. At present
(31.3.1994) total rail length was 3,079, of which Bg is 1,195, Mg 1,735 and Ng 149km. There are
351 railway stations in the state.

The Indian Railways, have undertaken moderanisation and many development programmes
for the expansion of the railway network in the country. Under the unigauge programme 178 km.
metre gauge track between Dharmavaram-Bangalore was converted into broadgauge and opened
for traffic in January 1983 itself. Similarly, 138.25 km broad-gauge line from Bangalore to Mysore,
was opened for public traffic on 16th April 1993. Workshop at Ashokapuram is being modified to
handle broad gauge rolling stock. Some of the railway lines converted into broad gauge and opened
for traffic are Bangalore City -Yeswantpur -Yelahanka (17.50 km), Bellary- Rayadurga (54 km),
Bangalore-Tumkur-Arsikere-Shimoga (in stages completed) and Rayadurga-Chitradurga -Chikjajur.
The track doubling work between Whitefield and Kuppam is under progress (81.31 km).
Electrification work of the Bangalore City- Jolarpettai section was completed in 1992 and the first
electric train was operated on 19th May 1992.

The ambitious Konkan Railway Project for connecting Mangalore with Roha is nearing
completion and expected to be opened for freight traffic in Jan 1996. Already Mangalore-Udupi
line is in operation and soon extended to Kundapur in 1995. The 760 km long line will be opened
for passnger traffic in December 1996. The distance between Mangalore and Bombay will be
reduced by 1,200 km and Mangalore-Delhi by 800 km.

The Giant Wheel and Axle Plant was started at Yelahanka in 1984. This plant is manufacturing
wheels and axles for the railway carriages with latest design and technology. There is a Railway
Museum at Mysore where several unique exhibits are displayed here. The Railway worshop
functioning at Hubli, is looking after rolling stock in respect of metre gauge. With the metre-gauge
engine being rolled out from the workshop in 1994, this section is about to be closed.

Air Transport
The Tata and Sons Ltd., flew its aircraft for the first time in Karnataka in October 1932. This
flight was operated between Karachi and Madras with stops at Ahmedabad, Bombay and Bellary.
Later, Deccan Airways of the Hyderabad Government, operated daily one flight from Hyderabad
to Bangalore and back in 1946. On 1st August, 1953, airlines in the country were nationalised and
Government owned Indian Airlines connecting Bangalore with various other cities in the country.
The ‘Open skies’ policy of the Centre has ended the monopoly of the Indian Airlines.'Now, private
air taxi companies and the Indian Airlines are plying their aircraft between Bangalore, Bombay,
Delhi, Hyderbad etc., The private companies are Jet Airways, East-West Airlines, Damania
Airways, and Modi Luft. Apart from Bangalore, the cities of Belgaum, Mangalore and Hubli are
on the air map of the country.

In the Indian Airlines network, Bangalore Airport ranks fifth in respect of revenue earnings.
During 1992-93, on an average there were about 60,000 incoming passengers and 60,000 outgoing
passengers at Bangalore Airport per month.
Transport and Communications 127

Statistics of Bangalore Station of the Indian Airlines from

1978 to 1992-93.

Incoming Outgoing

Passengers Mail Passengers Mail

Cargo in in Cargo in in
tonnes tonnes tonnes tonnes

1978 2,25,713 1,862 461 2,74,369 3,124 435

1982 3,72,262 3,332 566 3,95,971 4,880 412
1984 4,64,466 5,221 681 5,08,026 7,564 431
1986 5,64,167 6,101 843 5,64,264 7,998 393
1988 6,21,809 6,464 . 667 6,07,173 9,430 510
1992-93 5,36,338 5,104 - 5,58,039 6,711 -

During 1991-92, the incoming and outgoing cargo handled by the Mangalore Airport was 99
M. tonnes and 57 M.tonnes respectively. Direct flight to Perth (Australia) and Singapore have begun
from Bangalore from 1995. There is a proposal to construct an international airport near Bangalore
at Devanahalli. The State run Flying Training School was started in 1948, at Bangalore, to impart
training to the youth in flying. This school is also undertaking joy flights, charter flights and also
providing flying facilities to scientists and engineers o f the defence. In 1991-92, of the nine
candidates undergoing training for commercial pilots licence, three of them have passed the course.
At the same period 98 students were undergoing training for the private pilots course.

A seperate passport office for the State was established at Bangalore, on 12th June 1978. It is
providing passport facilities to the people of Karnataka. There is public demand for opening one
more passport office at Mangalore, due to heavy passenger traffic to the G ulf countries from the
Coastal areas. The number of passports issued from 1978 is as follows:

1978 - 17,146; 1980 - 33,507; 1983 - 68,949; 1985 - 76,119; 1987 - 41,860; 1989 - 67,052;
1991 - 58,259; and 1992 - 1,23,150.

Water Transport
Water transport which includes inland waterways and ocean transport are crucial for the
economic growth of the State, as it is cheap and also indispensable at places where there are no
bridges. In earlier times rivers and seasonal streams were crossed by country boats, crafts, basket
boats and ferries by basket boats, rafts, etc. In recent years mechanised boats and launches are also
being used. The districts of Uttara Kannada and Dakshina Kannada are more favourable for water
transport. Chronicles of the overseas travellers, mentions of the foreign boats going up to the
upstream of Barakur, Basrur, Geroppe and Kadra. Navigation is possible in the water ways of the
State only for short distances. Particularly in some portions of the West flowing rivers, their estuaries
and backwaters. In Uttara Kannada district, some portions of the Gangavali, the Aghanashini, the
Kali, the Sharavathi, are navigable. Navigable portions are found in the Halady, the Kubja, the
Chakra, the Kollur, the Udyavar river etc., in Dakshina Kannada district.
128 A Handbook o f Karnataka

With a view to have proper control and supervision over navigation services and ferry services,
inland waterways branch was created in 1972 and attached to the Ports directorate. Many ferry
services are directly run by the inland waterways. In 1981- 82, there were 673 ferries in the State
to cater to the needs of the rural population. Consequent on the construction of more roads and
bridges in the rural areas, the number of ferries, have come down to 477 in 1992. During VIII Plan
period, an amount of Rs.60 lakhs will be spent for the development of ferries.

Statistics of men and materials transported by the departmental ferries.

1981-82 1991-92

Passengers 24,30,349 6,81,411

Scooters/Motor Cycles 42,138 1,795
Rickshaws 3,687 -

Cars 14,219 _
Vans 8,351 619
Trucks 10,371 349
Buses 2,670 3,000
Carts 736 325
Jeeps 53 389
Cycles . ■ 3,36,179 34,360
Animals 3,079 1,655
Goods (in qtls) 4,33,198 9,935
Revenue collected Rs.17,25,765 Rs.5,91,039
Expenditure Rs.11,72,401 Rs.20,26,138

OCEAN TRANSPORT
There were no ports in the Old Mysore State. Attempts were made to acquire and develop
Bhatkal Port when Sir M.Viswesvaraya was Dewan of Mysore State. Finally, this proposal was
shelved in 1923. After integration of the States, Karnataka came to have 18 ports, in addition to
Karwar and Mangalore. Ports are located in the coastal districts of Uttara Kannada and Dakshina
Kannada. They are Bhatkal, Shirali, Murdeshwar, Manki, Honavar, Kumta, Tadri, Gangavali,
Ankola, Belikeri, Chendiya, Binaga, Karwar and Majali in Uttara Kannada and Mangalore (Old
port), Malpe, New Mangalore Port, Hangarakatta, Kundapur and Baindur in Dakshina Kannada.
These ports could not get proper attention earlier due to the presence of two major ports Bombay
and Cochin on the west Coast and aslo Goa, though under the Portuguese.

In 1957, Mysore Port Department was formed and 18 lakhs were sanctioned to provide
minimum Port facilities. The Karwar, Belikeri and Honavar ports, commenced exporting iron ore
between 1957-1960. During the Third Plan period, the outlay was Rs.280.3 lakhs. The Centre
accorded sanction for the development of Mangalore Port at Panambur, into an all-weather port.
Also included in the Third Plan, was the scheme o f developing Karwar into an all-weather port.
The Fourth Plan outlay was Rs.128 lakhs. The minor ports saw increase in the traffic of general
Transport and Communications 129

cargo and fisheries and cargo handling capacity of the ports reached 14.43 lakh tonnes. To cope up
with the increase in the cargo movement, it was proposed to improve port facilities, during Fifth
Plan. The total investment proposed for Fifth Plan was Rs.850 lakhs. The proposed expenditure
during the same period, by way of Central grant for the development of Karwar port was Rs.257.24
lakhs. The strategy during the subsequent Annual Plans was to complete on-going schemes,
construction of wharves, jetties and other facilities, purchasing dredging machinery, installation of
Navigational equipment etc. The traffic in nine ports exceeded 11 lakh tonnes annually. Based on
the traffic volume, Karwar port was taken up for development as an all-weather port, at a cost of
Rs.8.5 crores under the State sector. Other ports selected for development due to more traffic
potential were Belikeri, Tadri, Honavar, Bhatkal, Kundapur, Hongarakatta, old port o f Mangalore
and Malpe. It is proposed to spend Rs. 1,750 lakhs for the development of ports to handle more cargo
traffic during VUIth plan period. A brief account of each port is as given below.

Karwar Port: Karwar port has been considered as one of the finest natural ports in the world.
There is a vast hinterland of about 1.70 lakhs sq km for this port, stretching up to Ananthapur
and Kurnool (Andhra Pradesh). It is predicted, that the cargo movement through this port
would be around seven million tonnes during 1995-96. The main export items are iron/manganese
ore, granite blocks and agricultural, forest and marine products.

Belekeri: The Port handled export of about 60,895 metric tonnes of iron/manganese ore. during
92-93. It is proposed to spend Rs.90 lakhs in the Eighth Plan, for the development of the
port. It is located about 27 km to the South of Karwar.

Tadri Port: The port lies at the mouth of the Aghanashini, about 54 km North of Honavar.
About 2,790 tonnes of silica sand was exported through this port during 1992-93.

Kundapur Port: It is located about 96 km to the North of Mangalore, at the confluence of

Gangolli river. There was considerable movement of traffic through this port, prior to the
development of Karwar port. About 5,538 metric tonnes of goods were exported from this
port in 1992-93.

Bhatkal Port: In olden times Bhatkal was an important trading centre for foreign trade. This
natural port, was a major outlet on the West Coast in Vijayanagara times. Bhatkal is situated
about 40 km to the South of Honavar and at the mouth of the Sharabi river. Commercial
traffic through this port is very negligable.

Honavar: The port is situated at the mouth of the Sharavathi river and second important port
after Karwar. The port has been developed through the successive Five Year Plans. Total
exports handled by the port was 1,609 M.tonnes, during 1992-93.

Malpe: The Malpe port is located at the confluence of Udyavara river and lies 64 km to the
North of Mangalore and five km to the west of Udupi. About 17,700 tonnes o f silica sand
exports were handled by this port.

Hangarakatta: The port lies at the mouth of the Sitanadi and at a distance of 22 km south
of Kundapur. During 1992-93, only 80 metric tonnes of cargo was exported from this port.

Mangalore (old)port: No major development took place in the development of Mangalore old
port in the previous plans. The old port is located about eight km South of New M angalore
Port and controlled by the State Government. By taking into account of the shipping needs,
it was decided to develop the port at an estimated cost of about' 12.50 crore, in the V llth
130 A Handbook o f Karnataka

Plan. Construction of wharf and dredging of inner channel was completed. Total imports and
exports routed through this port in 92-93, was 58,374 metric tonnes. This port also provides
sea transportation to the Lakshadweep islands.

New Mangalore Port: Th New Mangalore port has been developed into an all-weather major
port, by the Government o f India. The port was declared in 1974, as ninth major port in the
country and was developed over the years. During Eighth Plan, it is envisaged to spend Rs.60
crores by the Centre. Apart from it, some more facilities are expected to be created to handle
crude oil, coal, LPG etc. and the user agencies have also agreed to meet the ependiture.

PO STA L SERVICES

As far back as in Seventeeth century itself, old Mysore State had local postal system called
‘Anche’, the word popularised by prince Chikkadevaraya. ‘Anche’ being the Kannada form hamsa
the messenger used by Nala and Damayanti of epic fame. It was a part of the intelligence department
and was headed by the Anche Bakshi. Imperial post offices working at Srirangapattana, Hunsur and
Tumkur were included in the Anche Department. O f the two imperial postal lines functioning, the
Bangalore to Bombay route was passing through Chitradurga and Harihara, the other from
Bangalore to Mangalore via Mysore. There were Imperial Post Offices at Bangalore, Mysore,
Harihara and Pandavapura (French Rocks). The British had opened their post office at Bangalore
Cantonment and Mangalore during the first decade of the 19th Century and other centres of Bombay
Karnataka during the second and third decade of the 19th century. Dharwad had a post office in
1820 and Hubli in 1833. Construction of telegraph lines were started around 1853 and by 1856
about 537 km telegraph lines were laid in princely Mysore. The two telegraph offices working in
the state in 1870-71, were at Mysore and Bangalore. British had also connected their district
headquarters like Bangalore Cantonment, Bellary, Belgaum and Dharwad by telegraph lines. The
number of post offices rose to 231 in 1886-87. Quarter Anna post cards were introduced in Old
Mysore. The Mysore Anche system, until its merger with the Imperial Postal Department in 1889,
was rendering service at very cheap rate.

For sometime in the beginning, the post was carried by the runners and delivered to the
destinations. There was a cart line service between Madras and Bangalore. After the completion of
railway line between Bangalore and Madras in 1864, mail was transported in trains. W ith the
introduction of motor vehicles during the 20th Century, mail was carried by the motor buses. The
Bangalore General Post (G.P.O), was opened in about 1800 and was one of the most important post
office in the Madras Circle, after Madras G.P.O. In 1854 Bangalore was a Saddar or Head Office
and subordinate offices attached to it were Pandavapura (French Rocks), Hunsur, Harihara,
Madikeri, Mysore, Shimoga, Srirangapattana and Tumkur. In 1870 there were receiving houses at
Bangalore Cantonment and Bangalore city. Kollegal was transferred from Coimbatore Head Office
to Bangalore Head Office in 1889.

In 1921-22, the Director of Industries and Commerce was appointed liaison officer, between
the State and British Postal and Telegraph department. There were four head offices, 109 sub-offices
and 376 branch offices in the State during 1923-24.

The oldest post offices in Kodagu district was Virajpet (1864) Madikeri (1870) and Ammathi
(1871). Post was directly transported from Mysore Railway station to Madikeri on horse carts in
1894. District Postal department was under the control of PMG Madras. Madikeri was an important
centre in the coastal telegraph division of Malbar in 1869-70. The telegraph line from M ysore to
Transport and Communications 131

Cannanore passed via Madikeri. There was a branch line to Mangalore in 1865. The postal division
of Dakshina Kannada included entire district and a part of the present Kerala. M angalore had one
central telegraph office. Bellary district in the Madras Presidency was a Postal division.

In Hyderabad Karnataka, the N izam 's Government had a postal department of its own and the
government service mail was carried and delivered by the orderlies or Sawars. In 1869, the first
Postage stamp of Hyderabad was introduced and Postal Insurance Scheme in 1907. There was a
British Indian Post Office at Humnabad. The postal department of Hyderabad was merged with the
Central Postal system on 1.4.1950. The Hyderabad Karnataka was under Gulbarga Postal Division,
from 1950 to 1960. The Bijapur and Belgaum districts were under the Southern Maratha Postal
Division, in 1884. Head Offices were functioning at Bijapur, Kaladgi and Belgaum. There were 30
Post Offices in Bijapur district and one telegraph office working at Bijapur. Uttara Kannada district
had two telegraph offices at Kumta and Karwar, in 1883. Besides, there were 17 sub-post offices
and 11 village post offices during the same period. In Belgaum district, 40 jost offices and one
telegraph office at Belgaum \yere functioning during 1884. From Bombay to Karwar, post was
carried by steamers once in a week. In 1803, a runner route was opened between Bombay to Madras
via Belgaum, Dharwad, Harihara and Bangalore. About 230 runners were employed for this purpose.
Another runner route, was passing from Malabar to Bombay through Honavar and Dharwad. Postal
bags were exchanged at Dharwad since it was an important centre in the postal system.

With the formation of Karnataka Post and Telegraph circle on 1.4.1960, Gulbarga Division
(Hyderabad Circle), Dharwad, Belgaum Divisions (Bombay Circle), Bangalore, Mysore, Dakshina
Kannada and Bellary Divisions (Madras Circle), were transferred to the Karnataka Postal Circle.
One Railway Mail Service (RMS) Division functioning at Bangalore (Q Division) was also ,
transferred from Madras Circle. Under the control of this division, there were six RMS sorting
offices in running trains. There is a phenomenal increase in the postal activities, after the formation
of Karnataka Circle. As on 1.4.1960, there were 3,966 post offices in the State and on an average,
one post office was there for every 48.38 sq km of area and a population of 5,934. The corresponding
statistics as on 31.3.1992 was 9707 post offices for every 19.80 sq km and for a population of 4,680
there was one post office.

On 1.7.1975, the Quick Mail Service was started between Bangalore and Delhi and later it was
extended to the district headquarters and other centres. Three speed post centres are located at
Bangalore, Mysore and Mangalore. In Bangalore alone, there are 33 speed post booking centres,
apart from six in Mangalore and three in Mysore. Point to point speed post facility is available in
many cities. The number of letter boxes which stood at 8,557 in 1960, rose to 27,348 in 1992, an
almost 319% per cent increase over three decades. There are also seven night post offices in the
State. Two Philatelic Bureaux in the State are at Bangalore G.P.O and M angalore Head Office.
Philatelic counters are functioing in many places. The postal Training Centre at M ysore is imparting
training to the newly recruited postal assistants, sorters, inspectors and others.

TELECOMMUNICATION
Bangalore Cantonment appears to be the first recipent of telephone system, soon after its
installation at Madras. During the Khedda Operation at Kakanakote in 1889, a line of about 36 miles
was laid between Hunsur and Kakanakote. Another line of about 17 km was laid between
Hesaraghatta Water Reservoir and Chikbanavar during 1896. During the plague outbreak in
Bangalore and Mysore in 1898, temporary telephone lines were installed at Bangalore for
anti-plague operations. In 1899, fifty government offices were provided with permanent lines. In
132 A Handbook o f Karnataka

1909, lines were laid in M ysore City and later connected to Bangalore in 1911-12. The telephone
system was under the control of Electricity Department in the beginning. By 1918, the total length
o f telephone line in the princely Mysore was about 852 km.

Use of telephones in the twin cities of Hubli and Dharwad, was started in 1936. On 31-3-1936,
a telephone exchange of 50 connections was established at Dharwad. Belgaum City appeared to
have got telephones in 1930.

When Karnataka Postal Circle was formed in 1960, the administration of the Postal and
Telecommunication services in the State was with this newly created postal circle. Due to the
expansion of Postal and Telecommunication services, the combined set-up was bifurcated on
1-9-1974. The Karnataka Postal Circle was headed by the Post Master General, where as Karnataka
Telecommunications Circle was headed by the General Manager. There was a General Manager for
Bangalore City Telephones.

During the period from 1982 to 1992, there was rapid expansion in the telephone system. With
the result 83,258 telephones which were in use during 1982, rose to 3,75,043 in 1992. Again this
figure increased to 4,34,456 lines with the additions of 59,413 new telephones in 1992-93. There
were 739 telephone exchanges functioning in Karnataka Circle in 1982, as against 1707 in 1992.
As many as 92 new exchanges were started in 1992-93 and thus bringing the total number to 1,799
exchanges in Karnataka.

A seperate circle was formed for Bangalore Telephones in 1964. It was upgraded into major
Telephone district on 23-7-1976. The growth of Bangalore Telecom District was spectacular. In
1966, there were 13,300 telephones in Bangalore and it increased to 44,800 in 1978 and 57,658 in
1982. During 1989, there were 85,475 phone connections. The Belgaum exchange started
functioning from 1957. Telephone exchange of Bellary was commissioned in 1940, and had 50
connections at the outset. In 1952, telephone link between Mysore and Madikeri was established.
Use of Telephones in Madikeri City began on 22-1-1955. The first telephone exchange in
Chitradurga district, was started at Davangere on 5-2-1953 with 44 connection. The telephone
exchanges at M andya and Chikmagalur, were started in 1955 and 1956. In 1971, there were 33
exchanges with 7,310 telephones in Dakshina Kannada district. Mangalore City alone had 4,200
telephones. There were 18,753 connections in use in 1960-61, and their number in 1991-92 was
1,39,503.

In 1992-93, the number of STD/ISD routes in the State were 590. Apart from district
headquarter si 59 taluk headquarters were brought under the STD network. During 92-93, 767 STD
points were newly opened in order to facilitate greater access to the non-telephone owning public.
The total STD points stood at 2,800. By providing new connections to 1,207 village panchayats,
altogether 5,644 village panchayats were linked up with the telephone network. Travelling public
too were taken care of by installing 207 public telephones on the national highways. Free phone
connections were provided to 598 tribal villages and 48 hospitals at various districts headquarters.

The first Telex Exchange in Karnataka was established at Bangalore in 1963. Later followed
the Telex Exchanges at Mysore, Mangalore, Hubli, Belgaum, Davanagere, Bellary and Raichur.
Nine more exchanges were opened till 31-3-1992, thus bringing the number of Telex Exchanges to
17. Their equipped capacity was 3,190 connections. The total number of working connection being
3,079, and those on the waiting list were 462.
Transport and Communications 133

RADIO

A radio transmission centre called Akshavani was started at Mysore in 1935 by private effort.
The station was taken over by the State Government in January 1941. It was later taken over by the
Centre and shifted to Bangalore in November 1955. In the same year, the Bangalore AIR Station
commenced its broadcastings through one high power transmitter. The First A.I.R., Station in the
North Karnataka region started functioning at Dharwad, on 8th November, 1950. Opening of this
station was a boon to the cultural field of North Karnataka. Auxiliary stations at Bhadravati and
Gulbarga were started respectively in 1965 and 1966. Another low power transmitter at M ysore was
inaugurated on the 14th November 1974. The Mangalore Station was inaugurated on the 14th
November 1956.

After 1980, thrree more stations began to operate at Hassan (1991), Chitradurga (1991) and
Hospet (1992). Consequently, the total number of stations have risen from six to nine. Out of which
Bangalore and Dharwad have high power transmitters. For the purpose o f broadcasting Vividh
Bharati programme seperate low powered transmitters have been set up at Bangalore and Dharwad.
Both the Station are attached with regional news units which brings out three regional Kannada
news bulletins daily. The radio stations are converting about 92 per cent of the State’s population.

TELEVISION
Gulbarga was the first centre in Karnataka to have a relay centre. It was inaugurated on
3-9-1977 and at the outset, in a radius of 40 km, 240 villages and towns of Raichur and Bijapur
districts and Gulbarga were benefited by community viewing. The community viewing T.V. Sets
were maintained and serviced by the Doordarshan Kendra, Gulbarga. Bangalore City was provided
with an interim TV relay centre on 1-1-1981. Initially, Bombay and Madras TV Programmes were
relayed for a limited period on the selected days of the week. But programmes could be locally
produced and telecast only in December 1983. The full-fledged production centre of the Bangalore
Doordarshan was started in 1988. In 1984, TV transmitters were commissioned at Mangalore,
Davanagere, Bijapur, Bellary, Gadag, Raichur, Dharwad, Mysore, Belgaum and Hospet. On
12-1-1992, Shimoga had a 10 KW. transmitter. As on 18-5-1993, there were 27 TV transmitters
working in the State. All of them are connected to Bangalore Doordarshan Kendra. Apart from
Kannada programmes, the Kendra is also telecasting programmes in Tamil, Telugu, Marathi, Urdu,
Kodava, Konkani and other Indian languages. About 72% of the population and an area of 86% in
the State, was covered by the Doordarshan in 93-94. Satellite television have been offering parallel
service through private initiative.
Conveyances: At the time of integration of Karnataka during 1956-57, there were 25,976
registered motor vehicles. Their total number stood at 17,18,494 in 1992-93. Among the vehicles,
the two wheelers were 12,30,200 in 1992-93. The number of motor cars in 1992-93 was 1,59,888.
Besides Commercial Vehicles and those on the farm front too, received a boost with the increase
in the number of tractors from 20,561 in 1956-57 to 52,592 in 1992-93. The total number of motor
vehicles in the state as on 31-3-1994 was 18,75,687 which included 1,67,207 motor cars, 20,237
buses (including 16,190 K.S.R.T.C. buses) and 81,869 goods carriers. Now the Transport
Department is one of the major revenue earning department in Karnataka.
The Transport Commissioner is the Chairman of the Quasi-Judicial Karnataka State Transport
Authority, in accordence with the section 68 of the Motor Vehicles Act, 1988. This Authority has
two other official members also and it grants permits to tourist or passenger vehicles or goods
carriages as per Inter State Agreements. The Regional Transport Authorities under this State office
grant permits to the transport vehicles or renew or cancel them.
 Chapter VIII
ECONOMIC TRENDS AND PLANNING
Even before the advent of the British there were slight changes in the cropping pattern in
agriculture with the introduction of agricultural crops like potato, chillies, groundnut and tobacco.
This was due to introduction of these items by the Portuguese (from the New World) whose opening
up of sea routes to Europe had brought new competitors to Arabs, who enjoyed an almost monopoly
of Indian’s overseas trade. Soon came the Dutch and the English on Karnataka’s coast and overseas
demand for Indian goods like rice, textiles, diamond and spices received a fillip. Tipu introduced
sericulture and also started glass and paper industry, and later agarbathi production had been initiated
by the Adilshahis in North Karnataka area.

Advent of British
With the advent of the British, roads, bridges, and communication facilities increased fostering
trade. Raillways gave a further fillip to this activity. But Industrial Revolution in England and British
colonial policies gave a severe blow to spinning industry which was universal and provided jobs to
lakhs of women and also to weaving of textiles and gunny bag manufacture, iron industry and paper.
Salt monopoly threw thousands of salt makers out of job and introduction of kerosene weakened
indigenous oil extractors effecting their prosperity. Thus pressure on land and depending on
agriculture alone increased. But plantations of coffee and public works gave job to thousands.
Famines and epidemics like plague during the latter half of the 19th century killed lakhs depleting
the labour force. The newly started textile factories in Bangalore had to be closed for some months
for want of labour. But famine relief works provided jobs to many.

The British, according to their colonial policies, were encouraging the raising of raw material
crops. They introduced American long fibre cotton into Karnataka. The Cotton Boom of the 1860’s
(American Civil War days) had its own impact. In the long run it helped creation of cotton
processing units. Cotton weaving did not totally die, but its massive foreign market was gone.

The administrative policies of the British helped the expansion of urban centres like Bangalore,
Bangalore Cantonment, Mysore, Mangalore, Davanagere, Hubli, Gadag, Hospet, Gulbarga etc., It
was due to increased industrial activity and concentration of offices or units like railway workshops.
Mangalore saw tile factories started by Basel Mission. During the first half of the 20th century new
towns like Mandya, Bhadravati, Raichur, Harihar, Chikmagalur, etc., expanded. New towns saw
starting of hotels, giving a fillip to demand for milk in bulk. M ysore’s economic planners were to
start a process of economic activity not seen earlier by raising dams and starting industries and by
generating power. The process had been set afoot by Dewan Sheshadri Iyer. In the meanwhile
co-operative movement and banking expanded during the first quarter of the 20th century. Beedi
rolling was a domestic industry that emerged.

Planning in Mysore
The economic conference between (1911 and 1931) intiated by Sir M.Visveswaraya in princely
Mysore introduced through his book ‘Planned Economy for India’ had suggested schemes for the
development of Industries and thus for the improvement of State economy. ‘Industrialise or Perish’
was his slogan. Princely M ysore State was the first State in the country to formulate an economic
plan whicn contained number of schemes in 1946 at an estimated cost of Rs.48.99 crores. Despite
this, the State was largley pre-industrialised and under developed at the commencement of the era
Economic Trends and Planning 135

of planning. Free India launched a programme aimed at the Welfare State and at the same time
developing basic and key industries. Thus came many Central Government industries to Bangalore
and attempts were made to expand irrigation potential by raising the Thungabhadra Dam and other
irrigation projects.

Even though the State was predominently agricultural the minimum infra-structure for growth
of industries had been created.

The economy of the princely State by 1950 was characterised by the following features:

1) Population relatively not in proportion to the utilisation of resources, 2) Agricultural sector

which was not progressive due to low yield and poor credit and marketing facilities and prevalence
of uneconomic holdings, 3) Low level of Industrialisation, 4) Low per capita income, low rate of
capital formation and inadequate infrastructure.
/
In order to offset these drawbacks in the State Plans major thrust was on the following facts:
1) Removal of poverty and attainment of self-reliance, 2) Increasing the level of p er capita income
both in real and in money terms, 3) Providing employment opportunities, 4) optimum utilisation of
available resources, 5) Development of Agriculture and Industry, 6) Holding the price line,
7) Meeting the minimum requirements of the people through Minimum Needs Programme,
8) Equitable distribution of wealth and income.

Development under plans

First Plan: In the first plan the outlay was Rs.47.58 crores and the expenditure was Rs.40.51
crores in the erstwhile M ysore State. The major expenditure was R s.15.37 crores for irrigation,
Rs.10.39 crores for power, Rs.4.80 crores for industries and Rs.3.60 crores for agriculture.

Regarding Physical Progress, ‘Grow More Food’ campaign was popularised, National
Extension Scheme was introduced, 4,100 acres of afforestation was achieved and three major and
11 medium irrigation projects were undertaken.

Second Plan: The Second Plan was revised after State Re-organisation, with an outlay of
Rs.145.13 crores. The expenditure was 142.82 crores. The major expenditure was on irrigation
(Rs.28.27 crores), on power Rs.28.02 crores and on social services Rs.32.42 crores. During
this plan agriculture production increased. M inor irrigation facility was extended by 3 lakh
acres and three major and 12 medium size projects were taken up for construction at an
estimated cost of Rs.78.69 crores. Additional power generation was to the extent of
269.5 Million KW.

Third Plan: This was the first comprehensive plan for the economic development of the State,
with an outlay of Rs.246.22 crores and an expenditure of Rs.264.75 crores. About 41 percent
was earmarked for better utilization of water and power development, 18.46 per cent for
agricultural and allied activities. The p er capita expenditure went up to Rs.106 as against
Rs.64.5 in second plan. The important projects under this plan were the Harangi, the Hemavathi,
the Upper Krishna and the Malaprabha.

During the Annual Plan of 1966-67, the expenditure was Rs.54.68 crores.

Fourth Plan: The main emphasis of this plan was on (a) regional development (b) adoption
of district plans. The strategy of the plan included the objectives of achieving a growth rate
of 5.6 percent in agriculture. The expenditure incurred was Rs. 386.82 crores.
136 A Handbook o f Karnataka

Regarding achievements, total irrigated area increased from 13.15 lakh hectares in 1969-70 to
15.94 lakh hectares in 1973-74. Installed capacity of power increased from 877.5 MW to 966.6 MW
at the end of fourth Plan. Per capita consumption of energy increased from 82 units to 121 units.
Area under agriculture from 10,028,000 hectares to 17,504,000 hectares. Food production from
56,38,00 tonnes to 66,41,000 tonnes.

Fifth Plan: The main feature o f this plan was removal of poverty and attainment of economic
self-reliance. The main objectives were (1) to achieve a growth rate of 8.5% per annum, to
raise the level of per capita income to that of national level, (2) to provide highest priority
for power and communication, (3) to maximise productive employment both in rural and
urban areas. 4) To bring about enlarged and more diversified and decentralised industrial base
in the State.
The outlay was Rs. 1076.33 crores and the expenditure was Rs.852,39 crores by 1977-78. The
plan came to an end by 1977-78, instead of 1978-79. This worked out at cent per cent expenditure.
The percentage of average annual growth from 1973-74 to 1977-78 was Rs.7.1 at current prices and
Rs.6.0 at constant prices of 1956-57. The State income at the end o f the Plan was Rs.2,913 crores
at current prices and the per capita income was Rs.840 at current prices.
The last year of fifth plan 1978-79 and the next year 1979-80 were called Annual Plans. Total
outlay was Rs.345.27 crores in 1978-79 and Rs.385.39 crores in 1979-80 and expenditure was
Rs.303 crores and Rs.345 crores respectively.
Sixth Plan: The main feature was to achieve full employment by 1988, and for the maximum
utilisation of the State’s resources and to achieve a growth rate of 6.5 per cent and to increase
the per capita income from Rs.1,115 (1979-80 prices) to R s.1,500 in 1984-85. The outlay
was Rs.2400 crores. The physical achievements include, increase of food production from
57.74 lakh tonnes in 1980-81 to 67.37 lakh tonnes in 1981-82; the total number of villages
electrified increased to 17,626; the installed capacity in 1981-82 was 1847 MW; 39,927 small
scale industrial units were employing 3.25 lakh persons with an investment of Rs.332 crores;
severe draughts causing not only decline in agriculture but also power production giving a
blow to industries was also evidenced during the period.
Seventh Plan: The outlay was Rs.3,575 crores and the expenditure was Rs.4,056.4 crores.
During the Seventh plan period the annual average growth in the State Domestic Product was
placed at five per cent compared to 5.6 per cent at the national level (S.D.P reflects the
growth of real output in economy). The annual average growth in agriculture and allied
activities in the State during the seventh plan was only 2.1 per cent (3.4 per cent at all-India
level). In Industrial Production, the growth was 6.6 per cent (7.5 per cent at all-India level).
The growth in the unorganised sector of the industry which accounted for 50 per cent of the
industrial output in the state in early 1980s had slackened. The main reasons for this slow
growth rate of State’s economy are low growth in creation of irrigation potential coupled
with frequent draughts and chronic power shortages. Nearly 75 per cent of the net sown area
is still depending on rainfall.
The State Plan outllay is considerably being increased, the level being nearly 10 times of that
of the Second Plan even in real terms. During 6th and 7th plans investment on Centrally-sponsored
scheme has also increased. There has been marked increase in the private investment also.

There were significant shortfalls in the State Plan expenditure. The State’s share in the total
plan outlay for all states in the country which was 5.5 per cent during fifth plan has declined to
4.4 per cent in seventh plan and 5.4 per cent in Annual Plans of 1990-92.
Economic Trends and Planning 137

Financial Resources
The State’s resource management is claimed to be reasonably good. As in 1989-90, the Tax
effort (per capita state’s own Tax Reserve as per cent of per capita income) was 17.44 as compared
to 12.44 in respect of all states, and 18.68 in Tamil Nadu. The resource picture for the eigth plan
was based on a much better initial position. The State has taken various measures to augment internal
resources. The economy of the state experienced a recovery in 1991-92 with a growth rate of
7.4 per cent. The growth rate observed in the net State Domestic Product and p er capita NSDP of
the State which generally measures the growth rate in State’s economy, showed an increase in
1991-92, compared to previous years. The NSDP and per capita income (PCI) at current prices
increased by 22 per cent and 20 per cent respectively. On the price front there has been a perceptible
improvement in the country during 1993-94. The rate of inflation is 8.5 per cent compared to
10 per cent in 1992-93. Few selected economic indicators of the State from 1980-81 to 1993-94 are
given in the table.

Selected Economic Indicators: Karnataka 1980-81 to 1993-94

Indicator Unit 1980-81 1985-86 1990-91 1991-92 1992-93 1993-94

1. Net State Domestic Product

a) At Current Price Rs. crores 5611* 10322* 20990* 26778** 29121@ 31893
b) At (1980-81)
Constant prices Rs. crores 5611* 6795* 9153* 10292** 10495® 10755
2. Per Capita State Income
a) At Current Price Rupees 1527 2520 4696 5898 66313 6809
b) At (1980-81)
Constant Prices Rupees 1527 1659 2048 2267 2275 2296
3. foodgrains Production Lakh Tonnes 62.02 57.89 62.44 79.01 86.00(p) 77.88
4. Production of cotton (lint) Lakh Bales 5.97 5.08 6.40 9.54 10.10(p) 9.75
5. Sugarcane Production Lakh Tonnes 121.27 141.11 207.50 240.62 218.72(p) 228.28
6. Oillseeds Production Lakh Tonnes 6.50 9.81 13.39 18.12 17.96(p) 17.12
7. Irrigation Potential
Created (cum) (Excluding-
ground water) Lakh Hects. 18.56 20.99 22.42 22.90 23.40(p) 24.35
8. Installed capacity of
power generation M.W. 1470 2530 2985 3013 3109 3265
9. Price Indices(Annual Ave.)
a) Wholesale Price Index of
Agricultural commodities
in Karnataka 81-82=100 130 202 245 259 263#

b) Consumer Price Index for

Industrial Workers in Karna­
taka (Average of 10 Centres) 1960=100 433 674 1013 1221 1379$ 1403$$

c) Consumer Price Index for

Agricultural Labourers in
Karnataka 60-61=100 374 550 781 953 1143 1079#

*: Revised Estimates, **: Partially Revised Estimates

@ Quick Estimates, (p) Provisional, # Upto Nov 1993
$- Average for first nine months
$$ - Average for first eight months
Source:- Economic Review.......1993-94 (20)
138 A Handbook o f Karnataka

Other Trends
The State is endowed with rich natural resources. The hydro electric potential in the State has
been assessed at 4,347 M W at 60 per cent load factor. The actual installed capacity was 3002 M W
as in March 1992. An additional capacity of 156.21 MW raising the total capacity to 3,265 MW by
the end of 1993-94 is envisaged. The energy generation in 1993-94 was of the level of 12.8 per cent
over the level in 1992-93. However the generation of power inl993-94 was about 14,385 MWs.

The State had 7,107 large and medium industries by 1992, with 7.6 lakh small scale industrial
units with 9 lakh workers, 100 industrial estates and 4,286 industrial sheds. Even though the State’s
share in electronic industry is the highest, the State’s share in electronic production which was about
37 per cent in 1980, has declined to 19 per cent in 1990. Similarly the production trends in selected
industries, particularly aluminium production is showing a decline trend. But there is a significant
growth in small scale industrial units, joint stock companies registered and foreign collaboration
approved from 960 in 1981- 82 to 1223 in 1991-92 with the authorised capital of Rs.375 crores.
The index of industrial production covers minimum of manufacturing and electricity sectors. The
general index was 148.68 in 1981-82 and 258.90 in 1990-91 which showed an increase of 74 per
cent. The production of raw sillk increased from 29 lakh kgs in 1980-81 to 55 lakh kgs in 1991-92,
an increase of 190 per cent. The State’s share in all-India production declined from 62.7 per cent
in 1980-81 to 51.3 per cent in 1991-92. Silk industry in the state has earned a foreign exchange of
Rs.156 crores in 1991-92. The share of Karnataka’s silk industry in all-India exports was 27.5 per
cent in terms of quantity and 23.2 per cent in terms of value in 1991-92.

The price of all the essential commodities moved up during 1992 as compared to the previous
year and in previous decade. The index numbers of working class moved up in all the 10 centres
of the State. The index moved up by more than 15 per cent in Madikeri, Bhadravathi, Davanagere,
Mysore and Mangalore centres. In 1987-88, 32 per cent of the population in the state lived below
the poverty line. In order to alleviate the problem, several schemes like Jawahar Rozgar Yojana,
Indira Awas Yojana, Million Wells Programme, Drought Prone Area Programme, Western Ghat
Development Programme, Integrated Rural Development Programme, Assistance to Surplus Land
Grantees, Assistance to Marginal Farmers for increasing agricultural production, Development of
Women and Children in Rural areas, Rehabilitation of released bonded labourers, Border Area
Development Programme, and National Scheme of Training of Rural Youths for Self- Employment
were implemented. Hyderabad Karnataka Development Board, Malnad Area Development Board
etc., have also been constituted.

Economic Census: The economic census was conducted in 1990 and the final results revealed
that there were 16.95 lakh enterprises in the State forming 7.8 per cent of all-India total. The
highest was in West Bengal (27.95 lakhs) and the State occupied sixth position. The number
of persons usually working in these enterprises was 50.04 lakhs, whereas it was 87.03 lakhs
in Maharashtra. Karnataka occupied 5th place. The average number of workers per enterprise
was 3, (3 in rural, 4 in urban). Out of 16.95 lakh enterprises, and 14.86 lakhs (87.7 per
cent) were non-agricultural enterprises. Agricultral enterprises were 4.3 lakhs in Andhra Pradesh
(maximum) and Karnataka stood 5th. In Non-agricultural enterprises, Karnataka stood sixth
with west Bengal standing first (25.33 lakhs).
Economic Trends and Planning 139

Economic Infrastructure: Index of relative development of infrastructure for the states taking
the all-India Index as 100 was prepared for the period from 1960-61 to 1990-91. In Karnataka
the growth of infrastructure has been fluctuating with less than 100 in 1966-67, and in 1987-88
and 1988-89. and it was 93 in 1990-91. This figure mentions that the relative growth of
infrastructure is slower than the all-India growth.

Tax structure: The Tax structure in Karnataka was fairly elastic. This is seen from the
percentage increase in the total tax revenue, State Tax Revenue, share in Central Taxes, Net
State Domestic Product and per capita income. The details are given in the table

SI. Year State Percentage Share in Percentage Total

No. Tax increase central increase Tax
Revenue to the Tax over Revenue
previous duties previous
year etc. year

(Rs. in crores)
1. 1988-89 1,699 502 2,201
2. 1989-90 1,932 14 636 27 2,568
3. 1990-91 2,332 21 665 5 2,997
4. 1991-92 2,900 24 781 18 3,687
5. 1992-93 3,483 20 912 16 4,395

(Source: Karnataka Economic Review, DES Page 103)

The share in the Central Taxes as percentage of total revenue remained same as 21 per cent
in 1991-92 and 1992-93. The State Tax Revenue as a percentage of NSDP increased from 11 percent
in 1988-89 to 12 per cent in 1992-93. The Non-Tax Revenue during 1992-93 was R s.1,558 crores.

Taxes on commodities and services contributed 89% of the State Tax Revenue (State Excise
16%, Taxes on vehicles 7%, taxes on property and capital transaction 8%, Sales Tax 57%).

The revenue from forest in 1992-93 was Rs.72.14 crores and expenditure was Rs. 119.98 crores,
showing a deficit of Rs.46.84 crores. The total revenue from departmental undertakings was
R s.103.04 crores, and expenditure was Rs.394.02 crores a deficit of Rs.290.98 crores. The
expenditure under Revenue account in 1992-93 was Rs.5,848 crores (18% more than 1991-92) Debt
servicing charges accounted for Rs.657.64 crores (15.2 per cent of total expenditure).

Eight Plan: The approved outlay is Rs.12,300 crores at 1991-92 prices compared to
Rs.3,575 crores at 1984-85 prices for Seventh Plan. The Eight Plan envisages a big step
forward in State Plan investment. The growth in the State’s economy during the Seventh Plan
was 5.2 per cent per annum compared to 5.6 per cent per rate at the all-India level. The
Eight Plan is making determined bid to reach a higher growth rate and aims at accelerating
the growth in State’s economy in addition to ensuring a better distributive income through
intensification of programmes of poverty alleviation, social welfare and providing basic minimum
needs.
140 A Handbook o f Karnataka

Employment
Removal of unemployment and providing placements to the unemployed are the major
objectives of planning. The number of registrations in the live register of Employment Exchange is
considered to be a proxy measure of unemployment. The number of registrations in the State was
6,39,890 in 1981,13,27,761 in 1991 and 15.11 lakhs at the end of March 1993 showing an increase
o f 136 percent in 12 years. However it is also to be noted that all those who have registered are not
unemployed and all the employed may not have got placements through Employment Exchange.
There are 31 Employment Exchanges in the State, one Sub-Regional Employment Exchange for the
Physically Handicapped, one Professional and Executive Employment and one State Special
Exchange for SC/ST. In addition there are six University Employment Bureaux. The total number
of job seekers on the Live Register of Employment Exchange for all-India as on March 1993 was
363 lakhs (Karnataka 15.11 lakhs 4.1% and West Bengal had the highest number 48.28 lakhs
13.3%). The total employment in the organised sector during 1992-93 was 15.02 lakhs of which
10.26 lakhs was in the public sector and 4.76 lakhs in private sector. During 1991-92, 14.82 lakhs
were employed in the organised sector of which 10.26 lakhs were in public sector and 4.56 lakhs
in private sector. Thus the employment in the organised sector has increased by 1.3 per cent. The
persons on the live register in the employment exchange and the employment in organised sector
is given in the tables.

Thousands

Year Post Graduates Diploma IT1 Matric Below Total

Gradu­ Holders Matric
ates

75-76 4.36 37.90 3.5 6.41 166.04 145.08 373.3

80-81 5.51 69.10 5.52 8.40 290.78 228.48 607.4

81 -82 5.37 70.28 6.88 12.38 308.26 227.91 631.0

82-83 6.00 71.32 8.01 11.96 348.21 249.05 694.5

83-84 6.79 69.78 9.21 14.04 385.64 258.32 743.7

84-85 7.83 77.71 10.00 15.67 422.56 257.79 785.5

85-86 7.10 88.35 12.96 19.55 517.34 309.14 954.7

86-87 8.39 100.35 15.75 24.23 581.37 339.79 1069.8

87-88 6.89 86.74 16.91 27.98 538.01 313.75 990.2

88-89 8.18 93.76 20.48 31.63 604.89 323.75 1082.6

89-90 9.72 105.60 25.88 36.66 699.74 371.05 1248.6

90-91 10.35 112.71 24.31 38.53 773.49 368.37 1327.7

91-92 11.96 119.61 28.38 41.95 867.77 374.00 1443.6

92-93 13.02 129.38 31.20 45.94 941.51 350.33 1511.4

93-94 14.11 156.07 33.13 45.92 1007.87 323.56 1580.6

Dec .94, 14.94 161.27 34.72 48.36 1050.76 337.85 1647.9

Source: Directorate of Employment and Training.

Economic Trends and Planning 141

Number of Vacancies Notified and Placements made from 1975-76 to 1994-95

Thousands

Year Vacancies Placements

notified made

70-71 27.8 15.7

75-76 26.9 14.1
80-81 33.8 20.0
81-82 30.1 16.8
82-83 ■ 38.0 18.7
83-84 32.0 13.2
84-85 32.6 15.4
85-86 20.7 13.3
86-87 23.5 9.2
87-88 18.6 8.4
88-89 15.9 9.1
89-90 19.6 10.2
90-91 18.0 5.8
91-92 18.9 14.4
92-93 24.0 12.4
93-94 30.0 17.0
Dec.94 22.2 21.5

Source: Directorate of Employment and Training,

Employment in the organised sector in Karnataka 1970-71, to 1994-95

Thousands

Year Public Sector Private Sector Public and Private Scclor

Total Women Total Women
Total Women

70-71 558.7 52.6 274.2 56.7 832.9 109.3

75-76 669.1 65.6 305.5 52.5 974.6 118.1
80-81 794.2 , 90.0 348.3 55.5 1142.5 145.5
81-82 816.1 95.0 355.9 57.1 1171.6 152.1
82-83 831.8 97.3 359.9 59.6 1191.7 156.9
83-84 863.5 103.0 355.2 58.5 1218.7 161.5
84-85 894.1 114.4 367.1 61.5 1261.2 175.9
85-86 926.2 124.0 372.2 63.9 1290.4 197.9
86-87 948.9 128.5 374.4 64.4 1323.3 192.9
87-88 962.1 135.5 389.3 67.2 1351.4 202.7
88-89 987.5 146.7 398.0 75.9 1385.5 222.6
89-90 1004.9 149.4 403.0 82.3 1407.9 231.7
90-91 1017.3 160.0 430.0 92.1 1447.3 252.1
91-92 1028.0 167.0 • 451.5 98.2 1479.5 262.5
92-93 1026.0 170.7 475.0 110.7 1501.0 280.7
93-94 1032.8 178.6 497.6 127.8 1530.4 306.4
upto
Sept.
94 1045.3 184.6 503.8 130.8 1549.1 315.4

Source: Directorate of Employment and Training, Govt, of Karnataka

 Chapter IX
ADMINISTRATION
Many of our administrative institutions were the legacy of the administrative arrangements
(bat existed in the past. The text on Hindu polity like Manusmriti, Arihshastra, Kamandaka’s
Nitisara did influence administration in Karnataka as elsewhere in India in ancient period as testified
by inscription dating back to more than 1200 years. There were Nadus of 12 villages or 30 villages
like M ulgunda-\2 or H onnathiA l, or Kolanur-30 or Navilgunda-30 the figures indicating the
Humber of villages in the Nadu. There were bigger units like Nagarakhanda -70, Rattapalli-70 and
districts like Belvola -300. But provinces like Banavasi -12000 indicated that it had 12 districts and
Nolambavadi -32000 had 32 districts.

During the ancient period when kings ruled the land, the kingdom was divided into
Maharastrakas (zones) and Rashtras or Deshas or Mandalas or provinces. Under these provinces
were a number of districts called Nadu or Vishaya and each district had a certain number of villages
or ‘gramas’ attached to them. Every province had a senior Viceroy or Governor to administer it
apart from the hereditary local officers. Districts had Nadagavundas with certain powers invested
in them. There were several village level officials called Patela, or Gauda (evolved from gramakuta)
a village headman who did police duties also. Revenue records were maintained by the Shanbhogues
or Senabhova or Kulakarni (Karanika or clerk) as mentioned in many inscriptions. Revenue records
were callled Kadita and officer in charge o f it as Kaditavergade. Revenue administration formed
the foundation of all administrative matters. The villlage headman had under him the totis, talaras,
sanadis or ugranis who were the village militia. When the British took over Bombay and
Madras-Karnatak region they appointed Collectors for districts, Mamlatdar or Tahsildar under them
for taluks, and Revenue officers for circles. The village hereditary officials also continued.

The Reorganisation of states in 1956 saw the District officers being designated as the Deputy
Commissioner in the whole state and he was assisted by the Assistant Commissioners at sub-
divisional levels and the Tahsildars at the taluk levels.

Until 1.8.1986, the State was divided into 4 divisions comprising of 19 districts., 49
sub-divisions and 175 taluks. With the creation of Bangalore Rural district in the same year the
number of districts rose from 19 to 20 while the number of sub-divisions and taluks remained the
same.

There are twenty districts in the state. O f these, ten districts viz. Bangalore, Bangalore Rural,
Chikmagalur, Chitradurga, Hassan, Kolar, Mysore, Mandya, Shimoga and Tumkur constitute the
old Mysore State as it existed from 1799 to 1953. The present Bellary district was transferred to
M ysore from Madras state in October 1953 by which time the princely state of Sandur was already
merged in the district. Kodagu district as it exists now was a group C state. The present Dakshina
Kannada district was part of Madras Presidency till 1.11.1956, as also Kollegal taluk of Coimbatore
district which was included in Mysore district. The present district of Belgaum, Bijapur, Dharwad
and Uttara Kannada district were in Bombay State. The whole or portions of former princely state
viz. Ramdurg, Jhamkandi, Miraj Senior, Miraj Junior, Kholapur, Kurundwad Junior, Sahgli, Audh,
Mudhol and Savanur are found interspersed in Belgaum, Bijapur and Dharwad districts.
Administration 143

Earlier the district of Bijapur, Belgaum and Dharwad and Uttara Kannada were under the
Bombay Presidency. These districts constitute Belgaum division. The districts of Gulbarga, Bidar
and Raichur were in the former Hyderabad state. They constitute Gulbarga Division with Bellary
district merged from Madras Presidency. Kodagu a group C state ruled by a Commissioner was
made into a separate district and was merged into Mysore division into which Dakshina Kannada,
Mandya, Shimoga, Hassan, Chikamagalur and Mysore were included. Kollegal taluk from
Coimbatore district was made a part of Mysore district. Bangalore division has Bangalore, Tumkur,
Chitradurga and Kolar districts and Bangalore Rural.

The areas now included in Karnataka experienced administrative changes necessitated by the
merger of princely states, by Federal Financial Integration and by State’s Reorganisation . As many
as 573 villges which formed part of 13 States have been merged in Belgaum, Bijapur and Dharwad
districts. Sandur State was merged in the Bellary district. The merger rendered it necessary to extend
the administrative system and laws of the absorbing unit to the merged areas. There were also the
problem of integration of services. Federal Financial Integration affected only the areas which
formed part of the former princely States of Mysore and Hyderabad. The departments in these states
which were dealing exclusively with subjects in the Union List such as railways, posts and
telecommunications, broadcasting, etc., were tranferred to the Central Government. Composite
departmentss like the Excise Department and the Income Tax and Sales Tax department which were
dealing with subjects corresponding to Central Excise duties and taxes on income had to bifurcated
and the staff, records etc., attributable to the subjects in the Union list were transferred to the Central
Government. The State Reorganisation was implemented on 1st November 1956.

Land Reforms
Land Reforms programmes undertaken all over the country in the wake of Independence had
three specific object: (1) Abolition of intermediaries like Zamindars, Inamdars, and such other
absentee landlords (2) Regulation and subsequent abolition of tenancy, and (3) Putting a ceiling on
the ownership of land by cultivating households. The Jatti Committee submitted its report in
September 1957, and these recommendations finally resulted in the enactment of the Karnataka
Land Reform Act in 1961. However a more egalitarian legislation was enacted in 1971 which is
still in operation.

The land revenue system throughout the state is the ryotwari system wherein each landowner
deals directly with the Government. Revenue records show the extent of land held and the revenue
payable for such land every year. Systematic collection is possible only if such records are available.
Records are maintained for each village separately. These records though prepared originally for
facilitating collection of revenue in course of time have come to be regarded as indicating title to
the land also, as all changes in ownership were being incorporated in these accounts. These gradually
came to be known as record of rights. Village Accountants were appointed displacing the hereditary
Kulkarnis in Bombay state in 1950, and the new officials were then called Talatis, and in the whole
of Karnataka in 1962 displacing hereditary shanbhogues, and they are in-charge of revenue records
of their respective villages and are responsible for collecting revenue. They are a transferable cadre.
The state had its land surveyed and settlement made in 1964.
The district is the principle unit for administrative purposes. The head of the district or the
Deputy Commissioner passes orders on most of the matters relating to the colliection of land revenue
and administration of land. The important unit between the district and the village is the taluk or
tahsil. In between the villages and the taluk office there is an executive official known as the
144 A Handbook o f Karnataka

Revenue Inspector who supervises the work of the village officers o f a group of villages placed
under his charge. His unit of jurisdiction is called a hobli or revenue circle. Similarly for a group
o f taluks there is a sub-divisional officer or an Assistant Commissioner who is the Appelate authority
as well as supervisory officer in respect of the taluks placed under him. The Chief controlling officer
for matters connected with land revenue is the Divisional Commissioner.

As the five different regions of the pre-unification days were accustomed to different office
procedure a new Secretariat M anual was prepared and enforced in 1958. This established a uniform
office procedure at the Secretariat and at the district level. The areas which comprised the new State
had their own heritage of administrative organisation, their own laws, rules and regulations, methods
or work, development schemes etc. Taxation laws which were different for different areas were
formulated on the basis of the recommendation made by the Mysore Finance Enquiry Committee
and made them uniform throughout the State. In addition, it also streamlined various other Acts and
Rules in force and introduced uniformity in administration.

The district administration is evolved into a fairly clear establishment, conforming to the
purpose and apparatus of Government in the district. The purpose is three-fold, i.e., maintenance of
law and order, revenue administration, and the development activities for the economic and social
advancement of the people of the district.

Under Article 154 of the Constitution of India, the executive power of the State vests in the
Governor. He is the constitutional head of the State and the Government is carried on in his name
and is appointed for a period of five years. Although in theory the Governor is the repository o f all
executive authority, he seldom exercises his authority directly except under extraordinary
circumstances. In practice the council of ministers excercise all the executive powers of the state.
The council is assisted by the Secreariat in running the administration efficiently. Likewise there is
a separate Secretariat to the Governor headed by a secretary.

The State legislature consists of two Houses viz. the Legislative Assembly and the Legislative
Council. The Legislative Assembly consist of 224 members with one member nominated by the
Governor to represent the Anglo-Indian community. The term of office of the members is five years
and they are elected by adult franchise. The term of a member elected to the council is six years.
The council has 75 members of which 25 are elected from the Legislative Assembly, 25 by Local
Bodies, 7 by Registered Graduates, 7 by Registered Teachers and 11 nominated by the Governor.
The Assembly sessions are presided over a Speaker who is elected by the Assembly, while the
Council elects the Chairman, The Chief minister is generally the leader of the legislative assembly.

The Constitution also provides for a council of ministers with a Chief Minister as the head to
aid and advise the Governor in the exercise of his functions. The Chief Minister who is the leader
of the majority party is appointed by the Governor and the other ministers are appointed on his
advice. The Council of Ministers which is colllectively callled the Cabinet consists of Cabinet
Ministers, Ministers of State and Deputy Ministers.

The Chief Minister will exercise powers in guiding directing, controlling and co-ordinating
the activities of other ministers. He combines in himself the roles of the leader of the party, the
leader of the House and the leader of the Government. The Chief Secretary is the head of the
administrative services. He, together with the Chief Minister will equally share and also assist him
in effectively discharging the administrative responsibilities.
Administration 145

The three major branches of the State Government are: 1 the Minister, 2 the Secretary, 3 the
Executive Head of the department. The Minister will decide the policy, the Secretary provides
advice, and the Executive Head will implement the decisions. Two major functionaries - the Minister
and the Secretary are served by the Secretariat Organisation.
At the head of the Secretariat is the Chief secretary to Government who is responsible for the
proper and efficient running of the administrative set up. He is assisted by Principal Secretaries or
Secretaries to Government, who in turn have under them Deputy and Under Secretaries to
Government.
The present set-up of the Secretariat Departments are: 1. Agriculture and Horticullture,
2. Animall Husbandry, Veterinary Services and Fisheries, 3. Co-operation, 4. Education, 5. Energy,
6. Finance, 7. Food and Civil Supplies, 8. Forest, Ecology and Environment, 9. Health and Family
Welfare, 10. Home and Transport, 11. Housing and Urban Development, 12. Industries and
commerce, 13. Information, Tourism and Youth Services, 14. Irrigation, 15. Kannada and Culture,
16. Labour, 17. Law and Parlimentary Affairs, 18. Legislature Secretariat, 19. Personnel and
Administrative Reforms, 20. Planning, Institutional Finance and Statistics, 21. Public Works,
22. Revenue, 23. Rural Development and Panchayati Raj, 24. Science and Technology, and 25.
Social Welfare.
Government has established Training Institutes in all the districts of the state, under the
Administrative Training Institute at Mysore. There is also the Karnataka Government Secretariat
Training Institute at Bangalore, which imparts training to the staff of different categories and levels.
Kannada is the official language o f the State and Kannada alone should be used in correspondence
in all the Government offices except in correspondence with the Central Government, other State
Government offices and courts.
Several steps have also been taken to modernise the administrative apparatus by the
introduction of computers in some departments in techinical consultation with the Karnataka
Government Computer Centre and the National Information Centre, Bangalore.

Revenue and Expenditure of State Government

' (Rs. in Crores)

Si. Particulars 1985-86 1986-87 1987-89 1988-89 1989-90

A REVENUE ACCOUNTS
Revenue (1+2) 2013 2284 2557 2964 3420
1. Tax Revenue (A+B) 1435 1613 1869 2201 2564.
A. Share of
Central taxes
and Duties 359 407 454 502 636
B. State Tax
Revenues' 1076 1206 1415 1699 1928
2. Non-Tax Revenues
(A+B) 578 671 688 763 856
A) Grant-in-aid 220 256 252 318 321

- Statistical Outline of Karnataka 1989-90, DES, Bangalore 1991.

146 A Handbook o f Karnataka

List of Chief Secretaries of Karnataka

SI.
No. Name of the C hief Secretaries D uration

F rom To

1. P.V.R.Rao IAS 01.11.1956 06.01.1960

2. N.S.Hiranayya ICS 06.01.1960 18.11.1960
3. R.J.Rebello IAS 18.11.1960 13.11.1962
4. K.Narayanswamy IAS 13.11.1962 01.05.1963
5. K.Balachandran ICS 01.05.1963 18.03.1967
6. K.Naryanswamy IAS 18.03.1967 25.08.1968
7. R.N.Vasudeva IAS 26.08.1968 07.02.1971
8. RJ.Rebello IAS 08.02.1971 01.06.1974
9. G.V.K.Rao IAS 01.06.1974 19.07.1977
10. N.Narasimha Rao IAS 20.07.1977 28.02.1982
11. R.A.Naik IAS 01.03.1982 30.09.1983
12. T.R.Satishchandran IAS 01.10.1983 31.10.1987
13. A.B.Datar IAS 31.10.1987 30.09.1989
14. K.S.N.Murthy IAS 01.10.1989 31.05.1990
15. M.Shankarnaryan * IAS 01.06.1990 04.01.1991
16. N.K.Prabhakara Rao IAS 04.01.1991 31.10.1991
17. T.P.Issar IAS 31.10.1991 28.08.1992
18. J.Alexander IAS 29.08.1992 30.11.1992
19. J.C.Lynn IAS 01.12.1992 31.12.1994
20. S.B.Muddappa IAS 31.12.1994

Judicial Administration
Rajadharma (the laws defining the powers and duties of kings) influenced the rulers in ancient
Karnataka for the administration of justice. This was one of the fundamental obligations/functions
of the king. The word "Dushta shikshe, shista paripalana" in old inscriptions indicate that the king
was to punish the wicked and protect the law-abiding. Rendering impartial justice to the litigants
and protection to the litigants were among the sacred duties enjoined on kingship. The administration
of justice was an obligatory function of king and in its discharge he was helped by persons well
versed in the Dharmashastras, and Smritis. The ancient texts of Manu, Kautilya, Yajnavalkya etc.
had laid down rules regarding the structure and powers of the highest court at the capital and of
lower courts established under royal authority.

The rules also provided for the recognition of the people’s courts having the power to decide
on cases. The qualifications of Judges and of the arbitrators had been clearly laid down. The village
assemblies and professional guilds also had judicial powers, and disputes were mostly settled
amicably. Emperor Bukka him self settling a dispute between the Srivaishnavas and Jains during the
14th Century and another Vijayanagar Emperor sending the palace priest to settle a property dispute
Administration 147

between the Jains and Brahmins at Lakshmeshwar during the 15th century are the classic examples
on legal matters from Karnataka and Vijnaneshwara from Kalyana (11th Century) wrote a celebrated
commentary on the Yajnavalkya Smrithi called Mitakshara and his elucidation of the law regarding
the right of coparceners by birth and other members of joint Hindu family in respect of ancestral
property is accepted as an authority in the whole of India except in Bengal where the commentary
of Jimutha Vahana is followed. The Hoysalas followed mostly the system of administration of justice
handed down by the Gangas and the Chalukyas. During Vijayanagar days, there were certain
specific laws like the law o f treason, law of limitation, and the law governing enjoyment of service
inams etc. During the period of Bahamanshahis and the Adilshahis (Muslim rulers) the king was
not only the ruler, but the judge, military leader and the religious head of the State. The Chief Justice
was Sadar-i-jahan. He was assisted by Kazis and Ulemas. The Kotwal was in-charge of capital city.
During the period of Hyder and Tipu, revenue officers were entrusted with judicial functions. There
was a ‘Sadar’ Court at the capital city and Kazis in other place.

The princely Mysore, after the takeover of the administration of Mysore State by the British
in 1831 the following courts were established. (1) The Amils, (2) Town Munsiffs 3) Sadar Munsiffs
(4) The Prinicipal Sadar Munsiffs and 5) The Court of European Superintendents.

By 1862 the Huzur Adalat and the M unsiffs Court were abolished and the judicial hierarchy
consisted of the Judicial Commissioner, the Superintendents of Divisions, the Deputy
Superintendents and Amildars of Taluks. As regards criminal justice, the Judicial Commissioner,
the Superintendents and Amildars of taluk were conferred with criminal jurisdiction also. Later in
1884 the Mysore Chief Court was constituted and later renamed as High Court. In British
possessions like Belgaum and Mangalore-Bellary areas, the British judicial system pervaded and
there were District Judges, Civil Judge and M unsiff for civil matters and the magistrate for criminal
matters at the taluk. Village committees dispensed with petty crimes and disputes. There were High
Court, Federal Court and Privy Council in England as Courts of appeal. After unification (1956)
the High Court became the highest court of judicature in the State. By the Karnataka Civil Courts
Act of 1964 a three-tier system of courts under uniform designation prevailed. They were District
Court (district level); Civil Judge’s Court (district or smaller area); and Courts of M unsiff in respect
of Civil justice and District and Sessions Judge (District level) and the Judicial M agistrate First
Class (other places) in respect of criminal cases. In metropolitian areas, the Chief Magistrate is to
be designated as Chief Metropolitan Magistrate.

Besides there are Special Tribunals like Land Tribunals (for each taluk) and the Karnataka
Appellate Tribunal, Labour Courts, Karnataka Administrative Tribunal (in Bangalore), Consumer’s
Redressal Forums, Consumer Courts, Income Tax Tribunal, Educational Tribunal etc. There are
Legal Aid Boards, even at the district and Taluk level to provide legal assistance to the needy. The
Advocate General is the Chief Legal Advisor and Advocate for the State. There is a Directorate of
Prosecutions, functioning with prosecutors, Asst. Public Prosecutors assisting at the taluk level in
respect of the Government cases. Lok Ayuktha (1986) (formerly Vigilance Commission founded in
1948) looks into the cases against the public servants.

Since 40 percent of the total number of civil cases arising in the State are from Bangalore, it
was considered necessary to have a two-tier system for the purpose of speedy disposal of cases.
Accordingly the Bangalore City Civil Courts Act 1980 was enacted. Under the Act in the
Metropolitian City of Bangalore the City Civil Courts were established.
148 A Handbook o f Karnataka

As on 31-3-1992, there were 24 Judges in the High Court, 35 District Judges including
Additional Judges, two Judges of Family Courts, 73 Civil Judges, 20 Judges of Small Causes Courts,
209 Munsiffs, 35 District and Sessions Judges, 28 Metropolitian Megistrates. 247 Megistrates in
the State in various courts. The total sanctioned strength of staff in the High Court was 1,117, and
Subordinate Courts was 10,506, as on March 92.

As in 1992-93 total number of civil cases for disposal in the High Court was 1,50,510 and of
which, 32,808 cases were disposed off and out of 5,562 criminal cases for disposal 3,014 cases were
disposed off. Similarly 6,25,689 civil cases were to be disposed off in 1992-93 in all other courts
in the State, of which 1,79,139 cases were disposed off. Out of 5,44,242 criminal cases, 2,82,805
cases were disposed off. In addition, in Bangalore City as in 1992-93 1,34,810 civil cases were to
be disposed off, of which 48,272 cases were disposed and out of 3,66,311 criminal cases, 1,01,086
cases were disposed.

There are about 10,000 advocates in the state of which about 40% are in Bangalore City. There
are the Advocates’ Association and Bar Council of India, Karnataka branch, both with Bangalore
as their central office.

Police Administration
Under the rulers of Mysore, the duties of police were performed by Talwars, Totis, Nirganti,
Kavalgars, Kattabidi peons, Halepaikas, Umblidars, Amargars, Hulagavals, Ankamalas and Kalla
Koramars who formed the militia and Patels supervised them, under the rule of Tipu and Poorniah
in princely Mysore. Dewan Poornaiah introduced Kandachar Peons for doing the work of police.
In 1856, the Judicial Commissioner was appointed and he became the ex-officio Inspector General
of Police. In the districts, the Deputy Commissioner was the ex-officio head of police. In 1879 the
Chief Commissioner was in charge of the police. After the Rendition the police administration was
under the control of Dewans. Later a police Secretary was appointed. In 1906 the posts of
Superintendents and Asst. Superintendents of Police were merged in the general cadre of Assistant
Commissioner. Later by 1910, the Police force in Mysore consisted of village police and regular
police.

In Madras-Karnataka Area, Talari’s (watchmen) in each village was the ancient "Kaval" (watch
system). Under this system Talaris were subordinate to Kavalgars who were controlled by Palegars
or local chieftains and later by the Patels. In 1904, there was one constable for every six square
miles of area, in the Madras Presidency. The head of the department was the Inspector General.
Each district was under the District Superintendent of Police. In Bombay Karnataka Area, a regular
police force was organised under the administrative control of the District Magistrates by the
Bombay Regulation Act XII of 1827. Every district had a Superintendent of police. Earlier there
were village militia consisting of talaris and shetsanandis under the supervision of the Patil.

In Hyderbad Karnataka Area there was no well organised police force till 1853. In 1866, a
regular police force was raised and placed under the Revenue authorities. In 1869 a special
Sadar-ul-Mohawn or Police Minister was appointed for Hyderbad State. After 1948, Gulbarga was
the divisional Headquarters comprising four districts of Gulbarga, Bidar, Raichur and Unsmanabad.
There were two separate Police forces namely the Diwan’s police belonged the Nizam ’s
Government and the Jahgir police belonged to individual Jahgirdars, who had been allowed to
maintain their own police establishments to administer law and order.
Administration 149

After unification a common Police Act (1963) was implemented. Minor changess have taken
place in the administrative set up and as in 1993, in the state the Police set up was as follows:

The State Police consists of 20 police districts 3 Police Commissioners at Bangalore, Mysore
and Hubli-Dharwad cities, 77 sub-divisions, 178 circles, 696 police stations, and 317 police
out-posts. The strength of the State Police as in 1991 was 50,009, with 30,434 civil police, 331 civil
women police, 11,089 Armed Police 1,661 wireless staff and 6,494 K.S.R.P. There are six ranges
viz., Central Range at Bangalore, Eastern Range at Davanagere, Northern Range at Gulbarga,
Southern Range at Mysore and Western Range at Mangalore.

The Government Railway Police is headed by a D.I.G. of Police. There are four Railway
Circles, 18 Railway Police Stations, 25 out-posts (as in 1991). *

There are four Police Training Institutes in the State viz, the Police Training College (for
officers) at Mysore, Karnataka State Police Training School, Channapatna,1Police Training School,
Magodu and Armed Police Training School, Bangalore.

Besides there are Criminal Investigation Department (Forest Cell, Anti-Dowry Cell, etc.,). Dog
Squad, the Civil Rights Enforcement Wing, Police Wireless and Police Motor Transport
Organisation and special unit. ’ ■’ ■■

Number and Nature of Crimes in Karnataka as compared to Southern States.

SI.
No.. Nature of Crime Karnataka Andhra 'Tamilnadu Kerala.
Pradesh

1 2 3 4 5

1) ’ Incidence and volume

of cognisable crimes 104489 101676 133284 74103
2) Percentage to all-India total 6.2 6.1 7.9 4.4
J 1 . ■. '
’ 3) Rank in criminality 14 ’ ’ 23 . ' 13 9
4) Murder 121 2794 1650 561
sy Kidnapping aAd abduction - , ! 425 "■ ‘879 ' ; 753 145
6 )' Robbery 513 1254 520 226
7) Burglary 9293 8012 8499 4409
8) Rape ,1^8 664 316 211
9) Theft 19360 •26576 2819? 4261
10) Riots . , O0t54 ,5384 11.123 ' • . 7837
11) CrirainaVBpach of Trust ; * 607 . 629 ,5 5 8 : 355
-12) Cheating •>V.r • 1343; . . i . 150 ; 1420 ■; , 1007
13) Other- IPC Crimes ■> '■ 59772 .! , 56923 . 77683 , 54315
’ 14) ’ Counter-feifing ■' ' 1622 ' 291 ’ 1190- ■ ■ ''MS*'
v - 329 ■
15)' Juvenile delinquency ' ' 332 ; 1562' ’ 87
 150 A Handbook o f Karnataka

1 2 3 ' V 4 5

16) Police Personnel killed or injured I7 47 ! 15 2

on duty.
17/ Strength of Police:
a) Civil 42029 55737 55570 30595
b) Armed 5219 8631 8096 6439
cVTotal 4724* 64368 63666 37034
d H o f Civil police to total *7 86.6 87.3 82.6
. e) Nr* of Police
per 100 sq.km area 24.6 23.4 49.0 95.3
0 Nn.of Police per 1000 population 1.0 1.0 U 1.3
g) No.of ipC Cases
per civil police- man. 2.5 1.8 2.4 2 ■*
1«) Incidence of cognisable
crimes under different Ads.
a) Arm* Act 61 515 149 101
b) Narcotics Drags Ad 100 135 4638 432
c) Gambling Act 5810 34326 33597 875
d) Excise Ac* 1937 4586 0 909
e) Prohib**;orj A. r 5 0 271232 195
0 Explosives Act 52 436 ,517 172
g) Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act 2324 956 9803 43
h) Indian Railway Act 31 60 668 31
i) Foreigner.', Registration 61 3 639 8
ft Protection a f Civil RifMs Ad. sso 396 698 30
k) Indian Passports Act. 6 0 118 10
1) Essential commodities Act. 519 . 152 74 92
m) Antiquities and Ait Treasure Act 4 3 0 0
n) Dowry Prohibition Act 336 87 287 1

Source: Crimes in M ia (National Crime Research Bureau, New Delhi).

There are Village Defence Parties to guard the villages, lo patrol for the purpose o f preventing
c n iw *o protect persons and property in the village and to assist the police when necessary.

nome Guards Organisation also supplement the Police force in case o f need. As in 1991 there
were 16,122 Home Guards including 500 women Home Guards. As in 1991-92 there Were 39 Fire
Stations in the State.

Prfaow
During the Non Regulation period (1837-1856) there were eight jails in the erstwhile Mysore
State. Bangalore Central Jail was constructed in 1863. In 1923, there were one Central Jail, one
district jail, and 78 lock-ups in the Mysore State. In Modern Karnataka Area, by 1905 there was a
district jail at Bellary and 9 subsidary jails. By 1926, there were 6 sub-jails in Dakshina Kannada
District with one District Jail in Mangalore. In Bombay-Karnataka Area, by 1883 there were jails
at each Mamlatedar’s office one District Jail at Kaladgi (later shifted to Bijapur) and subordinate
jail at Basavana Bagewadi. There were district jails at Karwar, Dharwad and Belgaum and a
subordinate jail at Alhani. There was a Borstal School at Dharwad (even now it is there) and a
Administration 151

Central Jail at Hindalga near Belgaum. In Hyderabad Karnataka Area, there were .jails at Gulbarga,
Raichur and Bidar.

At the time of unification there were six central jails, four District jails, two special jails and
two Borstal Schools. Besides there were the agricultural-cum-industrial farms at Bijapur and
Khanapur. As in 1992 the following were the prisons in the State. 1) Central Prisons (6) at Bangalore,
Belgaum, Bellary, Gulbarga, Mysore and Bijapur with total accommodation of 3,679 prisoners; 2)
District Prisons (6) at Mangalore, Madikeri, Raichur, Bidar, Shimoga and Karwar (844
accommodation); 3) District central Sub-jails (7) at Mandya, Chitradurga, Kolar, Hassan,
Chikmagalur, Tumkur and Dharwad; (558); 4) Special Sub-Jails at Davanagere and K.G.F.(113);
5) 26 taluk sub-jails under the direct control of Prisons Department and 44 Taluk Sub-jails under
Es-Officio Superintendent of Police Depts and Revenue Departments (1,669); 6) One Open Jail at
Koramangala, Bangalore (80) and 7) One jail for youth prisoners (Taruna Bandi Khane) at Dharwad
(133). Totally there were 94 jails (7,376 prisoners). As in 1991-92 the staff strength of the jails was
1,136. The average daily expenses per prisoner in the State varied from Rs.3.05 in 1982-83 to
Rs.10.10 in 1991-92.

List of Chief Justices in Karnataka after 1957:

Justice Sri Subodh Ranj an Dasgupta
Justice Sri Nittoor Srinivasa Rao
Justice Sri H.Hombegowda
Justice Sri A.R.Somanatha Iyer
Justice Sri M.Sadashivaiah
Justice Sri A.Narayana Pai
Justice Sri G.fCGovinda Bhat
Justice Sri D.M.Chandashekhar
Justice Sri K.Bheemiah
Justice Sri V.S.Malimath
Justice Sri P.CJain
Justice Sri S.Mohan
Justice Sri Barucha
Justice Sri S.B.Mujumdar
Justice Sri G.T.Nanavalhi
Justice Sri S.A.Hakeem. (Acting)

Local Self-government
From the beginning, Karnataka has imbibed rich and unbroken heritage of self-governing civic
institutions keeping in hormony with the changing socio-economic and political conditions in the
course of history.
152* A Handbook o f Karnataka
1

In ancient Karnataka, the tradition of village bodies Was very strong. Even in the centralised
monarchy L.S.G bodies were very much prevalent and village assemblies functioned and dealt with
local problems. The lopal bodies were called Uru (town), Okkalu (residents), Praje (subjects),
Parajesamudaya (congregation of subject), Urahadinentujaati (18 communities of village) etc. In
ah Agrahara villages, the assembly of mahajans (heads of scholarly Brahmin families) served as
village councils. They looked after irrigation facilities, took care of temples and other local affairs
and Settled minor disputes. The Villages grouped themselves into Nadu, and the assembly was also
known as Nadu. By about 10th century Nadu emerged to the status of modern Mdndal or Taluk
Panchayats. They comprised of heads of constituent villages as their representatives. The association
of Nodus was known as Mahanadu which consisted of the representatives of villages, towns,
mefchant guilds, officials etc., It can be compared to Modern Zilla Panchayat and it was the highest
local assembly. All these assemblies were entrusted with undertaking socio-economic, religious an d '
cultural activities. They had their own financial resources. They also acted as trustees of public
properties and endowments. The Assembly of the towns which were founded by the enterprising
merchants were known as Nagara or Pattana and the head was known as Pattana Shetty or
Pattanaswamy. Their number depended on the size of the town.

All these local bodies were the creation of the local interest and the Government remained
there in an advisory capacity. Government’s interference was evidenced when these bodies
tnismanaged their affairs. The advent of the British rule in India brought several mixed changes in
the working of these institutions. Efforts were made to bring back the lost glory of ancient village
communities by the Indian leaders like Tilak, Pherojshah Mehtha, Gandhiji and others. The real
development of villages in the modern sense started in 1863 by passing of Village Sanitation Act
in many provinces including the princely Mysore. In different parts of integrated areas of Karnataka,
L.S.G activities were started at different times. The princely state, Mysore, constituted Municipal
Committees on an experimental basis in 1862 beginning with Mysore and Bangalore. The Local
Boards (District Boards and Taluk Boards) for development of rural arfeas actually came into being
only in 1902-03, though the Regulation was drafted in 1883. Village Panchayats came into being
for the first time in 1919. In the former Bombay Karnataka areas, local bodies were created under
the East India Company Act 1850. Belgaum Municipal Committee constituted in 1851 was' the first
committee for Bombay Karnataka area followed by Nippani in 1854, Hubli in 1855 and Dharwad
in 1856 subsequently Municipalities were constituted under the Bombay District Municipalities Act
o f 1901. There were Borough Municipalities with wider powers under the Bombay Borough
Municipalities Act 1925. In Madras areas, local administration was started with the passing o f Town
Improvement Act 1865 for Municipalities and Local Fund Act for Local Boards in 1.871. Panchayat
Boards were first started for single or group of villages under the 1884 Act. In Hyderabad areas,
levying of local cess in 1887-88 marked the beginning of L.S.G bodies in the stateMn Kodagu area
Municipal Committees were established in 1870. , , . - . ,-

Changes after 1956 ' - . ‘

In recent years there is an increase in urban migration. The percentage of the urban population
to the total population of the State in 1991 was 30.91 as against 28.89 in 1981. It was well above
the all-India of 25.72 per cent. The number of towns and cities in the State have increasd at
a raDid rate from 245 in 1971 to JU6 in 1991. Likewise the number of cities and urban
agglomerations have also increased from 12 in 1971 to 22 in 1991. Municipal Law known as
Karnataka M unicipalities Act 1964 saw major changes, in the Municipal administration in the state.,
V lv. -verc c virtrahensive, uniform and applicable to the entire state. Many more radical changes.
Administration 153

have been brought into force in the constitution and tnodus operandi of Municipal administration
in the State. Morel seats have been reserved for the ST and SC communities and women. Liberal
development grants are given by the State for Municipalities for undertaking the works like water
supply, sanitation etc., Every Municipality is excpected to reserve 18% of its budget expenditure
for the ameliorative measures of SC/ST and other weaker sections. There are five categories of
urban local bodies in the State viz., City Municipal Corporation (Mahangrapalike) 2) City Municipal
Councils, 3) Town Municipal Councils, 4) Notified Area Committees and 5) Sanitary Boards.

Karnataka Municipal Corporation Act 1976 governs the Municipal Corporations in the State.
At present there are six Municipal Corporations in the State viz, bangalore (1949), Hubli-Dharwad
(1962), M ysore (1977), Belgaum (1977), Mangalore (1980), Gulbarga (1981) (Shimoga-Bhadravati
Corporation formed in 1992 was later cancelled,). The number of City Municipalities is 19, and
Town Municipalities 135. There are 15 Notified Area Committees. At present only one Cantonment
Board is in existence in the State ie., Cantonment Board for Belgaum constituted in 1832. It is
administered by the Cantonment Act 1924 o f the Central Government.

A separate department (Directorate o f Municipal Administration) for Municipal

Administration in the state was started in 1984-85 in order to co-ordinate the functional activities
of Municipalities in the State. The total number of Municipal employees in the State was 19,000 in
1993. Since 1984, the State Government has introduced a scheme of awarding cash prize to the best
urban local bodies in the State. There are special development City/Town authorities constituted for
the development of all important district head quarter towns in the State, Cordinating the activities
like town-planning, water supply, housing, sewerge, slums etc. Karnatka is one among the 16 states
in the country to abolish Octroi in 1979, which used to be the main sources of Municipal income.
The loss of iricomp is compensated by the Octroi grant by the Government.

Karnataka is the first State in the country to impose a ban by legislation on carrying night soil
on head by the Bhangees (scavengers). It was ^banned as early as in 1973. The scavengers are
re-named as Pourakarmikas. -

Panchayat Raj ■
During the course of these four decades (1952-1993) radical changes have been brought into
practice in the concept, structure, constitution and modus operandi of Panchayat Raj institutions in
Karnataka by enacting progressive legislations by the successive Governments in pOwer in order to
translate the concept of decentralisation and ‘Grama Swarajya’ and ‘Surajya’ in to a feality.
After the Reorganisation,of the State,’ in I960, a unified and comprehensive Panchayati Raj
Act known as Karnataka Local Boards and Village Panchayats Act 1959, came into being since
1960. Under this Act, Village Panchayats at the Village level, Taluk Development Boards at the
Taluk level and District Development Councils for each district were constituted. Under the above
three-tier system o f administration, only the Village Panchayats and Taluk Development Boards
had elected representatives. The District Development Councils were mere advisory bodies
comprising of Government officials o f the development departments and some nominated
non-official members. In the above system most of the rural development works and schemes were
ch annalised through Taluk Development Boards. Village Panchayats worked under the control of«
the Taluk Development Boards. This system of Panchayati Raj institutions continued till 1983. In
order to have decentralisation in administration, at the Mandal levels, increased people’s
participation in the process of development etc., the earlier Act of 1959 was replaced by a new Act
known as Karnataka Zilla Parishads, Taluk Panchayat Samithis, Mandal Panchayats and Nyaya
 154 A Handbook o f Karnataka

Panchayat Act in 1983. This Act came into effect from 1985. The Nyaya Panchayats inpluded in
the Act did not come into existence.

These new Panchayati Raj institutions came into being in the state in 1987 when the elections
were held to these bodies for the first time. Franchise was extended to those completing 18 years
of age. According to the new Act the three-tier, inter-linked development oriented institutions known
as Mandal Panchayats at the village level, Taluk Panchayat Samithis at the taluk level and Zilia
Parishads at the district were reconstituted. In the new system,* only Mandal Panchayats and Zilla
Parishads were having elected bodies. Taluk Panchayat Samithis remained only as supurvisory or
co- ordinating institutions between Mandals and Zilla Parishad and used to work under Zilla
Parishads! In the new setup, Zilla Parishads were entrusted with more powers and functions. They
almost functioned like the Governments o f the districts. Most o f the development activities o f the
state were executed or carried through the Zilla Parishads and Mandals. Nearly 80% oif the total
development expenditure was earmarked to Zilla Parishads. Except major and medium irrigation
works, all other developmental works were entrusted to Zilla parishads. Mandats had separate
powers to carry out certain specified (27) developmental works according to local needs. The impact
o f decentralised administration of Zilla parishads, Mandal Panchyats was very much felt in rural
areas specially in the improvement o f attendance in primary schools, o f both students and teachers
and doctors in the rural hospitals and field staff o f other departments as revealed by the evaluation
committee on the working of Zilla Parishads and Mandal Panchayats.

The area of operation o f a mandal was fairly larger, compared to the earlier village panchayat.
Generally, a mandal used to comprise of village or groups o f closely associated villages covering
a population between 8 to 12,000. Before their abolition in 1992, there were about 2,500 Mandals
in the state. The term o f office of the elected members was 5 years. There was a provision for the
nomination o f members from the backward communities to the council o f a Mandal. In addition to
18% reservation of seats for the SC/ST communities, there was a provision for reserving 25% of
the total seats in all categories for women. This system of local administration continued for the
period of 5 years till 1992. The total number o f elected members of the Zilla Parishads were 887
and o f them 175 were from the SC/ST communities and 211 women. The total number of elected
members o f 2,469 Mandat Panchyats were 55,188, and o f them 11,968 were from SC/ST
communities and 14.02S women members o f all categories.

Karaatalca Paacfcayati Raj Act 1993

In order to further strengthen the functioning o f rural panchayati raj institution in the state by
decentralisation at the appropriate level and to improve the quality o f functioning, to provide social
justice by means o f extending additional reservation facilities to SC/ST communities (23 percent),
women and other backward classes (33%) etc, the new Panchayati Raj Act was introduced. The
New Act also contemplates the reservation o f seats for the chair persons by rotation.

The new Act has come into force from 10th May 1993. It is a comperhensive enactment to
establish a three-tier Panchyati Raj system in the state with elected bodies at the Village, Taluk and
District levels. It is enacted keeping in view of the 73rd Constitution Amendment relating to
Panchayats. It ensures greater participation of the people and more effective implementation o f rural
development programmes. Panchayat at the taluk under the new Act, there will be a Grama
Panchayat for a village or group of villages, a Taluk level, and the Zilla Panchayat at the district
level. AH the three institutions will have elected representatives and there is no provision for
nomination by the Government to any of these councils. Karnataka is the first state in the country
Administration 155

to enact new P.R.Act. incorporating all provisions o f 73rd Amendment to the Constitution. In
accordance with the provisions of the present Act, the elections to 5,645 Grama Panchayats were
held in December 1993 for nearly 79,865 seats of which 23.454 were women, whereas elections to
Taluk Panchayats and Zilla Panchayats were held in March 1995. The number of members elected
to Z.Ps. and Taluk Panchayats are 919 and 3,340 respectively. Over two crore voters have exercised
their franchise in these elections.

In the new Act provision has been made for seting up a District Planning Committee, Finance
Commission and Permanent Election Commission.

It is reported that in these elections women will secure 40% representation in Taluk Panchayats
and 36% in Zilla Panchayats, the SC and ST communities getting 18% and 5% seats respectively.
The backward castes in A category will get 27% reservation in T.Ps. and 26% in Z.Ps. The backward
class in B category will get 7% in both the Z.Ps. and T.Ps. and general category will get 40%
reservation in both bodies.
 Chapter X
EDUCATION AND SPORTS
Ancient educational institutions in the form of agraharas, brahmapuris, ghatikasthanas and
mathas existed in the State following traditional methods of teaching. Mathas were residential
schools where the teacher and the taught lived together. Agraharas and brahmapuris were
settlements of scholars and separate arrangements existed to teach the three ‘R ’s in these villages.
Ghatika was meant for conferring degrees or certifying scholarships. Rich families engaged teachers
to teach their children. There also grew institutions like Koolimatha, Salimatha or Odisuvamatha
where a teacher ran a school either in his house or in a public place like temple or choultry and was
paid in cash, or in kihd during the harvesting season. Reading, writing and arithmatic were taught
and much oi the learning was memorising by repeating the sentences or verses collectively. The
rod played # major role in disciplining pupils including those who were slow to learn.
1*
Vocational learning was mostly hereditary. A boy who was to pursue the career of an
accountant or government servant was sent to a shop or government office after mastering the three
‘R ’s. He was to be a probationer for long years. Government servants initiated their own young
wards into their offices, and were later absorbed into service. Administrative service was also
hereditary before the advent of die British, for long even after. The offices of a Shanbhag (village
accountant) is a case to remind the old practice.

The beginning of modern education could be traced to the establishment of Free English School
at Mysore in 1833 by the palace o f M ysore (for the erstwhile Mysore area); of the two Marathi
Vernacular schools at Dharwad and Hubli in 1826 by the Bombay Native School and School Book
Society respectively (for the Belgaum area); o f schools in Mangalore, Udupi and Bellary in 1838
(for the Madras Karnataka area); of the Darui Uloom at Gulbarga in 1853 by Sir Salaarjung (for
the Gulbarga area); of the two Anglo-Vernacular Schools at Madikeri and Virapet and a Kannada
School at Ponnampet by the Government in 1834 (for the Kodagu area). Christian Missionaries
played a major role in starting schools and imparting English education during the 19th century.
The Education Integration Advisory Committee constituted by the State Government in 1956
evolved a uniform system o f education for the entire state.

The Kindergarten system of education or the pre-primary education that served as a stepping
stone for primary education had become popular as early as 1900. Children who had learnt to speak
were admitted to these schools without much consideration of their age. Pre-primary education was
generally imparted in nursery schools attached to a tew primary schools. In erstwhile Mysore State
it was done mostly by private agencies. In 1957 government constituted a committee to study the
question of pre-primary education. As per the recommendations of the Committee, this education
came to b t imparted systematically in pre-primary schools. During 1979-80 there were 3,118
pre-primary schools in the state with 1,90,737 children in them.

In the present system of pre-primary education, children who have attained 3 years and ten
months of age are eligible for admission to Lower Kindergaten (L.K.G), so that by the time they
complete their Upper Kindergarten (U.K.G.), having attained 5 years and 10 months of age, they
become eligible for admission to the first standard.

Primary education was recommended to be an integrated course of seven years by the

Education Integration Advisory Committee. The four years of primary and four years of Middle
Education and Sports 157

School education was combined to form an integrated course of 8 years. A common syllabus was
framed and introduced in a phased manner beginning with 1959-60, so that by 1962-63, all primary
schools in the State had a uniform curriculam and syllabus. As per this revised syllabus, in addition
to the inclusion of three languages as per the three-language fomula, Kannada was introduced as a
compulsory subject from standard 3rd to 6th for the non-Kannada pupils. While Health education
formed a part of science syllabus, moral education was made compulsory and physical education
syllabus was strengthened. This revised syllabus was implemented from 1974-75.
During 1955-56 there were 22,803 primary schools (including Senior Primary and Basic
Schools) with a total student strength of 19,17,258. By 1981-82, the total number of Primary Schools
was 35,549 with a total enrolment of 51,73,621 children in them. They were taught by 1,17,686
teachers of whom 1,05,751 were trained and the rest, untrained. In the next decade the number of
schools was 40,345 with a total of 71,90,963 children who were taught by 1,35,609 teachers of
whom 1,30,987 were trained. During 1993-94 there was a total of 41,684 schools, where a total of
77,56,598 children studied. The total number of teachers for the said years was 1,45,068 of whom
1,39,331 were trained.

In the princely State of Mysore, the first Government High School was started in 1858 in
Bangalore, affiliated to the University of Madras. Later, the Mission schools at Tumkur, Shimoga
and Hassan and the Maharaja’s School in Mysore were taken over by the Government. The
Secondary Education consisted of two stages-Middle School stage and High School stage. The
District Boards started a number of High Schools after independence. In 1882 there were four High
Schools in Belgaum area and 2 High Schools in Madras area. The A.V.School in Gulbarga was
upgraded into a High School in 1875, and the Central High School at Madikeri was raised to the
status of a High School in 1879.

After Reorganisation, the term Secondary Education gained a different connotation. While in
Old Mysore it applied to schools with a three-year course after the eight standard, in Bombay-
Kamataka area schools had a four-year course after Seventh Standard or Mulki schools. In Dakshina
Kannada there were Elementary (till 5th standard), Middle (till eighth standard) and High school
till 11th standard. Similar was the case in the Hyderabad area. By the time of Reorganisation, there
were 537 Secondary Schools in the State (including two Military schools) with a total strength of
1,25,645 students. A new curriculam was introduced for secondary education all over the State in
1960 and a uniformity in pattern, syllabi and examination was achieved by 1963. S.S.L.C. was
uniformly made a course of ten-years duration with the eight, ninth and tenth being treated as high
school classes.

The scheme of conversion of High Schools into Higher Secondary Schools with the
introduction of standard XI was implemented from 1964-65, upgrading 50 schools all over the State.
This scheme of XI Standard was drawn to a close when the I year P.U.C. was introduced. This
became a two year course in 1972.

During 1981-82, the total N o.of High Schools was 2,416 and the number of children rose to
7.22 lakh. The total number of teachers working in High Schools during 1981-82 for the whole state
was 22,407. For the year 1993-94, a total of 5,732 High Schools existed in the State of which 1,488
were Government Institutions, 2,111 were aided by the government, 2,106 were unaided, and 27
came under Local Bodies. There were in all 46,527 teachers in them whose number respectively
for the above category of institutions w asl2,972 (with 1,314 SC’s and 361 ST’s), 21,392 (with 1,254
SC’s and 441 St’s), 11,941 (with 700 SC’s and 218 ST’s) and 222 (with 220 Sc’s and 2 ST’s).
158 A Handbook o f Karnataka

The following are the details of High School students who appeared for the
S.S.L.C.Examination for two years:- For the 1992 April Session, for a total o f 5,06,998 (3,27,748
boys and 1,79,250 girls) who appeared, a total of 2,46,978 (1,51,287 boys and 95,691 girls) or
48.71% passed. For the October session of the same year, the number of students who took the
examination was 1,52,264 (1,08,954 boys and 43,310 girls) and the number of students who passed
was 19,308 (12,764 boys and 6,544 girls) or 12.68%.
During the 1993 April session, for a total o f 4,09,141 candidates who took the examination
under the new schem e, 2,52,109 were boys and 1,57,032 were girls. Among them, a total of 2,10,431
(1,22,655 boys and 87,776 girls) or 51.43% passed. Under the old scheme, for a total of 1,22,552
(89,817 boys and 32,735 girls), a total of 29,396 (20,141 boys and 9,255 girls) or 23.98% passed.
For the Supplementary examination conducted during 1993 October, the following were the
details of candidates: New Scheme-total appeared was 97,702 (67,905 boys and 29,867 girls). Total
passed was 15,002 (9,829 boys and 5,173 girls). The percentage of passes was 15.34. Old Scheme
- Total appeared was 68,242 (51,522 boys and 16,720 girls). Total passed was 7,684 (5,524 boys
and 2,160 girls). Total percentage of passes was 11.25 for the said session.

Teacher’s Education
In the erstwhile State of Mysore, steps were initiated as early as 1860 for the training of
teachers with the establishment of a training school at Mysore. A normal school was also started at
Dharwad in 1867. It later became a post-matric training college. With the introduction of Hobli
School System in erstwhile M ysore State, Normal Schools were established at all district
headquarters (During the great famine o f 1877, these schools were closed). One such school was
established at Mysore in 1893 with Upper Secondary and Pundit courses. Two Normal Schools
were opened in 1897 at Kolar and Tumkur, followed by three more at Bangalore, Hassan and
Chitradurga. The Wesleyan Mission stared a private school at Tumkur. Teacher’s training classes
were started for women at M aharani’s College, Mysore in 1888. The Zanana Normal School for
Urdu Teachers was begun at M ysore in 1916. The first course for training Middle School men
teachers was started in Mysore in 1913 and a similar one for women was started in 1928 at
M aharani’s Women Training College. By 1931-32, there were eleven training institutions in the
State of which nine were government ones, one aided and the other unaided. O f these eight were
for men and three for women. These institutions imparted four kinds of training courses, viz.
Under-graduate training course, Upper Secondary Training course, Lower Secondary Training
Course (all three of one year duration) and the revised Vernacular Training Course of two years’
duration. The last three courses were revised in 1993 and a single course of Vernacular training
extending over a period of three years was begun. It was reduced to two years duration in 1950 and
was re-named as Teacher’s Certificate Lower Course. The nomenclature of Under- graduate training
course was changed to Teacher’s Certificate Higher course of one year duration. By 1956, there
were seven TCH and Seven TCL institutions in the State with a strength of 2,431 men trainees and
983 women trainees.

For the year 1992-93, there was a total of 49 Pre-primary T.T.I.s that comprised five
Government, one aided and 43 Unaided institutions. There was a total of 1,365 trainees in them for
the same year. They were taught by 86 Teacher-educators, 25 craft instructors, 12 Music teachers,
11 Physical education instructors and 29 part-timers, for the said year.

The total number of primary T.T.I.s for 1992-93 was 126 of which, were 34 Government, 41
aided and 51 unaided ones. A total of 6,571 trainees for the I year and 13,186 trainees for the II
Education and Sports 159

year were trained in them. The total number of staff was 1,238 that included 636 Teacher educators,
108 Physical Education teachers, 39 Music teachers, 103 craft teachers and 147 part-timers for the
said year.

Training o f Graduate Teachers : Before 1914, there was no provision in the State for the
training of graduate teachers. They had to go to the Teacher’s College at Saidapet, Madras for
L.T.course. A training course for graduate teachers was started in the Normal School, M ysore in
1914. The Mysore University which was started in 1916 introduced the B.T.degree in 1925. In 1947,
a Teachers College with a practising school was started by the Government in Mysore. The faculty
of education was begun in the Mysore University in 1952 and in 1956, M.Ed. course was also
introduced. By the time of re-organisation of the state (1956) there were seven colleges of education
in the state-one each at M angalore and Mysore, with a total of 616 students in all, that included 121
women. By 1968, the total number of colleges went up to 17, including the Regional College of
Education, Mysore. The total number of colleges was 48 in 1982, affiliated to the different
universities of the state and had a total student strength of 4,687 trainees.
During 1992-93, the total number of B.Ed.Colleges in the state was 64 o f which, eight were
Government institutions (that included The Regional College of Education, Mysore), 16 were aided
institutions and 40 were unaided ones. The total number of trainees for the said year was 801 (540
men and 261 women) in Government institutions; 1,551 trainees (737 men and 814 women) in aided
institutions; 4,172 trainees (2,611 men and 1,561 women) in unaided institutions. A total of 680
staff members including 64 Principals, 153 Readers, 387 Lecturers and 43 part-timers worked in
these institutions for the said year.

Pre-University Education
The scheme of pre-University stage was introduced in the state in 1957 as a substitute for the
old intermediate (which was a two-year course after S.S.L.C class). This was made into a two-year
course in 1972, after the Board of pre-University Education (presendy called the Department of
Pre-University Education) was established 1970. Schooling was reduced to 10 years (till S.S.L.C.).
The two-year PUC is now being imparted in P.U.Colleges that are managed by Government and
private bodies. The Composite P.U.Colleges, the Independent PU Colleges and the PUC in the First
Grade Colleges-all these impart this course of education. A step has been taken to separate PUC
classes in First Grade Colleges and to attach them to the Department of P.U.Education.
For the Year 1994-95, there was a total of 1,893 P.U.Colleges in the state of-which, 220(184
private and 36 Government) were attached to First Grade Colleges; 313 (295 private and 18
government) were Independent C olleges; 1,360 (838 private and 522 Government) were composite
P.U.Colleges.
From all the above institutions, a total of 3,58,225 students appreared for March ‘93 P.U.C.
examination of which 1,39,110 (38.83%) passed. For the April ‘94 session, for a total of 3,30,700
students, 1,24,462 (37.64%) and for the October session of the same year, for a total of 1,43,593
that appeared, 38,432 (26.76%) students passed. This P.U.course with science subjects qualifies a
student to appear for the Common Entrance Test for medical and engineering degree courses. This
test has been started from 1986.

Collegiate Education
The first ever institution of higher education in the entire Karnataka territory was the Second
Grade College started by the Madras Government at Mangalore in 1868. The Government High
School of Bangalore was upgraded into a College in 1870 and was named ‘Central College’ in 1875.
160 A Handbook o f Karnataka

The Mysore M aharaja’s High School and the Shimoga Govt. High School prepared candidates for
the F.A.examination of the Madras University in 1879. The Jesuits started the St.AloySius College
at Mangalore in 1879 and the St. Joseph’s College at Bangalore in 1882. The Maharaja’s Second
Grade College founded in 1864 at Mysore w as upgraded into a First Grade College in 1894. The
Maharani’s High School, Mysore (1881) became a Second Grade College in 1902 and was affiliated
to the Madras University. The Mysore University was established in 1916, and the First Engineering
College was begun by this University in 1917 at Bangalore and a Medical College in 1924 at
Bangalore. Subsequently it was shifted to Mysore in 1930. The Mysore M aharani’s College, the
only College for women in the state then, was upgraded into a First Grade College in 1920. Dharwad
had Govt. Karnatak College in 1917 and Lingaraj College was started by the K.L.E.Society at
Belgaum in 1933. The National College and the Basappa College were started by private agencies
at Bangalore in 1945. By 1956, the erstwhile Mysore State had 14 First Grade Colleges, 14
intermediate colleges and 14 professional colleges.
The Directorate of Collegiate Education was established in 1960 to bring about uniformity in
the administration of colleges of general education. By then, there was a total of 42 colleges of
which 17 were Government and 25 were private, with a total of 27,338 students.

During 1994-95 , there was a total of 679 degree colleges in the State. Among them were 136
Government Colleges, 267 Private Aided Colleges and 276 private Un-aided Colleges. The total
number of students in them for 1992-93 was - 4,81,920 (3,02,711 boys and 1,79,209 girls) and for
1993-94, the total was 4,36,128 with 2,70,536 boys and 1,65,592 girls. (This includes students taking
B.A., B.Sc. and B.Com., degrees).

University Education
Fhe Mysore University (1916) was the First University to be started in Karnataka. This was
followed by the Karnatak University (1949), the Bangalore University (1964), the Mangalore
University (1980) and the Kuvempu University (1987). The two Universities of Agricultural
Sciences-the one at Bangalore (1965) and the other at Dharwad (1986), cater to the needs of students
aspiring after specialisation in the different branches of agriculture. Recently in 1991 Kannada
University at Hampi has also been started to promote the study of the Kannada language, art and
culture. The Manipal Academy of Higher Education has been granted the status of a Deemed
University from 1993. ' ' ‘ ■

There are other centres of higher learning like the Indian Institute of S cience, B angalore (1911),
Indian Institute of Management at Bangalore (1972) the National Law School of India University
(1987) at Bangalore and Institute for Social and Economic Change, Bangalore (1972).

Medical Education
The erstwhile State of Mysore started the Medical School in Bangalore in 1917. It was under
the control of the senior Surgeon of the Medical Department. A training of four year’s duration
prepared candidates for the Licentiate in Medical Practice (LMP) course. The first Medical College
preparing students for the MBBS Course was begun in 1929 at Bangalore. These two institutions
were run for the next six years with a common teaching staff. The Medical College was shifted to
M ysore in 1930 and the school remained in Bangalore and was subsequently closed in 1956. The
Mysore College was expanded in 1940.

The Bangalore Medical College was formed in 1954. Later, the Kasturba Medical College at
Manipal and the Karnataka Medical College at Hubli were started in 1953 and 1956 respectively.
Education and Sports 161

By 1980, there were in all 12 Medical colleges in the state, out of which four were Government and
eight were private. The Government Medical College, Bellary(1961) has been granted antonomous
status in 1995. The All-India Institute of Mental Health and Neuro Sciences at Bangalore offers
P.G.Courses in M.D.(Pay.Md.) and M.Ch (Neuro-Surgery). The All India Institute of Speech and
Hearing located at Mysore makes use of non-clinical facilities in the Departments of Anatomy,
Physiology and Pathology at Mysore Medical College as well as clinical facilities in the
Departments of ENT and Neurology at the Mysore K.R. Hospital.
»T r
For the year 1993-94 there were 19 Medical Colleges of which four were Government
institutions. The number of Dental Colleges was 41, of which one was a Government institution. A
total of 61 Pharmacy colleges including the Goverment College of Pharmacy at Bangalore and the
11 Nursing Colleges including the Government Nursing College, Bangalore were working in the
state. In addition to them, there are Ayurvdic, Homeopathic and Unani Medical Colleges which
have been offering degrees in the respective fields of medicine. There are 16 colleges of Ayurvedic
medicine in the state of which the College of Indian Medicine (1908) at Mysore, Taranath College
of Indian Medicine Bellary (1947) and the Jayachamarajendra College of Indian Medicine,
Bangalore (1967) are run by the government. Thirteen colleges are run by private managements of
which those at Belgaum, Bijapur, Hubli, Udupi and Dharmasthala are among the earliest. There are
three Homeopathic Colleges in the State offering L.C.E.H. and G.C.E.degrees. The only Unani
College of Medicine (1975) is located at Bangalore and offers B.U.M.S.Degree of 5 l/2 years.

Technical Education
The imparting of technical education as a part of curriculum made its beginning in the latter
part of the 19th century, when the first technical institute, the School of Engineering was established
in 1862 at Bangalore, affiliated to the Madras University. Rai Bahadhur Arcot Narayanaswamy
Mudaliar established a technical institution in the Civil and Military Station at Bangalore in 1873
where students were prepared for lower services of the P.W.D. The Industrial School Dharwad was
established in 1873. An Industrial School at Hassan and another Mysore were established in 1889
and 1892 respectively.
The one started at Bidar in 1905 taught Bidri work. The Mechanical Engineering School was
started in Bangalore in 1913. These schools were later brought under the control of the Department
of Industries and Commerce. In addition to the two major Industrial Schools-Chamarajendra
Technical Institute, Mysore and the Weaving Institute, Bangalore, there were Government Industrial
Schools at Mysore, Hassan, Chikmagalur, Shimoga, Chitradurga Chikballapur, Doddabalapur, Sagar
and Nelamangala. The Zanana Home Industrial Institute, Channapatna was the only grant-in-aid
institute imparting industrial training for women. At the time of integration, there were 14 Industrial
Schools in the erstwhile Mysore area. The Mysore Government constituted a Council'of Technical
Education and a syllabus Board in 1952. The D.P.I. was appointed Ex-Officio Director of Technical
Education in Mysore. The State Board of Technical Examination also came into being in 1952 and
awarded Diploma from 1953-54.
Degree Colleges: The first Engineering College was started by the Mysore Government in
1917 at Bangalore. After 1946, three more colleges were started - one by Government and two by
private agencies. By the time of Integration of the State, there were totally five engineering colleges
(two Government and three private) in the State. They were, the Government Engineering College,
Bangalore, Govt B.D.T.Engineering College, Davanagere, B.M.S.College of Engineering,
Bangalore, National Institute of Engineering Mysore and B.V.B.College of Engineering, Hubli (all
private). By 1993-94 there was a total of 47 Engineering Colleges in the State of which were four
Government institutions, nine were aided and the rest unaided. The large number of professional
162 A Handbook o f Karnataka

institutions in Karnataka attracts students not only from the other parts of India hut also from foreign
countries.
Legal Education: The first Law College in Karnataka was started at Belgaum in 1939 by the
Karnataka Law Society, a private body and the name of the college was Raja Lakmangauda Law
College. There were four Law Colleges in the state at the time of reogranisation-two in Mysore area
and two in Belgaum area with a total strength of 758 that included two women. The course was of
two years duration, leading to the B.L.Degree of Mysore University and the Ll.B.Degree of
Karnataka University. The latter also conducted examination for the Master Degree in law (LLM).
By 1968, the number of colleges went upto the 13 with the region-wise break-up as, eight in Mysore,
three in Belgaum (including the University Law College of Dharwad), one each in Mangalore and
Gulbarga. The total enrolment in all the above colleges was 4,080, including 147 women. By
1981-82. there was a total of 32 Law Colleges in the State including the two University Law
Colleges-one at Bangalore and the other at Dharwad. The rest were manged by private agencies,
where classes were conducted either in the morning or in the evening to facilitate employed students.

The Law course which was to be previously taken up after graduation was changed and the
Bar Council of India proposed a drastic change bringing legal education at par with the other
professional courses. It was made a five year course to be taken up after the +2 course, common to
students all over the country. However the old system still prevails in a majority of the law colleges.

SPORTS

Karnataka holds the third place in the sports of India to-day. Through the paintings of
pre-historic period we learn that sports and games were the favourite pastime of people in the state.
Records and evidences are available to us from the Kadamba times. Gambling and dice playing
were among the means of recreation. Manasollasa, a 12th century Sanskrit encyclopaedia gives a
long list of games like playing at the swing, at sands, and in groves, boat race, dice, animal fights
etc. Several indigenous games played by boys and girls in groups became popular. They included
Kalla-poliee, Koti-Koli, Topiyata, Cat and Rat, Run for Supper, Sun and Shadow, Upparapatte,
Kannamuchchale (hide and seek), Kuntebille, Gultario, Kabbaddi, Marakoti, Bugariyata, Haavu-
chelu, Chinni-thmrfif, horse-race, sack-race, potato race and the like. The indoor games included
Gajjigata, Chess, Ganjipa (a kind of card game), Adagulimane, Swargarohana (snake and ladder),
Chess etc. Krishnaraja wodeyar III had written a book on the game of chess.

O f late Physical Education is being imparted on scientific principles. Several institutions like
yogasana centres, Sevadal, Scouts and Guides organisation and the NCC also train children in
physical exercise. Department of Education, Directorate of Youth Services and Sports, Director ot
Physical Education, attached to each University and several voluntary youth organisations are also
engaged in sports activities. TheN etaji National Institute of Sports (at Bangalore) and Nehru Yuva
Kendras located in almost all district headquarters are provided with grants both by the State and
the Central Government for the streamling of the Sports sector. The Department of Public Instruction
in Karnataka has included Physical Education in the curricula of schools. After reorganisation,
uniform rules were framed regarding the curriculum, staff and time-table tor physical Education.
The "National Fitness Corps" (NFC) came into being in 1965, applicable to children in the age
group of 9 to 16, as per which, a new comprehensive syllabus was formed. Thus Physical Education
became a co-curriculury syllabus. The NFC instructors were absorbed in the Department of Youth
Services, in 1976, A post of Superintendent of Physical Education was created to assist the D.P.I.
in Karnataka. Later, a post of Divisional Superintendent of Physical Education was also created for
Education and Sports 163

each of the revenue division, attached to the J.D.P.I. At the University level, the Department is
headed by the Director of Physical Education with several Assistant Directors to help him.

A seperate College of Physical Education was started by the Government in Bangalore in 1959,
where D.P.Ed.Course for graduates was offered. In 1967, CP.Ed. course was also introduced for
matriculates. In 1972, when the M.P.Ed. course was introduced, C.P.Ed was abolished. The College
was taken over by the Bangalore University in 1976. Similarly the Physical Education College
(1972) run by the University of Mysore and two colleges of Physical education under the Karnatak
University also offered B.P.Ed Course. In addition to this, many private colleges prepare students
for C.P.Ed course in the State. The prominent among them being, the YMCA, Bangalore, College
of physical Education Malladihalli, Municipal College of Physical Education, Chikkaballapur,
Hemavathi College of Physical Education, Shravanabelagola and Colleges in Anchihalli (Tumkur
dt) and Bethamangala (Kolar dt). Several associations in different sports events have been
encouraging all games and they conduct tournaments, inviting players from all over the country.
There are several recreation clubs all over the state that cater to the employed masses to spend their
evenings joyfully. Generally all factories have such clubs. Apart from traditional gymnasia called
garadimane that existed in villages where wrestling and Malkhamb training was imparted during
national movement, Vyamashalas came to be founded in all important centres like Dharwad, Bellary,
Kottur, Bangalore, Bantwal and other places. Dr. Hardikar’s Hindustani seva Dal played a special
role by encouraging sports and physical exercises.
Wrestling has been a favourable sport from the ancient times. ‘Garadimane’ can be seen in all
towns and big villages even to-day as mentioned already. The rulers of Mysore themselves were
good wrestlers. They even conducted wrestling competitions. Wrestling bouts were common during
Dasara in Vijayanagara times and Dasara sports were an annual feature in M ysore during the days
of royalty and even to-day.

The State can boast of a host of athletes and players in different track and field events, athletics
and other popular games. Here is a list of some notable ones till 1982 (given in brackets are the
games they represent):- Amjad Khan (foot-ball), Allen Schofield (Hockey), Ananth
K.R.(Mountaineering), Angel Mary (Athletics), Anil Bhandari (Karate), Anil Kumar (Basket ball),
Anisha Prasad (Swimming - Women), Anthony (Foot-ball), Appaiah (Hockey), Aravind Savoor
(Billiards), Aswathaiah (Volley-ball), Brijesh Patel (Cricket), Chandrasekar B.S. (Cricket), Chitra
Gangadharan (Foot-ball-Women), Deshamuthu C. (Hokey), Dev Prasad (Cycling), Elviro Britto
(Hockey-Women), Gabriel (Athletics), Ganesh M.P. (Hockey), Gopalappa P. (Kabaddi), Govinda
B.P. (Hockey), Harischandra Hejmadi (Body-building), Indira Srinivasamurthy (Ball-badminton for
women), Irene Saldanha (Athletics -Women), Jagadeesh (Lawn-tennis), Jayamm S. (Ball-
Badminton-Women), Jayappa (Power lifting), Jugtha Kahai (Cycling), Kabad Jayanth (table-tennis),
Kasturi Rangan (Cricket), Kenneth Powel (Athletics), Kench R. (Cycling), Khurshed R.Irani
(Cycling-Women), Kirmani S.M.H.(Cricket), Krishna Gowda H.N.(Kabaddi), Krishnan Kutti
(Mountaineering), Lakkappa T.V. (Weight-lifting), Laxmi V.Karanth (Table-Tennis for Women),
Mac Britto (Hockey-women), Manjunath Hegde (Body-building), Nirmala Uthaiah
(Athletics-Women), Ponnappa P.C.(Athletics), Prakash Padukone (Shuttle), Prasanna E.A.S.
(Cricket), Ravindran R. (Chess), Ravindranath (Karate), Ravi Prakash (Yogasana), Roger Binny
(Cricket), Swetha Devaiah (Basket-ball-women), Shailendra D.N. (Chess), Shyla K.N. and Shantha
Ramamurthy (Ball-badminton-women), Sridharan R.(Chess), Subbanna M (Kabaddi), Vasudevaraju
(Yogasana), Vishwanath G.R.(Cricket) and so on. Shantha Rangaswamy had been the Capitan of
national ladies Cricket team for long. The ladies badminton team from Karnataka were Champions
for several years.
164 A Handbook o f Karnataka

O f late, the Department of Youth Services and Sports, Government of Karnataka, has been
providing facilities to athletics and sportsmen and women to pursue their interest in sports. A youth
Service Officer is in charge of each district and is responsible for the progress of sports activities
in his district. Athletes and sportsmen from all over Karnataka have been given all encouragement
to participate in national and international events. In the National W omen’s Sports Meet held at
Bhopal in 1993, the following ladies participated: 1) Athletics - V.A.Sumana (100 mts), Shanti
Clever(400 mts), Mariamma (1500 mts), Gowramma (4 x 100 relay), Shital Patil (Long Jump),
G.R.Rekha (High Jump), B.Padmavathi (Discus Throw), Sharin Belliyappa (Javelin throw), Shanti
Oliver (4 x 400 relay) and Levina Lobo (4 x 400 relay); 2) Kabaddi - Jamuna Mayamma, Sumithra,
Kavitha, Jalajakshi, N.C.Savitha, S.K.Omachagi, C.R.Hadpad and N.Kavita; 3) Badminton -
Sharmila, Dipa Ganapathi and Dipa Bokil; 4) Volley Ball - Jayamala, Farida. Kalpana, Chandrakala:
5) Handball - Indumati, Veenadevi, Sahana, Renu, Rukmini, Shobha, Kanthi, Vanaja Kalappa,
Nutan, Sujata, Indira, Poornima, Anita, Veena Naidu and N.Jayashri; 6) Swimming - Vaishali,
Rohini, Shanthi, Sagari, Rajani, Seema, Sangeetha, Srikripa, Priyadarshini; 7) Hockey - Padmini,
Anuradha, Padmavathi, Tarana, Sujatha, Pratima, Varalaxmi, Rina, Savitha, Renu, Rukmini,
Shobha, Kanli, Vanaja Kalappa. Nutan and Suja; 8) Basket ball- Shanthi, Meena, Chandrakala,
Radhika, Jamuna, Sarita, Sylvia, Vinita, Sumangala, Nagarekha and Geeta S.N.; 9) Gymnastics -
Kavitha Ranganath, Vinita Rana. Suma Rani, Chaitra and Jayalaxmi; 10)Kho-Kho - S.Shamala.
Chetana, Shanta, Asha, Bharathi, Rajashree. M.R.Patil, Maya, Chandrakala, Radhaand Pushpavathi.

Arjun Awardees from Karnataka

1) Athletics: Kenneth Powell(1965), Panjil Mary Joseph (1978), Vandana Rao (1978) and
Ashwini Nachappa (1990); Cricket: E.A.S.Prasanna (1968), B.S.Chandrasekhar (1978)
G.R.Vishwanath (1977), Syed Kirmani (1980), Shanta Rangaswamy (1976); Hockey: Elvira Britto
(1965), V.G.Peters (1966), M.P.Ganesh (1973), B.P.Govinda (1975); Ball Badminton: Jayamma
Srinivas (1972); Boxing: C.C.Machaiah (1978); Snooker: Aravind Savoor (1978); Table Tennis:
Usha Sunder Raj (1966); Kho-kho: S.Prakash, Power Lifting: P.K.Yeshodhar; Badminton: Shobha
Murthy (1971) and Prakash Padukone (1972).

Men and Women Ekalavya Awardees for 1994 from Karnataka

Athletics: Ar,un Devaiah and Sylvia Pias; Ball Badminton: V.Dhniva and P.Asha; Basket Ball:
Rajkumaran and Rekha Mallik; Body building: Manjunath; Billiards and Snooker: B.V.Srinivasa
Murthy; Cricket: Anil Kumble; Hockey: K.S.Uthaiah; Judo: Mirza Najib Aga and M.N.Triveni;
Kho-Kho: Channabasavaiah and T.H.Veena; Kabaddi: B.Gopal; Lawn Tennis: P.Srinath and Arathi
Ponnappa; Power Lifting: Satish Kumar and A.Shashikala; Roller Skating: T.V.Sridevi; Shuttle
Badminton: K.P.Vasanth Kumar; Swimming: J.Abhijit and Sajini Shetiy; Table Tennis:
G.K.Vishwanath and S.Poorna Rao; Weight lifting; Shyamala Shetiy; Volley Ball: Amit Roy
Chowdary and T.Padmaja; and Women Cricket - Kalpana V. Shyamala Shelly holds the world in
weight lifting (women) for the present.

In the 12th Asian Sports Meet held at Hiroshima in 1994 , the following Sportmen from
Karnataka participated: Munivenkatappa (Kabaddi. Gold), Sylvina Pias (4 x 400 Relay, Gold).
Varsha Shamarao Patki (Weight Lifting), Sabu Varki (Hockey), Ravi Naikar (Hockey), Sumita
Thakur (Judo). Satish Rai (Weight Lifting), E.B.Shaila (Sprinter) and N.Laxmi (Weight Lifting).
Jude Filix headed the Indian Hockey Team in the said meet.
 Chapter XI
MEDICAL AND PUBLIC HEALTH SERVICES
Consequent on the Reorganisation of States, the newly integrated areas of Karnataka state were
lacking in medical and health service facilities especially in rural and border areas of the state. To
overcome this, the State Government rigorously started implementing various national and state
health programmes to improve the prevailing health services in the state in a short span. The policy
of expansion and successful implementation of comprehensive public health service schemes has
enabled the state to occupy a unique place in the country. At present (1993-94) the state has an
extensive network of 293 (176 Government) hospitals, 1,297 Primary Health Centres, 622 Primary
Health Units/dispensaries and 7,793 Sub-centres with more than 50,000 bed strength.
Departmental Setup: The Medical department came into existence in the erstwhile Mysore
State in 1884. A Senior Medical Officer renamed as Senior Surgeon was made as the head of the
department. He was looking after the administration of all the Medical Institutions o f the state and
was also made the ex-officio Sanitary Commissioner. Later on, the medical department was
separated from the Sanitary Deparment in order to give more importance to public health. In 1929
the Sanitary Department was renamed as Public Health Department. The arrangements from the
integrated areas with erstwhile Mysore in 1956 were fitted into this setup. The two departments so
formed existed till 1965. A single line of command for both curative and preventive medicines was
instituted as per the recommendations the Health Survey and Development Committee Report in
1945, and the Director o f Public Health and the Directorate o f Medical Services were merged to
form one Directorate of Health and Family Welfare Services in 1965. Again in 1978, the department
was bifurcated into two Directorates viz.. Directorate of Health and Family Welfare Service and
Direcorate of Medical Education. The Directorate o f Health and Family Welfare Services is
providing comprehensive health care and services to the people of the State through its network.
At the divisional level there are four Joint Directors of Health and Family Welfare Services
stationed at Bangalore, Belgaum, Gulbarga and Mysore. At the district level the District Surgeons,
as well as the District Health and Family Welfare Officers are responsible for providing curative
and promotive services including referral services apart from over all supervision of all the Health
and Medical Institutions under them.

Vital Statistics
The Director of Economic and Statistics is the Chief Registar of Births and Deaths. The Joint
' Director, the Deputy Director and Assitant Directors are in charge of Vital Statistics as the Joint
Chief Registrars. The Registration of Births and Deaths Rules 1970 came into effect from 1971 in
the State, the Chief Registrar is the Chief Executive Authority in the State for implementing the
Act.
The total number of births and deaths, are 7,80,496 and 209,873, respectively in 1990-91. The
crude birth and death rates for the year 1990-91: 27,9 and 8.7; for 1991-92: 27.8 and 8.1; for 1992-
93: 26.8 and 9.0; and for 1993-94: 26.8 and 9.0, respectively, and the infant, mortality rate for the
same period was 80, 71, 77, 77 (for 1000 infants).

Indian System o f Medicine

The Ayurvedic system of medicine was in practice from very early times. Several Ayurvedic
Vaidyas enjoyed royal patronage. In every village there were at least one or two families capable
166 A Handbook o f Karnataka

of offering relief to patients with the help of herbs. Restricted to towns the Unani System of medicine
was introduced in around the 14th century, during Muslim rule. The Unani physicians known as
Hakeems enjoyed the confidence of the Muslim rulers as well as the general public. The Bahmani
King Ahmed II (1436-53) ordered the construction of a splendid Shara Khana (hospital) at Bidar
which attracted patients from all communities. Homeopathy, Yoga, Naturopathy and Siddha systems
are also in practice.

A separate Directorate for Indian System of Medicine was created in 1972. Prior to 1972 the
system was under Health Department, Ayurveda, Unani, Homeopathy, Yoga, Naturopathy and
Siddha Systems come under Indian system of medicine. At present there are 34 hospitals with 901
bed strength and 436 dispensaries in the state. There are three Government Ayurvedic Colleges and
13 private Ayurvedic Colleges, one Government Unani College at Bangalore, one Nature Cure Yoga
College at Bangalore during 1991- 92 in the State. There is a Nature Cure College at Ujire near
Dharmasthala.

Communicable Diseases
Cholera : Diseases like cholera, diarrhoea and gastro-enterties are serious intestinal diseases
which become fatal if timely treatment is not given. In Karnataka State, eight district namely
Belgaum, Bellary, Bijapur, Chitradurga, Dharwad, Bidar, M ysore and Gulbarga have been declared
as endemic for cholera. Cholera Combat Teams take up investigation, treatment and containment
on spot in each of the above districts. During 1992-93 the attacks and deaths due to cholera were
402 and 14 respectively and the figures for gastro enterities for the same period were 15,262 and
608. The number of anticholera inaculations administered was 12,50,316. But with the provision of
drinking water through borewells on a large scale, the incidence of cholera has declined during the
last one decade. But industrial polution has contributed to its appearance in many new areas like
Mysore district.

Malaria: Next to cholera malaria spreads in the community through the bite of a female
Anopheles mosquitoes. It was a serious disease in Malnad areas, and thousands suffered from it and
with enlarged spleen. The spraying of D.D.T started in 1940 had completely brought down the
incidence to almost nil. But the disease has appeared again. The Government of India has selected
Karnataka State for Malariosenic stratification of Bioenvironmental measures for its control. At
present in some parts, the A.P.I.(Annual Parasite Index) is more than two, where two rounds of
D.D.T and three rounds of Melathion is being sprayed. The National Malaria Control Programme
had been implemented since 1953 in the State. Later in 1958 it has been changed into the National
Malaria Education Programme in all the districts. The district like Chitradurga, Hassan, Kolar,
Mysore and Tumkur where high incidence ot' Malaria as much as 70% is noticed. During 1992,
69,13,592 blood smears were collected and examined and 81,057 positive cases were treated.

The Urban Malaria Scheme is functioning in Bangalore, Belgaum, Hospet, Raichur, Hassan,
Tumkur and Chikmangalur cities. There are 6,610 drug distribution centres and 3,234 fever tratment
depots during the year 1992. The Central Malaria Laboratory Bangalore is serving as a referral
laboratory in the State.

Plague: Plague is primarly a disease of some rodent and human infection on an appreciable
scale. Plague appears in two forms (1) bubonic and (ii) pnuemonic, the latter being the more severe
Medical and Public Health Services 167

of the two. Sulphathiozale and Sulphapyridin have been found to be useful in the treament of the
disease.

Plague is of recent orign and dates from 1886 when it was introduced in some parts of Bombay
Presidency from China and spread rapidly over a large part of the country. During 1897 and the
disease took a heavy toll. In 1898 Bangalore City alone had 4,472 deaths. Further the disease spread
to Kolar, Tumkur and Mysore districts. In Bombay State, it took a heavy toll killing nearly 30,000
in Dharwad district alone in 1898 and the disease persisted killing thousands for almost two decades
in Dharwad. After the advent of state-wise insecticidal spray operations under the National M alaria
Control Programme, Plague declined. There have bepn no cases of plague in recent years. The
plague surveillance unit was founded in Bangalore in 1975 and become functional in 1976. Once
again in 1994, Pnuemonic plague appeared in Maharashtra spread to Karnataka also.

Tuberculosis: All the district headquarters of the state are having Tuberculasis Control Centres
besides additional centres at Sira, Hospet' and Koppal. the Central Programme was fully integrated
with the general health service in 1992. There were 10 T.B.Hospitals, 150 ‘X ’-ray centres, 690
microscopic centres, 4,023 referral centres and one after-care and rehabilitation training centre at
Bangalore. In 1992-93 as many as 68,109 tuberculossis cases were detected and 11,89.4' 1 were
administered BCG inoculations.

Leprosy : The estimated leprosy cases in the state were 42,031 by the end of 1992 showing
Karnataka has a medium endemicity of leprosy with a prevalent rate of 1.1 per thousand population.
A total of 36,108 new cases were registered during 1992. There are 31 National Leprosy Control
Centres, 12 Modified Leprosy Control Units, 48 Urban Leprosy Centres and 677 Education and
Training Centres. All the Districts had a District Leprosy Officer to look after the district Leprosy
Control Programmes. There is one Epidemological Surveillance Team and there are 26 voluntary
organisations. A multidurg treatment project was first introduced in some district during 1986 ana
later the facility has been expanded to gew more district. The number of new cases detected in
1992-93 was 26,499 and 39,529 cases were discharged/cured/disease arrested. Sumanahally near
Bangalore has a hospital run by Christian Missionaries who have been successfully curing leprosy
patients.

AIDS : Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, a recent nightmare in public health had its
first case found in Saundatti of Belgaum district in 1987. AIDS Surveillance activities started in
1987 in the state. There are 8 blood testing centres spread over in different parts of Karnataka. The
disease spreads mostly through sexual contacts and blood transformation. During 1992 as many as-
1,02,336 persons were examined 168 (HIV) Human Immune Deficiency Virus cases were noticed,

Filaria : Filaria is a piblic health problem prevalant in Dakshina Kannada, Uttara Kannad,
Bidar, Bijapur, Raichur and Gulbarga districts of the State, where control measures are being taken
up. There are 16 Filaria Clinics at Gulbarga, Shorapur, Sedam, Yadgir, Shahpur, Shahabad,
Chittapur, Aland, Bidar, Humnabad, Basavakalyana, Bhatkal, Gokarna, Mangalore, Udupi and
Guledgud as on 1991.There is one Filaria Survey Unit in Raichur. In 1992 four more clinics were
sanctioned, 1,19,816 Blood Smears were examined, 1,620 micro filaria cases were noticed, 2,838
disease cases were found and 4,022 treated.

Besides, Guinea Worm disease is evidenced in Belgaum and Gulbarga district. Japanese
Encephalites is commonly seen in Tumkur, Mandya, Kolar, Raichur, Chitradurga, Bellary and
168 A Handbook o f Karnataka

Bangalore districts. Kyasanur forest Disease prevealent in the districts of Uttar Kannada, Dakshina
Kannada and Chikkamagalur. Handigodu Syndrome is in Shimoga and Chikkamagalur districts.
Flurosis is common in the districts of Gulbarga, Dharwad, Tumkur, Bellary, Kolar and Raichur. It
is caused by contaminated water, containing more floride and causes decay of teeth and deformities
of bones.

There are three cholera combat teams at Bijapur, Gulbarga and Mysore. For Filaria Control
there are six control units at Mangalore, Udupi, Gulbarga, Shahpur, Bidar and Guledgud (Bijapur
Dt) and 20 filaria clinics besides one Filaria Survey Unit at Raichur. There are 19 Health
Laboratories and 9 Regional Chemical Examination Laboratories and one Virus Diagnostic
Laboratory at Shimoga with two field stations at Sagar and Honnavar, Attached to District Hospitals,
there are 25 V.D Clinics, 20 T.B. Treatment Units, 20 Leprosy Control Units, 6 Child Guidance
Clinics at Bangalore, Belgaum, Bijapur, Gulbarga, Kolar and Mangalore. There are eight
Physchiatric Clinics in the State. Under National Leprosy Control Programme, there are 33 Leprosy
Control Centres, functioning in the state besides 265 Survey Education and Treatment Centres.
There are 13 voluntary organisations also serving the people of the State. The Government has also
opened two Laprosy Training Centres, one at Gulbarga and the other Kollegal (Mysore Dt).

Medical Institution
Most of the major hospitals of the state are attached to the Medical colleges and they are
providing clinical facilities along the almost all specialist services. They function as a referral
hospitals to the other institutions and come under their jurisdiction. They are having specialities like
Medicine, Surgery, Obstetric, Gynaecology, ENT, Skin and VD, Pathology and Bactriology,
Radiology, Anasethesia, Dental etc., besides latest modern medical services. A brief account of
some of the major hospitals o f the state is as follows.

1) Bowring and Lady Curzon Hospital, Bangalore (1866) was the only Civil medical institution
till 1900 in Bangalore. It had a bed strength of 104 at the beginning and at present, it has a
bed strength o f 686.

2) Victoria Hospital, Bangalore (1900) inaugurated by Lord Curzon is the biggest hospital in
Karnataka. To begin with the accomodition was provided to 100 inpatients. It has facilities
like operation theatre, laboratory, pharmacy section etc., It is a teaching hospital. It has a burns
ward sponsored by the Mahabodhi Society.

3) K.R. Hospital, Mysore (1876) was a dispensary and in 1918 it was upgraded to a general
hospital. Later on, it was cnverted into a teaching hospital attached to Mysore Medical College.
It started with a bed strength of 20 and presently the bed strength has been raised to 1,070.

4) St. Marthas Hospital, Bangalore (1886) was a 40-bed hospital. Now the bed strength is over
600. There is school o f Nursing attached to it. All types of diseases are treated here. It is
equipped with modern medical and surgical facilities.

5) Father M ueller’s Charitable Institution Mangalore had its beginning in the modest
Homeopathic Poor Dispensary founded by father Mueller, a German Missionary in 1880.
Gradually it is expanded into a General hospital by 1895. Now it is a full-fledged general
hospital with all modern medical facilities.
Medical and Public Health Services 169
\

6) Mary Calvert Holdsworth Memorial Hospital, Mysore (1906) is a hospital for women and
children. At present it has grown to 280- bed hospital with all modern medical facilities.

7) Ellen Thoburn Cowen Memorial Hospital, Kolar (1910) is a property of M ethodist Chruch in
India. It is a 210-bed hospital.

8) Minto Regional Institute of Opthalmology, Bangalore was founded in 1913 as the Minto
Opthalomology Hospital. In 1982 it was upgraded as Minto Regional Institute of Opthamology
with a provision of 277 beds.

9) The Karnataka Health Institute, Ghataprabha, Belgaum District was founded in 1935 with a
purpose o f bringing modern medical facilities to the doors of neglected villages. It is a 166-bed
hospital along with 55-bed maternity ward.

10) ,Vanivilas Hospital, Bangalore started functioning in 1935 with 250 bed strength exclusively
for women and children.

11) St. Phiolmena’s Hospital, Bangalore founded in 1937 is one of the well equipped hospital with
255-bed provision.

12) The Kempa Cheluvamba (K.C.) General Hospital, Bangalore was started as a maternity
hospital in 1939 with a provision of 40 inpatients. Later in 1962 it was converted into a General
Hospital with 313 bed strength.

13) Karnataka Medical College Hospital, Hubli, started in 1960 as a teaching College with 150
beds. At present the bed strength is 770. This hospital caters to all branches of medicine with
laboratory and pharamacy facilities.

14) St John’s Medical College hosspital, Bangalore started in 1975. It is a fully equipped modern
hospital to treat all types of diseases. The present bed strength is 401.

15) Sanjay Gandhi Institute of Accident, Rehabilitation and Physical Medicine is an autonomous
body receiving grant from Government. It started working from April 1984. The Kasturba
Medical College Hospital at Manipal and the Government Medical College Hospital at Bellary
are also two notable institutions.

There are many private hospitals and Nursing homes in Bangalore. O f them Manipal Hospital
and Mallya Hospital are prominent.

Specialised Institutions
In addition to Medical Institutions there are specialist institutions/hospitals which render
specialised treatment and undertake the research work. A few of them are listed below (as on
31.3.90).

1) Kidwai Memorial Cancer Institute, Bangalore.

2) Srivenkateswara ENT Institute, Bangalore.

3) Jayadeva Institute of Cardiology in the Victoria Hospital Campus Bangalore.

4) All India Institute of Mental health and Neuro Sciences, Bangalore.

170 A Handbook o f Karnataka
/

5) Institute of Ophthalmology, Bangalore.

6) Institute of Speach and Hearing, Mysore.

7) National Tuberculosis Institute, Bangalore.

8) Lady Willingdon Tuberculosis Insitute, Bangalore.

9) Karnataka Institute of Mental Health, Dharwad.

10) Karnatka Cancer Theraphy and Research Institute, Hubli (private)

11) Hope Infertility Clinic, Bangalore (private)

Following are the specialised institutions like clinics laboratories, etc.

1) Central Malaria Laboratory, Bangalore 1
2) Drug Distribution Centres 3,074
3) Fever Treatment Depots 4,897
4) Urban Malaria Centres 8
5) Filaria Survey Cell 1
6) Filaria Clinics 15
7) Filaria Control Units 6
8) Virus Diagonstic Laboratory, Shimoga 1
9) KFD Trial Vaccine Unit 1
10) Cholera Combat Teams 5
11) Mobile Opthalmic-cum-Dental Units 4
12) Divisional Mobile Opthalmic Unit 4
13) District mobile Opthalmic Units 6
14) Eye Banks - (3 Government, 1 private) 4
15) District T.B,Centres 22
16) District Leprosy Centres 20
17) Urban Laprosy Centres 46
18) Leprosy Control Centres 30
19) Modified Leprosy Control units 12
20) Survey Education and Treatment (SET) Centres 675
21) Epidemological Surveillance Team 1
22) Sample Survey-cum-Assessment Unit 4
23) Temporry Hospitalisation for Leprosy 22
24) Reconstructive Surgery Units for Leprosy 6
25) Model Leprosy Control Centres 1
26) Leprosy Rehabilitation Promotion units 3
Medical and Public Health Services 171

27) Voluntary Organisations 22

28) Mobile Nutrition Education and Demonstration units 5
29) Public Health Institute, Bangalore 1
30) Divisional Food Laboratories 4
31) District laboratories 19
32) Regional Assistant Chemical Examiners Laboratories 9
33) Vaccine Institute, Belgaum 1
34) Hospital Pharmacy 51
35) Sexually Transmitted Diseases Clinics 24
36) Psychiatric clinics 13
37) Dental Clinics 127
38) Bums Wards 6
39) Blood Banks (34 Government, 19 private, 60
5 voluntary, 2 autonomous)
40) Ambulance Facility available in Institution 54
41) Mobile Medical Units 4
42) ‘X ’-Ray Plants Taluk level 125
Below Taluk level 16

General Hospitals
General Hospitals are located in all the district headquarters as well as in some importani taluk
Head Quarters with bed strength varying from 30 to 400. Usually district level hospitals have more
than 250 beds. These hospitals provide specialist services such as medicine, surgery, obstretrics and
gynaecology. But district hospitals have speciality services like opthalmology, ENT, paediatrics,
orthopaedic, skin and STD, palnology, bacteriology, radiology, dental etc. and have been provided
with facilities such as ‘X ’- ray unit, screening and laboratory, blood bank etc., The district hospitals
serve as referral hospitals to the peripheral institutions.

Epidemic diseases hospitals which are functioning at Bangalore, Mysore and KGF are special
type of institutions. These hospitals are meant for treating epidemic diseases like, cholera, gastro-
enterities, diphtheria, tetanus, hooping cough, rabies, measles, chickenpox and other infections. As
in 1990 there are 16 hospitals having pharmacy units in the state under the control of the director
Medical Education and one unit is under the control of the Director of Health and Family Welfare
Services, Bangalore.
India Population Project I I I : India Population Project III (Karnataka) is being implemented
in six districts viz., Belgaum, Bijapur, Dharwad, Gulbarga, Bidar and Raichur from 1984. The tenure
of the project was for five years. The object was to provide substantial additional resources in terms
of building, trained staff, facilities and equipments.

The project was extended by the Government of India up to 31.3.90. The programme has set
specific goals for Family Welfare and M.C.H.activities. The expenditure of this project was to be
shared by three agencies viz, World Bank, Government of India and State Government.
172 A Handbook o f Karnataka

Rural Health Program m e: For attaining the desired level of health, every individual must have
access to primary health care through comprehensive health service system. The state is following
the National pattern o f three-tier health infrastructure in rendering Primary Health Centres, Health
Units, Community Health Centres and Sub-Centres. The policy o f the Government is to establish
one Primary Health Centre for every 30,OCX) population and primary health unit for every 15-20
thousand population and a Sub-Centre for 5,000 population. The Community Health Centre (CHC)
for every one lakh of population or one out of four P.H.Cs. to be formed to cater to the health care
of the rural mass.

At present, there are 198 Community Health Centres, 1,297 PHCs., 622 PHUs. and 7,793
Sub-centres functioning in the State. The table provides districtwise details on hospital facilties in
Karnataka as in 1992-93.
 Medical and Public Health Services
H ospital facilities in K arnataka 1992-93 (D istrict w ist)

SI..'->0. DiStHU H o sp itals H o sp itals Primary H ealth Primary Health D ispe nsaries I'am ily Sub-
;-,atc G ovt. Private Centres units W elfare Cent
Centres res

?\ O.S Beds N o. B eds Nos. Beds Nos. B eds N os. Beds

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

;; S a r.i.iiO ie i2 43 2 7 14 3417 25 314 44 35 65 4 48 134

2 G a n g a lo re ( k ' 4 210 54 518 31 16 7 17 276
- - -

?. B e k -ii; Hi 9 i0 6 0 6 986 107 718 13 36 16 27 37 578

4 B e lla ry 12 1350 - - 46 333 28 4 11 - 20 240

\ B id a r 217
5 4 33 1 50 35 284 13 37 2 - 14

6 B ija p u r 12 906 1 53 77 584 5 84 4 - 29 42 6

7 C h ik a m a g a h ji 5 443 1 100 39 396 42 34 2 - 14 32 6

8 C h itra d u rg a 7 1549 - - 66 568 51 6 7 - 20 441

9. D a k sh in a 10 i5 6 6 7 2890 110 625 16 10 15 12 29 692

K an n ad .i

10. D h arw ad 17 1901 7 6 29 85 570 34 55 12 32 40 571

11. G u lb a rg a 12 1070 1 92 74 524 30 38 11 - 30 467

12. H a ssa n 7 820 3 150 61 555 53 82 3 - 18 450

K od ag u 8 940 4 94 27 3 17 4 - 8 - 6 158

14. K o la r 10 1027 4 356 69 6 78 37 31 5 - 21 359

15. M an d y a 6 '5 8 - - 55 548 38 26 4 2 15 364

16 M ysore 9 2207 3 9 65 117 1031 60 17 212 - 34 672

17. R a ic h u r 9 478 - 62 480 9 - 6 - 24 349

18. S h im o g a 7 722 2 167 61 548 52 94 14 16 20 - 365

19 T um kur 4 7 40 - - 77 658 40 28 1 - 21 404

20 I.’tta ia 1C nn ad ti i1 626 2 50 50 384 22 20 5 28 17 302

174 A Handbook o f Karnataka

Family Welfare Services

Erstwhile Mysore State had intiated the idea of some kind of birth control as early as in 1930,
indueing'clinics to advise mothers on the subject in two hospitals in the state. The Family Planning
programme gained momentum at the beginning of the second plan. For better co-ordination and
supervision, while implementing the programmes at various levels, the District Health Officer was
redesignated as the District Health and Family Welfare Officer to look after the Welfare activities
of the District. In 1964 Family Planning Bureau was formed at each District Headquarters to
coordinate the family welfare activity.

Extension approach was adopted in 1964 wherein Education Service facilities were extended
to door steps of the rural masses and the urban people. Facilities have been provided in all medical
institution for conducting vasectomy, tubectomy, leproscopic operations and IUD placements.
Intensive propaganda through lectures, filmshows, exhibitions, publicity, literature etc.. is being
conducted throughout the state to popularise the programme. As a result, female sterilisation gained
momentum and leproscopic operation was found to be sale.

The achievement under Family Welfare Programme during 1992-93 included 3,31.500
sterlisations, 2,37,820 IUD placements 2,65,872 C.C. Users and 81,561 O.P users in the stale.

Maternal and Child Health Services: As a part of Family Welfare Programme, great emphasis
has been layed on improving the health of the mothers and children since it is of vital importance
to the acceptance of the family norms. Under this M.C.H programmes children are immunised
against tetanus, T.B, polio, Measles, Diphtheria and Pertursis and tetanus and pregnant women
against tetanus. During 1992-93, the progress achieved under this programme saw the use of
10,88,000 doses or DPT, 9,56,000 doses of D & T, 12,16,000 TT for mothers, 7,34,000 TT for
children below 10 years, 10,91,000 doses of oral polio drops, 11,89,000 measles and 10,13,000 BCG
administered in the State.

Under the National programme of Prevention of Blindness, Vitamin ‘A’ concentrate is being
distributed to the children of 1 to 5 years of age a an interval or six months

Schools Health Programme

Medical examination of school children in all the primary and higher primary schools in the
rural areas are conducted. Immunisation against DT and TT treatments of ailments, Health
Education to teachers and students etc., are included in this School Health Programme, From April
to November 1992, 3,94,326 students have been medically examined, 35,966 were found to be
medically defective, 4,39,172 students were administered DT vaccine and 3,23,875 were given TT
vaccine.
Medical and Public Health Services 175

Family Welfare and Immunisation Programmes in Karnataka for the

year 1992-93 (District wise)

SI. District F.W.Prog- Inmmunisation programme in ’ooo

No. ramme DPT Polio BCG Measles TT
Sterlisa-
tion(in ’000)

1. Bangalore 410 143 143 142 129 155

2. Bangalore (R) 156 39 39 . 43 36 45

3. Belgaum 251 82 82 92 76 93

4. Bellary 113 41 41 47 38 50

5. Bidar 82 32 32 30 29 33

6. Bijapur 184 67 67 75 63 75

7. Chikamagalur 83 23 23 25 21 24

8. Chitradurga 156 49 49 60 47 56

9. D.Kannada 171 62 62 71 57 62

10. Dharwad 253 76 77 88 73 98

11. Gulbarga 165 62 ■ 62 65 84 73

12. Hassan 145 41 42 42 38 42

13. Kodagu 35 12 12 12 11 14

14. Kolar 180 57 57 67 50 85

15. Mandya 152 45 45 45 42 47

16. Mysore 283 71 72 81 69 81

17. Raichur 114 59 59 65 56 70

18. Shimoga 154 47 47 50 43 48

19. Tumkur 183 55 55 63 50 60

20. Uttara Kannada 65 25 25 26 21 25

Total 3315 1088 1091 1013 1216

176 A Handbook o f Karnataka

Central Government Health Services : The Central Government Health Services department
is running 14 dispensaries, two Ayurvedic, one Polyclinic unit in the Stale. During 1991-92,
3,85,110 out-patients were treated. There is a Central Drug Stores at Bangalore.

Employees State Insurance Scheme : ESI a Centrally-sponsored scheme is a major social

security programme to give protection against loss of wages for the labourers on account of sickness,
disablement, confinement and death. In addition, medical assistance is also given to the family
members of the insured persons. Under this scheme for the year 1992-93. 44.05 lakhs persons were
covered and 20 lakhs of their family members were treated. As on 1991-92 there were 7 E.S.I
Hospitals, 115 full- time dispensarires, 12 part-time dispensaries, 12 Employed facility dispensaries
and two Ayurvedic dispensaries in the State. A total of 1,761 beds were reserved for ESI patients.
During 1991-92, 40,50,829 out-patients were treated and 63,428 in-patients received treatment
under the scheme in the state.

D rugs' Control: The protection of health of the medicine consumers of the state by excercising
strict control and vigil, so that the drugs manufactured and marketed for sale in the state are of
standard quality and are available at controlled prices is attended to by three wings viz 1)
Enforcement/Administration, (2) Drugs Testing Laboratory and (3) Government College of
Pharmacy.

The Drugs Controller is the Head of the Department assisted by one Additional Drugs
C ontroller at the headquarters who are in charge of licensing, manufacturing, intelligence, price
control, hospital inspection and advertisment wing duly assisted by Drugs Inspectors. A seperate
Assistant Drugs Controller is in charge of the Board of Examining Authority for the purpose of
conducting Examinations in Diploma in Pharnmacy.

There were 237 drugs and 80 cosmetics manufacturing units, 14.019 qualified pharmacists,
6,113 chemists and druggists and 9,485 registered licensed sale establishments in the State as on
31.12.92,

Karnataka Medical C ouncil: Karnataka Medical Council was established after the passing of
Mysore Medical Registration Act V of 1931 in 1932, as Mysore Medical Council and later in 1974
it was renamed as Karnataka Medical Council. The main objective of its formation was to provide
the Registration facility for Medical practioners practising Allopathic system of Medicine, surgery
and obstetries. The total number of members at the end of December 1991 was 35.026. The
membership in the council carries certain privileges to the Medical Practioners.

Indian Medical Association : Karnataka State Branch of I.M.A was founded in 1928, at
Bangalore with the aim of promoting medical and allied sciences in all their different branches. The
membership of this Association is optional. Any qualified doctor of modern medicine serving either
in Government or in private can become a member. There are 67 branches of this Association spread
over all parts of Karnataka State. This is a purely non-political organisation which offers,
suggestions to Government on matters pertaining to projects such as health education and also
promotes fellowship among doctors. The total membership in Karnataka at the end of December
1992 was 5,043.
G okak fa lls, B elgaum Dist.

Shivanasamudra falls, Mandya Dist.

C hunchanakatte fa lls, M ysore Dist.

K a lla th ig iri falls, C h lk m a g a lu r Dist.

R om an C oins fo u n d n ea r U.A.L.

B angalore Fort.
Stone Well, L akkundi Stone W ell K anakagiri

Pond, Hampi
Palace, M ysore.

Palace, Bangalore.
Tibetan Colony, Bylakuppe.
Wall Painting at Nippani Wada. Kavikale, Kumta.
 K hw aja B ande N aw az D urgah, Gulbarga.

M astan Sha Wali Darga, O.T.C Road, Bangalore.

Ju m m a M asjid, L akshm eshw ara.

The Syed M oham m ed Sheriful M adani Dargh and the adjoining Mosque,
Ullal, D. Kannada
Jam iya M asjid, N ea r C ity M a rket , Bangalore.

A ra b ic C ollege , Bangalore.
 4

St. J o sep h ’s Chruch, Briand Square, Bangalore.

St. P a tr ic k ’s C hruch, Bangalore.

 L okeshw ara a n d A valokcleshw ara, Kadri
»' '

Chaturmukha Basti, Cerusoppe

Gonmuiteshwara
at Shravanabelgola at Gommatagiri at Dharmastala

Savirakainbada Basti, Moodabidare.

Honnadevi, Shivaganga Durgi, Railxig
 Krishna, Belavadi.
K rishna Udupi, D w arapaia, H um cha

Krishna, Gokarna.
Surxa, Ahhalur
 Chapter XIII
CULTURE
Karnataka’s cultural heritage is rich and variegated. Kannada literature saw its first work from
the 9th Century and in modem times it has created half-a-dozen winners of Janapeetha Award for
their literary talents. Literary activity in other languages of neighbouring states in this state and
purely local languages like Tulu and Kodava is also considerable. Journalism in Kannada has a
history dating back to 1843 and has many achivements to its credit. Karnataka has thrown up
outstanding men in histrionic talent. In the musical map of India, the State has bright spots, whether
it is Hindustani or Karnatak, the latter having originated in this land. In the field o f dance and art
too Karnataka has creditable achievements. Yakshagana is both a folk and elite art that is flourishing
here. The State’s tradition in folk arts is also colourful.

When once thinks of the cultural scene, Shivaram Karanth, Kuvempu, Mallikarjuna Mansur,
T. Chaudiah, K.K. Hebbar, Gangubai Hangal, B.V.Karanth or Girish Kamad are a few bright faces
that shine forth. An attempt is made to survey the cultural pageant of Karnataka in this chapter.

Kannada Literature
Kannada literature has a history dating back to at least 1500 years. This apart, the folk literature
which began earlier, still runs parallel to the written form. Seygotta Sivaramara’s ‘Gajashtaka’ is
cited as an example of early folk literature. The oldest available work in Kannada is, however, a
book on poetics, called ‘Kavirajamarga’. Some controversy surrounds this work regarding the
authorship, but the consensus is that it was written more likely by Srivijaya than King Nripathunga.
The work not only discusses figures of speech like ‘rasa’ and ‘dhwani’, but also gives descriptions
of the geographical boundaries o f Karnataka, as well as its life and culture.

Thumbalacharya is credited with having written ‘Chudamani’, a philosphical work, much

earlier. But the earliest Kannada prose work is Sivakotiacharya’s ‘Vaddaradhane’ which even to
this day is considered a masterpiece. It is a collection of 16 Jaina stories. These seem to, have been
based on an earlier Prakrit commentary called ‘Bhagavathi Aradhana’.

Pampa’s ‘Vikramarjuna Vijaya’ based on ‘Mahabharatha’ and written in Champu style, which
is a mixture of prose and poetry, unique to Kannada, is the earliest epic work in Kannada. Pampa’s
influence on Kannada literature is so deep that T.N.Srikantaiah speaks of him as the Kalidasa of
Kannada. Being a Jaina poet, he also wrote ‘Adipurana’ based on Jinasena’s ‘Mahapurana’.

Ponna who wrote ‘Shanthipurana’, and Ranna whose ‘Gadayuddha’ has earned him
immortality as a poet, were also Jainas. They lived in the 10th Century. Nagavarma II who belongs

Dance
188 A Handbook o f Karnataka

to the next century was also a Jaina poet and wrote ‘Kavyavalokana’, a book on poetics, and
‘Karnataka Bhashabhushana’ a Kannada grammar in Sanskrit. His ‘Vardhamanapurana’ was
discovered only recently. Janna, a Jain poet.again, wrpte ‘Yashodhara Charithe’ which is a love
story. Durgasimha, in 11th century, wrote ‘Panchatantra’ based on Vasubhaga’s Sanskrit work, and
it is a classic example of the ancient art of story telling. Rudrabhatta wrote ‘Jagannatha Vijaya’
based on ‘Vishnu Purana’. The last two were Brahmin poets. 1

The 12thcentijry saw a sea-change in Kannada literature both in content and style. What caused
this is the growth o f Veerashaivism which was essentially revolutionary in approach. It derecognised
untouchability and saw women as equals. It liberated Kannada from the clutches of Sanskrit. The
moving spirit behind this movement was Basaveshvara, who was minister in the court of Prince
Bijjala. His Vachanas which can be called prose-poems, have their moorings in folk-literature and
folk-culture, and yearn to liberate man from the bondage of untruth and ignorance. They seek to
provide happiness here and elsewhere. Allamaprabhu, Akkamahadevi, Madivala Machayya and
Dohara Kakkayya were other Vachanakaras.

After Basavanna the greatest influence on Kannada literature was Harihara, who used an
innovative form o f ‘Vachana’ called ‘Ragale’. His ‘Basavarajadevara Ragale’and ‘Nambiyannana
Ragaie’ are examples of this genre. His nephew Raghavanka introduced yet another form of poetry
called ‘Shatpadi’ and apart from ‘Somanatha Charithe’ and ‘Siddarama Charithe’ his ‘Harischandra
Kavya’ is considered to be a masterpiece.

The Sixteenth Century saw Veerashaiva poets of extraordinary merit. Sarvajna who was a real
Vairagi in that he had no setded home, and no religion, wrote ‘Sarvajna Padagalu’ in Vachana style.
This work is really a compendium of wit and wisdom. Nijaguna Sivayogi who was a ruler, saint
and scholar wrote ‘Viveka Chintamani’ said to be the earliest encyclopaedia in Kannada.

Dasakoota or the Vaishnava movement was led by Purandara Dasa, who is also considered
the father of Karnataka music. Through his Keerthanas, he propounded the Dwaitha Philosphy and
gave an impetus to us Bhakthi movement. Kanaka Dasa, though hailing from the Kuruba
community, followed in the footsteps of Purandara Dasa.

Karnataka culture reached its zenith during the Vijayanagara empire. Naranappa’s 'Karnataka
Bharatha Kathamanjari’ or ‘Gadugina Bharatha’ as it is popularly known is the finest example of
the literature of this period. This was followed by Lakshmisha’s ‘Jaimini Bharatha’ which is also
an immensely popular work. Chamarasa’s ‘Prabhulingaleele’ is another notable work of this period.

Post-renaissance movement saw a four-lined folk-metre, called ‘Sangatya’, which was

particularly suitable for singing. Nanjundakavi who wrote ‘Kumararamana Kathe’ proved its multi­
dimensional application. But it was Rathnakaravami who, in ‘Bharathesha Vaibhava’, explored its
full potential.

The Wodeyars of Mysore gave a boost to Kannada literature. Particularly noteworthy is

Chikkadevaraja Wodeyar’s period from 1672 to 1704. He himself wrote ‘Chikkadevaraja Binnapa’.
‘Tirumalaraya’s Chikkadevaraja Vijaya’ has Mysore history as its theme and is in Champu style.
Singararya’s ‘Mitravinda Govinda’, translated from Harsha’s ‘Rathnavali’ is considered to be the
earliest Kannada play, another noteworthy poet of this period is Honnamma who wrote ‘Hadibadeya
Dharma’ in Sangatya metre.
Culture 1&9

Mummadi Krishnaraja Wodeyar continued the tradition o f his predecessor. Kempunarayana’s

‘Mudramanjusha’ deserves a special mention. Wodeyar also started the Raja’s English School
(1833) and this along with the expansion of Missionary activities, increased the Western inflaence
on Kannada literature.
Chamaraja Wodeyaf's period saw a
new era in Kannada literature. M.S.
Puttanna’s ‘Madiddunno Maharaya’,
D.Venkatachalayya and Dr.
B.V.Venkateshaiyya’s detective stories like
Tarimala’ and ‘Arindamana Sahasagalu’,
Galaganatha’s social and historical novels,
Kittel’s dictionary, Cha. Vasudevayya’s
‘Bala Bodhe’ belong to this period.
Muddanna’s'i ‘Ramashvamedha’ is an epic
episode in prose. This has a tinge o f modern
writing. Translated novels by
B.Venkatacharya and Galaganath, mostly
historical made a deep impact on readers.

In 1921, Professor B.M.Srikantayya

heralded the ‘Navodaya’ movement. His
‘English Geethegalu’ was a free rendering of
some great English poems. Around this
period, and unknown to him, K.V. Puttappa
(Kuvempu) had switched over from English
writing to Kannada and the culmination of
his work was ‘Sri Ramayana Darshana'
written in blank verse. Puttappa’s social
novels such as ‘Kanuru Subbamma
Heggadthi’ and ‘Malegalalli Madumagalu’
are equally well acclaimed. Among the
works o f the thirties, D.V.Gundappa’s
‘Manku Thimmana Kagga’ stands out as a
jewel. It is considered to be unique in the
sense that it contains ethical principles,
philosophic truths and life experiences.
Samsa wrote many plays in Halegannada, of
which ‘Vigada Vikramaraaya’ is the best
example.

It is interesting to note that exccpt

U.R.Anathamurthy, all the five of the six
Jnanapeetah awardees in Kannada,
Kuvempu. Da.Ra. Bendre, Shivarama
Karantha, Masthi Venkatesha Iyengar and
V.K.Gokak have been writing since the
Navodaya period. Da.Ra. Bendre won the
190 A Handbook o f Karnataka

award primarily for ‘Naku Thanti’ a

metaphysical poetic work but his popularity
is based more on his^writings drawn from
folk culture. Shivarama Karantha still
remains one foremost prolific writer, and his
writings range from encyclopaedia to
novels, essays, drama and poetry. ‘Marali
Mannige’ is his oft-mentioned novel, but
‘Bettada Jeeva’ ‘Chomana Dudi’ and
‘Kudiyara Koosu’ are as noteworthy. His
works mirror the cultural ethos of Dakshina
Kannada. Masthi Venkatesha Iyengar is
primarily noted as short story writer, his
‘Chennabasava Nayaka’ and
‘Chikkaveerarajendra’ are historical novels
dealing with degeneration o f monarchy, and
‘Subbanna1 is a long story which reaches
metaphysical heights. Gokak began as a
Navodaya poet but his magnum opus is
‘Bharatha Sindhu Rashmi’ which seeks to
find answers for the modern man’s
dilemmas in ancient epics. Significantly,
Ananthamurthy’s ‘Bhava’ also seeks
inspiration from traditional wisdom.

K.S. Narasimha Swamy’s ‘Mysora

Mallige’, a collection of poems with love
and separation as the theme is a landmark of
the Navodaya period. G.P. Rajaratnam’s
‘Rathnana Padagalu’ perhaps stands unique
in world literature in seeing truth and beauty
in a drunken man’s gay gibberish. Pu.Thi.
Narasimhachar’s ‘Gokula Nirgamana’ has
Krishna’s separation from Radha as its
theme, and this again reaches spiritual
heights. Gorur Ramaswamy Iyengar chose
the easy form to portray the life of rural
Karnataka his ‘Halliya Chitragalu’ is
considered the supreme example of his
writings. His tradition was continued by
A.N.Murthy Rao in “ Hagaluganasugalu”
and M.R.Srinivsa Murthy in ‘Rangannana
Kanasina Dinagalu’.

The period also saw a spurt of literary

criticism. Of these T.N.Srikantaiya’s
‘Bharathiya Kavya Meemamse’ is
considered to be a classic. A.R.Krishna
Culture 191

Shastry nurtured a whole generation o f writers through ‘Prabuddha Karnataka’, a periodical brought
out by the Kannada Sangha of the Central College. S.V.Ranganna, an English Professor, who by
this time established himself as a Kannada writer through ‘Ranga Binnappa’, wrote on literary
criticism in ‘Shaili’ and ‘Ruchi’. V.Sitramayya’s output varied from ‘Hana Prapancha1, an economic
treatise, to ‘Pampa Yathre’ a travelogue, to a host of writings, from poetry to literary criticism. R.S.
Mugali wrote ‘Kannada Sahitya Charithre’, a succinct and balanced history of Kannada Literature.

In the mid-forties the Navodaya movement gave way to Pragathisheela Chaluvali. A.N.
Krishna Rao was the torch bearer for this. The movement brought writers from their ivory tower to
the common man. Though Anakru’s short stories are better examples from this genre of writing,
than his novels, he is mainly noted for his novels such as ‘Sandhya Raaga’, ‘Udaya Raaga\ ‘Nata
Sarvabhouma’, ‘Grihini’ and ‘Kanneeru’. Basavaraja Kattimani, hailing from North Karnataka,
wrote ‘Nee Nanna Muttabeda’, ‘Shivadara Janivara’ and ‘Nanoo Polisinagidde’ portraying the
netherworld behind the facade of Kaavi and Khaki. Tarasu started as a progressive writer with novels
like ‘Parijatha’, ‘Masanada Hoovu’ and ‘Munjavinda Mujavu’ found his forte in historical novels
woven around his birth place Chitradurga, and ‘Durgasthamana’ is the finest example o f his writing.
Niranjana who was an active communist during freedom struggle wrote such down-to-earth novels
as ‘Doorada Betta’ and
‘Rangammana Vathara’ as
well as ‘Chirasmarane’ based
on agrarian movement, but his
magnum opus is considered to
‘Mrityunjaya’, dealing with
Egyptian history.

Chaduranga who inspite

of his close relationship with
the Mysore Royal family was
a rebel and wrote
‘Sarvamangala’ and ‘Uyyale’
both dealing with
extra-marital love.
Interestingly, his ‘Vaishakha’
written many decades later
also deals with extra-marital
relationship in a rural setting.

Among the women

writers Triveni, whose novels
like ‘Bekkina Kannau’
‘Sharapanjara’ and
‘Muchhida Bagilu’ were
essentially psycho-analytical,
Anupama, who drew themes
from her rich experience as a
medical practitioner in stories
like ‘Aranyadallondu
Aragini’, and M.K. Indira
192 A Handbook of Karnataka

whose forte was the portrayal of Malnad life in novels such as ‘Phaniyamma’ were all offshoots of
the Pogressive movement.

Next to the Progressive movement was the Navya movement. This was influenced mostly by
the post-war writers like T.S.EIiot, Auden, Ezra Pound, D.H.Lawrence, Sartre and Camus.
Gopalakrishna Adiga was the foremost exponent o f the Navya movement and his ‘Bhoomi Geetha’
is said to have been influenced by T.S.EIiot’s ‘Waste Land’. P.Lankesh’s collection of stories
‘Kurudu Kanchana’ and his absurd play ‘Teiegalu’, Srikrishna Alanahallis long story ‘Kadu’,
Shanthinatha Desai’s ‘Vikshepa’, Poomachandra Tejaswi’s ‘Nigoodha Manushyaru’, Nissar
Ahmed's poem like ‘Masthi’, ‘Raman Sattha Dina’, U.R. Ananthamurthy’s stories like ‘Prashne’
and ‘Clip Joint’, Yeshwanth Chittala’s ‘Bandaya’ are some examples o f the new writing in Kannada.

S.L. Bhyrappa who shot into fame with his ‘Vamshavriksha’ is one writer who has
scrupulously avoided confining himself into any frame. Some o f his celebrated works are
‘Anveshane’, ‘Grihabhanga’, ‘Thabbaliyu Neenade Magane’ ‘Dhaatu’ and ‘Thanthu’.

Post-Navya writing is sometimes called as Navyotthara Sahitya or Bandaya Sahitya, or even

Dalitha Sahitya. The writers belonging to this movement are of the firm view that only Dalits can
authentically write about their trials and tribulations, and anything written by others, however,
impressive it might be, will still remain second-hand experience. Still, it is interesting to note that
Devanuru Mahadeva who does not like to classify himself into this or that group or ‘ism’ has given
some of the finest Dalit literature. His ‘Odalala’ and ‘Kusuma Bale’ have won many laurels.

Any survey of Kannada literature

would be incomplete without the mention of
some writers, who while not specifically
representing this or that school were still
successful in drawing enormous number of
readers towatd them. Krishnamuithy
Puranika is one such. At one time, his novels
like ‘Dharmadevathe’ which faithfully
depicted the middle class life of old Mysore
or Hyderabad Karnataka or Mumbai
Karnataka were a rage among women
readers. Likewise, N. Narasimhaya who
wrote detective stories under the series
‘Patthedara Purushotthamana Sahasagalu’
was so successful that the series exceeded
one hundred'. He was ne/er seen in any
literary meet, it is doubtful if he ever got
invited, neverthless his books did inculcate
the reading habit in school boys.

At the other end of the spectrum, we

find the B.G.L.Swamy who blended humour
and science writing so effectively that his
‘Hasiru Honnu’ al out the botanical wealth
around us, remains a classic many decades
after its publication. His ‘Kaleju Ranga’ and
Culture 193

‘Kaleju Tharanga’ are m asterpieces of humour, dealing with his experiences as a College teacher.
‘Thamilu Thalegala Naduve’ is a scholarly work which takes in its sweeps subjects like archaeology
is veneered with deceptive humour.

Similarly there are writers like C.K. Nagaraja Rao, Ma.Na.Murthy, Devudu Narasimha Shastry
and K.V. Iyer who have scholarly novels like ‘Pattamahishi Shanthala’, ‘Shanthala’,
‘Mahabrahmana’ and ‘M ahakshtriya’, and
‘Rupadarshi’. Girish Karnad has given many
plays drawing profusely from history,
folklore and epics. ‘Thughalak’, ‘Naga
M andala’ and ‘Kacha Devayani’ may be
cited as examples.

Travelogues are far too many even to

make a brief mention. However Karanth’s
‘Appoorva Paschima’, A.N.Murthy Rao’s
‘Apara Vayaskana America Yathre’,
Gorur’s ‘Americadalli Gorur’, popular
detective story writer T.K. Rama Rao’s
‘Golada Melondu Suttu’, N.
Lakshminarayan’s ‘Nirdeshakana Videsha
Yathre’, D.Javare Gowda’s ‘Videshadalli
Nalku Vara’, Krishnananda Kamat’s ‘Nanoo
Americakke Hogidde’, Navarathna Ram’s
‘Pyarissininda Preyasige’ may be cited as
examples?

This can at best be only a cursory

glance or bird’s-eye view of Kannada
literature through many centuries.
Omissions will be far too many. Neverthless,
what has been given encompasses some of
the best reading in Kannada language.*
t

Jnanapith Award Winners

1. K.V.Puttappa (1967), 2. D.R. Bendre (1973), 3. K.Shivaram Karanth (1977), 4 Masti
Venkatesh Iyengar (1983), 5. V.K. Gokak (1990), 6. U.R. Ananthamurthy (1994).

Pampa Award Winners

1. K.V.Puttappa (1989), 2. T.N.Shreekanthaiya (1990), 3. K.Shivaram Karanth (1991), 4.
S.S.Bhoosanurumath (1992), 5. P.T.Narasimhachar (1993), 6. A,N.Murthi Rao (1994).

Central Sahitya Akademy Award Winners

1. K.V. Puttappa(1955), 2. R.S. Mugali(1958), 3. D.R. Bendre (1958), 4. K. Shivaram Karanth
(1959), 5. V.K. Gokak (1960), 6. A.R. Krishna Shastri (1961), 7. Devudu Narasimhashastri (1962),

Writtern by C. Seetharam
194 A Handbook o f Karnataka

8. B. Puttaswamaiah (1964), 9. S.V. Ranganna (1956), 10. P.T. Narasimhachar (1966), 11. D.V.
Gundappa(1967), 12. Masti Venkatesh Iyengar (1968), 13,H. Thipperudraswamy (1969), 14.Sham.
Ba. Joshi (1970), 15. Shriranga (1971), 16. S.S. Bhusanoormatha (1972), 17. V. Seetharamaiah
(1973), 18. M. Gopala Krishna Adiga (1974), 19. S.L. Bhyrappa (1975), 20. M. Shivaram (1976),
21. K.S. Narasimhaswamy (1977), 22. B.G.L. Swamy (1978), 23. A.N. Murthi Rao (1979), 24.
Goruru Ramaswamy Iyengar (1980), 25. Channaveera Kanavi (1981), 26. Chaduranga (1982), 27.
Yashavanta Chittala (1983), 28. G.S. Shivarudrappa (1984), 29. Ta.Ra.Su (Subbarao) (1985), 30.
Vyasaraya Ballala (1986), 31. K.P. Purnachandra Tejasvi (1987), 32. Shankara Mokashi Punekar
(1988), 33. Devanuru Mahadeva (1989), 34. S.V.Parameshwara Bhatta (1990), 35. Ha.Ma. Nayak
(1990), 36. Chandra- shekhara Kambara (1991), 37. H.S. Venkatesha Murthi (1991), 38. Su.Ram.
Yakkundi (1992), 39. Saraswathi Gajanana Risbud (1992), 40. P. Lankesh (1993), 41. Kirthinatha
Kurthakoti (1993), 42. Girish Karnad (1994), 43. Pradhan Gurudatta (1994).

Tulu Language and Literature

Tulu is one of the rich and ancient languages of the Dravidian .family. Tulu speaking people
are called Tuluvas mostly found in Dakshina Kannada and Kasargode Dt. Of Kerala. Tulunadu is,
bounded by the Kalyanapura river in the North, Arabian sea in the west, Western ghats in the east
and the Payaswini/Chandragiri river in the south.

Tulu has its own linguistic peculiarities and shares a number of common features with Kannada
and other Dravidian languages. Tulu has a very vast folk tradition which has its own peculiarities.
Folklore in Tulu is mainly found in theS form of Paddanas, Sandi, Kabita, Uralu, Madipu,
Nritya-padya. Gadi, Ogatu, Jogulo, Ajjikathe etc.,

Tulu Brahmins are generally educated people in the Vedas and Shastras. Their folk songs are
based on the episodes in the epics ‘Ramayana’ and ‘Mahabharatha’. Among the lower castes and
untouchables the Bhuta dance tradition is prevalent.

When compared with other Dravidian languages, Tulu has very little classical literature.
During the past 150 years, Tulu has adopted the Kannada script for its literary works. Even though
the works of Tulu literature initiated by the Basel Mission Christians were only translations of the
teachings of Christianity in the beginning, a few important works like the Tulu English dictionary
etc., were published later. Collections of their folk songs etc., and histories of Dakshina Kannada
and Tuluva Culture were also published. Works on Tulu Grammar, dialect and a doctoral theses on
the structure of Tulu verb transformational analysis were published in the latter half of the Twentieth
Century. The Kerala and Karnataka governments have helped in developing lexicons and text books
of Tulu. Many Kannada plays of Yakshagana and many feligious works also have been translated
into Tulu. Notables early writers of Tutu literature are Sankayya Bhagawat, Sheenappa Heggade,
K.B.Narayana Shetty and M.V.Hegde. S.U. Phaniyadi established the Tulu Mahasabha in Udupi in
1928, This gave great boost to Tulu literature and culture. It led to a linguistic-cum-cultural
movement in Tulu.

The Tulu theatre and drama developed during this period. K:Doddanna Shetty, K.N.Tailor,
Rama Kirodiyan, U.R.Chandar, K.B.Bandari, Machendranath, Ramananda Churya, Sitarama Kulal,
P.S.Rao, Visliu Kumar et al. were the pioneers of the Tulu Theatre. The beauty of Tulu idioms,
proverbs and expressions is very well represented in the social activities of this period. Yakshaganas,
the spectacular folk dances of Karnataka, are becoming popular even in Tulu now-a- days. In recent
C ulture 195

years, Tulu poets like Amrita Sameswara,

Anantharam Bangady, Purushottama Punja,
Nityananda Karanth, Ashok.A.Shetty,
K.Shekar.V.Shetty, G.Bayaru, Madhukumar
and A.N.Shetty have composed Tulu
Yakshagana epics. There are some organisation
which are working for the propagation of Tulu
language and culture. Tulu Koota of Mangalore
is one such organisation. A few Tulu journals
are also being brought out.

Many other poets have made a name in

Tulu literature. The notable among them are
Mandara Keshava Bhat (his ‘Mandara
Ramayana’ is a wonderful epic), Venkataraju
Puninch£ftaya, P.V.Achaiya, Ramakrishna
Achar, Dumappa Master, Vamana Nfindavar,
K.V. Ravi, Tilakanath Manjeshwar, Ratna
Kumar, Yeshwantha Bolur, Bhaskar Rao,
Sitaram Kulal, Sitaram Aiwa and Bannanje.

Three Tulu classics in Grantha script, each

of them more than 200 years old have been
found in palm manuscripts. They are ‘Tulu
Bhagavato’ (by Vishnu Tunga) ‘Kaveri’ and a
prose work ‘Devi Mahatme.’

Many scholars are engaged in research on

Tulu language, culture and folklore of the
Tuluvas. They are D.N.S. Bhat, S.N. Bhat, M.
Rama, S. Mallikadevi, U.P. Upadhyaya,
William Madta, T.Gopalakrishna Bhatta,
Sediyapua Krishna Bhatta, A. Acharya,
Venkataraju Puninchattaya, Vivek Rai, Amrita
Someshwar, Susheela Upadhyaya, Chinnappa
Gowda, K.Padmanabha Kekhunnaya, and other
young scholars. Some of the works on Tulu
linguistics and folklore brought out are: ‘A
comparitive study of Tulu Dialects’, ‘Tuluva
DarshanaY Folk epics of Tulunadu’, ‘Tulu
Janapada Sahitya’, ‘Bhutaaraadhane’, ‘Tulu
Baduku’, ‘Paaddanagalu’, ‘Janapada Aaradhane
Mattu Rangakale’, ‘Karaavali Jaanapada’, etc.
Tulu Akademy was founded by the State Govt
in 1994.
196 A Handbook o f Karnataka

Research on Tulu language, folklore

and history is carried on in the Kannada
department of the Mangalore University and
the Rashtrakavi Govinda Pai Research
Centre at M.G.M. College, Udupi. Scholars
in Pune, Annamalai and Trivandrum
Universities are engaged in research in Tulu
language. The Centre of Udupi is compiling
a multi-volume modem Tulu Lexicon.

Kodava Language and Literature

Historically speaking, it has been

proved that till the 17th century Kodava
language was spoken as the principal
language in Kodagu, which was then a
separate state. Kodagu had considerable
Malayalam influence as its principal trade
connection was with Malabar. The Haleri
dynasty which took over the reins of
administration of Kodagu adopted Kannada
as the court language. The Kannada
influence of about 230 years changed many
shades of the original language of which
adoption of Kannada script for writing is the
most important. Appaneranda Appachcha
who wrote many Kodava plays and
Nadikeriyanda Chinappa compiled Pattoe
Palame and translated Bhagavad Gita were pioneering writers in Kodava language.

After the merger of Kodagu with Karnataka, there is a great literary awakening. Dr. I.M.
Muthanna who is the author o f ‘A Tiny Model State of South India’ and many other books has
published a collection of poems in Kodava language B.D.Ganapathi has written two books in
Kodava language called ‘Nanga Kodava’ and ‘Kuttambolicha’. His Kannada book on Kodava
culture ‘Kodagu mattu Kodavaru’ has won him the State Akademy Award. Recently, effort are
being made to foster Kodava literature and the Kodava Thak Parishat was established in 1978. It is
working to bring out a Kodava lexicon. The first conference was presided over by the noted writer
B.D.Ganapathi. It has held five conferences, the last being the one held at Parane in 1990.

Kodava has a very rich folk tradition. Kodava folk songs depict the facets of their colourful
life and the poems are both robust and humourous. In these songs, we can see the Kodava language
with its peculiarities. These songs seem to be very old, being of a bygone age and their authors are
unknown. The difference between the language used in these songs and the present spoken language
is striking. The Kodavas, above all, loved their land and we find their songs begin with patriotic
praise of their land. Thus, Kodavas have a unique language, culture and tradition.
Culture 197

I.M.Muthanna, noted writer from

Kodagu has completed a ‘Kodava- Kannada
Nighantu’ in Kannada. Starting of
‘Brahmagiri’ weekly in Kodava language
(1980) from Virajpet and ‘Jamma Nangada’
(1983) from Gonikoppal gave a great fillip
to writing in the Kodava language apart from
the publication of books. But all these
publications are in Kannada script. A feature
film titled ‘Nada Mann Nada Kool’ made in
Kodava language and directed by S.R.Rajan
was released in 1972. In 1994 Kodava
Akademy was founded by the State
Government.

Konkani in Karnataka
Konkani which is an independent
language is spoken by more than 15 lakh
people mostly spread all over the Western
coast of India, of which more than six lakhs
are in Karnataka. The Konkani- speaking
people were mostly living in Goa but after the annexation of Goa by the Portuguese, many of them
fled to the South into Karnataka fearing conversation to Christianity. At present, there is a large
concentration of Konkani speaking people in South and North Kanara districts of Karnataka. Even
though the Konkani language and culture were suppressed by the Portuguese, the people who
migrated from Goa managed to help their culture to flourish. In the Konkani literature produced in
Karnataka, there are two distincts groups, one produced by the Konkani Hindus and the other by
their Christian counterparts.

The Hindu Konkani works date back to the famous Bhakti poets and poetesses like
Santappayya, Raghavadas, Jogavva and Avadi Bai who composed devotional songs in Konkani.
Later the Bhagawad Gita was rendered into Konkani by Bangle Narayana Kamath (1872-1918).
Mangesh Ramakrishna Telang, Bolantur Krishna Prabhu, Upendra Pai, Swamy Prabhavananda,
N.V.Prabhu and B.V.Baliga wrote excellent poems and plays in Konkani. Scholars like Udyavar
Narayanachar, Hattangadi Narayana Rao and M.M.Shanbhag published Konkani grammars. Other
notable writers are Sheshgiri Keshava Prabhu, Mundas Devadas Pai, Kodbet Ramaraya Kamati,
Bantwal Pundalika Baliga, V.R. Prabhu, S.V. Kamat, M.G. Pai etc.,

Konkani language had also its newspapers and as early as in 1929 a fortnightly periodical fty
name ‘Saraswat’ was published from Mangalore. Other journals like ‘Navyug’ ‘Uzvadh’, ‘Konkana
Kinara’ and ‘Sarvodya’ then followed it. Organisation like the Konkani Bhasha Mandal, Konkani
Bhasha Parishad, Institute of Konkani, Konkani Bhashabhimani Samiti, work for the promotion of
Konkani. Konkani feature films have also been made.

Konkani language flourished among the Christians of Dakshina Kannada. Konkani tracts and
commentaries were prepared on the New Testament, Rev. Rafaelle Pascetti and Rev. Fransesco
198 A Handbook o f Karnataka

Saverio da Santa Anna were pioneers who studied Konkani. The Jesuists who arrived and set up
institutions like St.Joseph Seminary, St. Aloysius College, Fr. M uller’s Hospital and Codailbai press
gave a fillip to the development of Konkani culture and literature. Many other writers and poets
wrote verses and commentaries on the Christian religion and culture.

As far back as 1912, two Mangalorean youngsters, Louis Mascarenhas and Louis Kannappa
published the first Konkani journal in Kannada script, the ‘Konkani Dirvem’. This was followed by
other journals like ‘Rakno’ ‘Poinari’, ‘M itr’, ‘Sukh- Dukh’, ‘Sevak,’ ‘Zag-mag’ ‘Vishal Konkan’.
‘Kanik’ and ‘Udev’.

Many Konkani playwrights like G.M.B. Rodrigues, A.T. Lobo, V.J.P. Saldanha, M .P.D’esa,
Henry D ’Silva, Eddie D ’Souza and C.F.D’Coasta have written many plays in Konkani and earned
fame. Novels and stories in Konkani are also written. Many scholars are involved in research on
Konkani language, literature and culture. Notable among them are Dr. William Madta and
Dr.Rockey Miranda. Dharwad also is a centre for research and literary activity in Konkani language.
Konkani stage is playing an important part in Karnataka. The pioneers in this field are Bolanthoor
Krishna Prabhu, Kumble Narasimha Nayak, Benedict Rasario, Srinivasa Nayak, N.R. Kamath,
Sridhara Bhat, Kamalaksha Nayak, Babuti Nayak and M.Venkatesh Prabhu. Two feature films titled
Tapasvini and Janamana were made by the Sarasvats and the Catholics made Jeevit Amchem Ashem
and one or two other films. B.V.Baliga has been editing a Konkani monthly ‘Panchkadayi.’

Konkani has been recognised as a State language in Goa and is also included in the Eight
Schedule of the Indian Constitution. The State Government founded the Konkani Akademy in 1994.

Urdu in Karnataka
Urdu is being spoken by nine percent of the people in Karnataka and their number is next only
to that of the Kannada speakers. It is the mother tongue of a majority of Muslims in the State. The
Urdu Academy is established by the Karnataka Government to foster the development of Urdu.

The growth of Muslims power in the Deccan gave rise to a dire necessity for a ne>V dialect
which would help the ruling class to converse with various sections of the local population. The
new dialect, the Deccani that emerged was a symbol of co-ordination, integration and understanding
between the Hindus and the Muslims. The Bahamani sultans patronised this language. There were
great literary works by celebrated writers and poets like Nijama ( ‘Kadam Rao Padam’), Wajhi
( ‘Qutab Mushtari and Sub-Rus’), Gawasi ( ‘Saiful Mullock-O- Badie-Ul-Kamal’), Aajiz ( ‘Laila
Majnu’), Balaqi ( ‘Meraj Nama’), Ibn-Nishati (Phool Ban), Tabie ( ‘Khisa-L-Behram- O-Gul
Andam’) and Sewak ( ‘Jung Nama’). Hazrath Bande Nawaz and his descendants wrote copiously in
Urdu.

The advent of Haidar Ali and Tipu Sultan in Mysore gave a fresh impetus to Urdu. Th^y
patronized some eminent writers like Mohammed Sayeed Mekhri Aasi, Shah Mohammed
Sadruddin, Mohammed Ishaq Bijapuri, Ziaul Abeddin Shustri, Hassan Ali Izzat, Ahmed Khan
Sherani, Syed Shah Aarif Khadri, Qazi Ghulam Ahmed, Lala Badha Singh, Lala Mehtab Rai Sabqat
and M ir Hassan Kirmani.
Culture 199

The benevolent Maharajas o f Mysore also extended partonage to this language. The golden
period was the 19th Century. The outstanding men who strived for the development of Urdu
literature in this period were Shah Abu Haiwaiz, Hazrat Mohammed Khasim Gham, Sufi, Kaleem
Athar, Dil, Sabir, Nawab Sultan Naseem, Jadoo, Ameer, Shoukat Nasir, Barq, Tahqiq, Amir, Tahril
and Aaram.

The development of Deccani as Urdu in North India led to Urdu becoming a written language
and Deccani, the spoken language in Karnataka. The outstanding litterateurs of the first half of the
twentieth Century were Khaji Abdulla Hussain Khaleeli, Shah Abdul Hussain Adib, Syed Ghouse
Mohiddeen, Hazart Faiq, Hajrat Alta, Hazart Zaiq, Hazart Showq and Mohamood Khan Mahmood.
The literary personalities of the present generation who have followed in the footsteps of their
predecessors are Sulaiman Khateeb, Imami, Tadbish, Khaleel Semabi, Mahmood lyaz, Hameed
Almas, Rahi Quereshi, Dr. Muddanna Manzar, Fiyaz Belgodi, Shula Mai Hi, Mohammed Hanif,
Kaleem Mohammed Khan and Mabarijuddin Rafat. Spread of education among the ladies has
brought many female writers to the fore. They are Sayeeda Akhtar, Mumtaz Shireen, Begum
Rahmatunnisa, Maimona Tasneem, Husna Sarur, Zubaida Nusreen, Dr.Habibunnisa Begum. Dr.
Amina Khatoon, Dr.Waheedunnisa, Dr.Fahmida Begum and Basheerunnisa Begum.

Many Urdu journals have stafted publication in the Twentieth Century. The first Urdu
newspaper was brought out by Mohammed Khasim Gham under the name ‘Khasim-Ul-Akhbar’ in
1860. In 1848 the first Urdu lithographic press called Mutha-E-Firdose was established at Bangalore.
Today there are nearly 200 lithographic and 25 to 30 power printing presses all over the state busy
engaged in Urdu printing and publishing. ‘The Marshum-E-Mohammedi’ ‘Mysore Akbar,’ ‘Sultan
Akbhar’. ‘The Bangalore Guardian’, the ‘Bangalore Akhbar’ and ‘Nyer-E-Ajam’ are the notable
journals that can be mentioned. Some other journals include ‘Targheeb’, ‘Taleem’, ‘M ussale’ and
‘Sham-E-Saqur’. Many other journals have been started in different cities o f the state. ‘Salar’ (1964),
‘Karnataka Leader’ (1972), ‘Sultan’ (1990) and ‘Khubsurat’ (1994) are some current journals from
Bangalore. The impact of Urdu on Kannada language is also notable. There at^-about 438 Arabic
and 614 Persian words which have entered into Kannada through Urdu. These are mostly seen in
Revenue records. Some of them are Zamindari, Muzrai, Masidi, Gumasta, Kacheri, Kharchu, Divan,
Karkhana, etc.

Among the winners of State Urdu Akademi award, for their literary talent, mention can be
made Fiaz Belgodi, Syed Shahabuddin Nadvi, Hakim Mohammed Imam Imami, Mohammed
Qasim Pyare, Saleem Tammanai (Mysore), Rahi Qureshi (Gulbarga), Abdul Hadi Rafat, Wahab
Andaleeb (Gulbarga), Mazharuddin Samad Shahid (Mysore) and Hamid Almas.

Sanskrit in Karnataka
It is difficult to trace the advent of Sanskrit into Karnataka because the earliest available
inscriptions are in Prakrit, and only from fourth century we have Sanskrit records. The early Jaina
poets who first wrote in Prakrit, later switched over to Sanskrit and only in the 9th Century A.D.
they started writing in Kannada. Kannada is a language of the Dravidian group while Prakrit and
Sanskrit belong to the Indo-Aryan group. The early books on Kannada grammar were modelled on
the lines of Sanskrit grammar and some were also written in Sanskrit. Kannada script has originated
from the Brahmi script which also fathered the Devanagari script used for Sanskrit.
200 A Handbook o f Karnataka

In the field of poetics and prosody, Kannada has derived much from Sanskrit, ‘Kavirajamarga’,
‘UdayadityalankaraV ‘Kavyalankara’.'M adhavalankara’, ‘Rasaviveka,’ ‘Shringararatnakara’,
‘Apratimaviracharita’, ‘NavarasalanJcara’, ‘Rasaratnakara’, ‘Narapativijaya’ and many other
works on ‘alankara ’ written in Kannada closely follow Sanskrit ‘alankara ’ works. Gradually many
Sanskrit words entered Kannada and they were accepted into its fold. Literary works in Kannada
mostly draw their themes from the original Sanskrit works like the ‘Rampyana’, the ‘Mahabaratha’,
‘Brihatkatha’, Jain Aagamas, the Saiva Aagamas and the Puranas. There were many poets and
scholars in Karnataka who wrote in Sanskrit. ‘Chudamani’ (Vardhamanadeva), ‘Kathasarit-sagara’
(Somadeva) and many other Jain writers wrote in Sanskrit, some of the notable early works in
Sanskrit that were produced by Sanskrit scholars of Karnataka are ‘Parswanathacharita’,
‘Chandraprabha-charita’, ‘Varangacharita’, ‘Yashodhara-charita,’ ‘Harivamshapurana.’
‘Gadya-chintamani,’ ‘Jinadattacharita,’ ‘Uttarapurana’, ‘Yashastilaka-champu,’ ‘Kavirahasya,’
‘Mritasanjeevini,' ‘Vikramankadevacharita, ‘Gadyakarnamrita, ‘Rukminikalyana,’ ‘Ushaharana’,
‘M adhawavijaya,' ‘Jayateerthavijaya, ’ ‘Vadirajacharitamrita, ’ ‘Vidhyadh:ihavijaya, ’
‘Satyanathabhyudaya, ’ ‘Raghavendravijaya, ’ 'Satyabodhavijaya, ’ ‘Guruvamshakatha’calpataru, ’
‘Udaharananiala,’ ‘Ramollasa,’ ‘Tripuravijaya,’ ‘Veerakamparaya charita’ or ‘Madhuravijaya,’
‘Alankara Sudhanidhi, ’ ‘Subhashitasudhanidhi, ’ ‘Ramabhyudaya, ’ ‘Narakasuravijaya, ’
‘Jambavathikalyana, ’ ‘Kavikamarasayana, ’ ‘Veerabhadravijaya, ’ ‘Subhadradhananjaya, ’
‘Nanjarajayashobhushana,’ ‘Konkanabhyudaya,’ ‘Hamsasandesha,’ ‘Subhadraparinaya’ etc. are
in Sanskrit.

In the recent times writers like Jaggu Alwar Iyengar, Galagali Ramacharya, K.S. Nagarajan,
Prof. K.T.Pandurangi, Dr. Raghavan, C.G. Purushottama, etc. are working in the field of Sanskrit
literature. Pandarinathacharya Galagali and Jaggu Vakulabhushanam have received Central Sahitya
Akademy awards for their works.

In the field of Kavya, Nataka and general literature the above mentioned works can be
included. But Karnataka’s contribution in the field of literature on Shastras and religion in Sanskrit
is very rich. Sureshwara-Vishwarupa, Anandagiri, Prakashatman, Anandabodha, Vidyaranya,
Sayanacharya, Nrisimhashramamuni, Bharatiteertha, Vadindra and Nrisimhasharma have written
treatises on Advaita doctrines. Ramamishradeshika, Vatsyavarada, Parakalayati, Srinivasacharya
and Anantacharya have written works on Vishistadvaita.

Karnataka has exclusive claim over the contributions made by the founder of Dwaita school
of Philosophy. Madhwacharya wrote Bhashyas on many subjects. Writers like Anadateertha,
Jayateertha, Vijayeendra, Vadiraja, Vidyadhisha, Satyanatha, Raghavendra, Yadavarya,
Srinivasabhatta, Anandabhatta, Keshavabhatta and Srinivasateertha are scholars who enriched
Sanskrit literature by their writings on the Dwaita philosophy. *

Many Jain works, some works on the work of Shivasharanas, interesting works on polity,
grammar, etymology etc., are also found. Sanskrit enjoyed royal patronage also, in Karnataka.
‘Manasollasa’ and ‘Shivatattva Ratnakara’ are two Sanskrit encyclopaediae by royal authors
Chalukya Semeshwara III and Keladi Basavaraja respectively. The recent poets and writers of
Sanskrit are Jaggu Vakulabhushana, R.Ganesh, K.Nanjunda Ghanapathi, M.Manjunatha Bhatta,
Pandarinathacharya Galagali, R.S. Panchamukhi and others. Many great works of Kannada and
other languages are also translated to Sanskrit. Gokarna, Sringeri, Udupi, Melkote, and Shivayoga
Mandira are centres where Sanskrit Scholars are engaged in research and teaching of Sanskrit.
Culture 201

Ubhaya Vedantha Sabha at Bangalore, Madhwasiddhanta Sabha at Udupi, Abhivriddhikarini

Sabha, Samirasamayasabha and other organisations conduct Vidvat Sabhas annually. Thus, Sanskrit
is very much present in the intellectual life of Karnataka.

Telugu in Karnataka
The cultural, religious and literary affinities between the States of Karnataka and Andhra
Pradesh are intimate and significant. Many Telugu kings ruled over large parts of the present day
Karnataka and many Kannada rulers ruled over large areas of Telugu speaking country. Numerous
Telugu inscriptions found in Karnataka and numerous Kannada inscriptions found in Andhra
Pradesh signify this. Until the period o f the Vijayanagar rulers both Telugu and Kannada had a
common script. Now even though they have different scripts they are very close to each other.
Palkurike Somanatha who is famous in Telugu literature as the author of ‘Basava Puranamu’ is said
to have written in Kannada, Ragales and Vachanas and works like ‘Sheela Sampadane’ and
‘Sahasragananama’. There are also works in Telugu like ‘Simhagiri Vachanas’ and ‘Venkateshwara
Vachanas’ modelled on the Vachanas of Basaveshwara. The Vijayanagara period was the golden
age for both Kannada and Telugu. The Vijayanagara court was the meeting place for both the
languages and cultures. It provided opportunity for large scale exchange of ideas between the two
peoples.

In the 19th and the 20th Centuries works like ‘Chowdeswari Puranam’ (Gummarajura
Mahakavi), 'Sukarnianeeti Chintamani’ (Komarla Ramachandraiah), ‘Padmavathi Srinivasa’
(Kahula Bhairava Kavi), etc., were written. What Sarvajna is to Kannada, Vemana is to Telugu.
Bhimarju, a Telugu poet of Karnataka translated Sarvajna’s Vachanas to Telugu and Vemana’s
poems into Kannada.

In recent times considerable literary activity is seen in the realm of translations. Award winning
works of literature of the two languages are translated to either language. In the field of translation
Dr. T.V.Subba Rao, Badala Ramaiah, K.S.Janakiramaiah, Dr. R.V.S. Sundaram and Hariharapriya
are worthy of mention and they have done commendable work.

The universities of Bangalore and Mysore which have well established Telugu departments
and they have helped the development of this language in Karnataka. Many research theses on
Telugu literature and culture have been presented in these two Universities. Another notable trend
is the translation into Kannada of political and social satires and novels from Telugu. Telugu cinema
and Kannada cinema have a very close relationship. Telugu Samiti and Andhra Vijnana Sangham
in Bangalore are trying to provide a common platform for literary and cultural activities. A common
script for both Telugu and Kannada languages is often advocated.

Tamil in Karnataka
Kannada and Tamil originated from the same proto-Dravidian language and Kannada is next
only to Tamil in antiquity in this group. Kannada and Tamil have influenced each other immensely.
The Pallava and Chola dynasties ruled over large parts of the present Karnataka. The Gangas,
Chalukyas, Hoysalas and the Vijayanagara emperors ruled over parts of Tamilnadu. The word
Karnataka itself appears to have been a contribution of the Tamils as it is used as ‘Karunat’ in Tamil
works like ‘Shilappadikaram’. The two languages are so close to each other that some of the
expressions of early Kannada are also found in a Tamil.
202 A Handbook o f Karnataka

Numerous Tamil inscriptions are found in present day Karnataka and numerous Kannada
inscriptions are found in present-day Tamilnadu. Many Tamil words are found in Kannada with
slight variations.

It is presumed that the earliest Kannada poet Pampa must have known Tamil also. Kama
defeating Duryodhana’s v/ife in a game of dice and snatching her necklace as stake which is narrated
by Pampa in Vikramarjuna Vijaya, has a Tamil source. Harihara’s Ragales with their Ragale metre
might have been an adaptation of ‘avagal’ of Tamil metre. In the days of Ramanuja who took shelter
in Kannada speaking regions, the Srivaishnava religion he propagated had it impact on Karnataka.
Many Tamil Brahmanas settled in the ‘Agraharas’ in places like Tondnur and Melkote. This religion
and its literature in Tamil made an impact on Kannada literature. Sripadaraya who initated Haridasa
Sahitya was influenced by Tamil devotional songs. The love of the Tamil poets for their language,
their enthusiasm for pure Tamil expression and their deliberate attempt not to borrow from Sanskrit
and to retain a good number of Tamil idioms influenced Kannada poets and writers. This attitude
is reflected in the writings of Srivaishnava Kannada poets like Chikkupadhyaya, Singararya,
Tirumalaraya and Sanchiya Honnamma. They have made use of chaste Kannada even though they
were well versed in Sanskrit.

This attitude is also clearly reflected in the writings of B.M. Srikantaiah. Hjs slogans like
‘Sririgannadam Gelge’ ‘Sirigannadam Balge,’lEl Kannada Tay,’ etc., clearly indicate his
enthusiasm for chaste Kannada and in this respect he was influenced by Tamil literature.

Impact o f Kannada on Tamil also is not small. Many religious movement in Karnataka like
Jainism and the Ganapathi cult appear to have moved from Karnataka to Tamilnadu. Tamil
inscriptions speak of Jain ascetics from Shravanbelagola having been active in Tamilnadu. Vatapi
Ganapathi, whose praise is sung by Muttuswami Deekshitar, indicates the advent of Ganapathi cult
into Tamilnadu via Karnataka. Chamarasa’s ‘Prabhulinga leele', Sarvajna’s Vachanas, Vachanas
of Basaveswara and Akkamahadevi have been translated into Tamil. Tamil Classics like
‘Tirukkural’, and ‘Periyapuranam’ have been rendered into Kannada.

Malayalam in Karnataka
Evidence o f cultural unity between Kerala and Karnataka emanate from the legends like those
of Parashurama creating the coastal belt. Though the two cultures could be sprouts from a common
Dravidian source, both perhaps had exposure to more or less identical foreign influences also,
because the entire strip of the West Coast constituted a centre of commerce and trade.

Jagadguru Sri Shankaracharya cannot probably be considered as an exclusive representative

o f Kerala culture, since what he embodied was the general Hindu revival. He established one of his
Peethams in Sringeri in Karnataka. He is said to have consecrated the present idol in the famous
Mookambika temple at Kollur near Kundapur. Many Tulu Brahmins have migrated to Kerala. The
latest link in this trail is perhaps the influence of Lord Ayyappa, the deity whose shrine is in Kerala,
over the Kannadigas.

In the realm of linguistic feature, Kannada and Malayalam have originated from a common
source, the Dravidian. Halegannada was often surprisingly close to Malayalam. Alphabets, basic
vocabulary, underlying structures are all identical to a great extent in these languages. Sanskrit
influenced both the languages profoundly. The amount of influence of the great Sanskrit works of
poets like Kalidasa, Bhasa etc., over Kannada and Malayalam is obvious.
Culture 203

The age old contact between Karnataka and Kerala entered into a new era during the
missionary activities in the West Coast. Due to the patronage extended by the Sahitya Academy
‘Chemmin’, ‘Yakshi’ etc., have been translated into Kannada.

There are instances, though rare, of Kannada writers drawing inspiration from certain setting
and features of Kerala life and vice-versa. The well known progressive novel in Kannada,
‘Chirasmarane’ by Niranjana revolves around an incident that occurred in a Kerala village Kayyar,
and its Malayalam rendering won overwhelming appreciation. One of the latest poems by Dr.
Ayyappa Panicker, the outstanding modem poet of Malayalam, is titled ‘Chamundimalayile
Thiravilayattam’. Mention may also be made of the Trivandrum Karnataka Association which
brought out a volume ‘Mandara M allige,' a collection of representative pieces of Malayalam
literature, translated into Kannada. In the recent period a band of new writers have come up whose
translation of short stories, novels, monographs etc., are bringing the two languages and culture into
closer contact. K.T.Sridhar ( ‘M anju’), P.V. Puninchattaya ( ‘Nannajjanigondaneyittu’), Srikrishna
Bhat Arthikaje (‘Ayyappan’), K.K. Nair, C.Raghavar, M.S. Lakshmanachar, N.S.Sharada Prasad,
P.G. Kamat, Sarah Abubakar and Venugopala Kasaragod are prominent among them. The Karnataka
Sangha of Thiruvanantapuram has brought out a publication called ‘Purandaradasa Keerthanavali'
with Malayalam translations with details of musical notes and explanations.

The universities in Karnataka offer Malayalam as one of the languages to be studied at the
degree level. There is a department of Malayalam in the Mangalore government college. The M.A.
course in South India studies is being run by the Mysore University has also given Malayalam its
due recognition.

Marathi in Karnataka
Marathi and Kannada are very close to each other for Centuries. Geographical, cultural, social,
anthropological and religious bonds were responsible for their affinity. Mutual influences and
exchanges are seen in the usage of these languages when Kannada had rich literature, Marathi was
being evolved through Maharashtri Prakrit, popularly known as Jain Maharashtri. Linguistic
peculiarities of the Marathi spoken in Karnataka are worth noting. Use of Kannada words and idiom
form the major peculiarities. Some peculiarities like the dento-palatal pronuciation in the original
Marathi are observed in the Marathi spoken in Karnataka. The influence of Kannada word ‘avaru’
used as a suffix after any proper name in Marathi is very significant.

The Muslim rulers of Bijapur, Mysore and many small jahgirs in Karnataka like Jamkhandi
etc. gave a significant place to the Marathi language and the Modi script. Till the end of the 19th
century, the Modi script was in use especially in North Karnataka. Under the Maratha rule, Kannada
and Marathi came in close contact and influenced each other to a considerable extent. Important
literature in Marathi produced in Karnataka dates back to the 17th Century. Mudalagi, a place near
Gokak has a tradition of Swamis belonging to the school of Mukundaraja, the first Marathi poet.
Krishnaraja wodeyar III patronised Marathi. He also wrote a book entitled ‘Sankhya Ratnakosha’
on the game of chess in Marathi. After the advent of British rule, because of the contacts of
Karnataka with Maharashtra in several spheres like politics, education, literature and other fine arts,
Marathi played a significant role in Karnataka, Political leaders like Gokhale and Tilak were
respected and loved as their own people by the people of Karnataka. Marathi theatre was very
popular and stage actors like Balgandharva were very much liked in Karnataka. Historical novels
\
204 A Handbook o f Karnataka

of Hari Narayan Apte were translated into Kannada by Galaganath. Works of Sane Guruji, Phadke,
Khandekar Savarkar and Ranjit Desai have been translated into Kannada. Many modern Marathi
plays have been translated to Kannada and vice- versa. Tendulkar’s plays are familiar in Karnataka
and Girish Karnad’s Kannada plays have gained appreciation and acceptance in Maharashtra.
Bendre’s ‘Nakutanti,’ ‘Vachana Basaveshwara,’ ‘Vachanodyana,’ Kailasam’s ‘Tollugatti,’
Karnad’s ‘Hayavadana’ and ‘Tughlaq’ etc., have been translated to Marathi and have been
immensely popular. Many able Marathi writers of Karnataka have a name for themselves. Notable
among them are Govind Kelkar, Narayan Atiwadkar, Manohar Banne, G.G.Rajadhyaksh,
N.R.Killedar, G.A. Kulkarni etc.,

Novelists Prof. Nikumbha, Indira Sant and Ranjit Desai, Prof Aravinda Yalgi, Madhavi Desai,
Priya Prabhu are among the noted writers from Belgaum district. G.D. Khare of Gadag has won
award for his work ‘Gita Marma Darshan.’ Prof G.A.Kulkarni from Dharwad was a noted short
story writer. Dr. A.R. Toro from Ainapur has translated many Marathi works to Kannada and vice
versa. He received the Jnanapith award for his Marathi works. R.G.Kalangade of Hubli has written
many religious works including one on Sayanacharya. Of writers from Dharwad Prof. B.R. Modak,
Vidya Sapre (novelist), and Baburao Gaekwad can be mentioned. S.S. Gokhale’s unique work
‘Akashasi Jadavu Nate’ is on astronomy. Prof. Deulgaonkar from and G.P.Joshi from Gulbarga also
write in Marathi the latter’s work on ‘Krishna-Godavari Parisar’ being a notable work on cultural
history.

Marathi journalism also flourished in Karnataka. Tarun Bharat, Ranajunjar, Varta, Veeravani,
Lokmat, Rashtraveer and Belgaum Samachar are some of the journals that are mention worthy.

Journalism in Karnataka
The history of Kannada newspaper is just 142 years old. The first Kannada newspaper appeared
in the coastal town of Mangalore in July 1843. It is called ‘Mangaloora Samachara’ with Rev.
Herman Moegling, a Basel Mission priest as its editor. Although the prime idea behind this
lithographic venture was propagation of Christianity it contained news also. Soon, others followed
Moegling and many more newspapers came into being.

The city of Mysore was the centre of all literary and political activities in the erstwhile Mysore
State and naturally, newspapers and periodicals were born there. 'Mysore Vrittanta Bodhini. ’ and
‘Karnataka Hrakashika’ were among them. Newspapers and periodicals were published from
Belgaum, Bijapur, Dharwad, Mysore, Shimoga, Karwar and Bangalore also, around the same period.

M.Venkatakrishnaiah, popularly known as the Grand Old Man of Mysore, excelled in

journalism. He ventured into journalism through the ‘Hita Bodhini, ’ a journal of high esteem in
1883. It was edited by M.B.Srinivasa Iyengar and M.S. Puttanna. Venkatakrishnaiah started his own
weekly, the ‘Vrittanta Chintamani’ in 1885. Readers were thrilled to read his sharp editorial
comments. He started many journals both in Kannada and English in Mysore. ‘Mysore H erald’
(1886, English), ‘Wealth o f Mysore' (1912, English Monthly), the ‘Sampadabhyudaya’ (Kannada
daily, 1912) the 'Nature Cure' (English) and the ‘Sadhvi’ (1912). The ‘Sadhvi, ’ which started as a
Kannada Weekly was being run as a daily till recently. As a man with reformist ideas,
Venkatakrishnaiah has left his indelible impress on Kannada journalism.

In the beginning of the Twentieth Century political movements changed the surface of Kannada
')urnalism. The Indian National Congress and the entry of Mahatma Gandhi on the political scene
Culture 205

of India did have their impact on this field. For many young enthusiasts, newspapers became the
potent medium to preach, the idea of national freedom. The ‘Kannada Kesari' (Hubli), the
‘Chandrodaya’ {1913, Dharwad), Kerur Vasudevacharya’s ‘Shubhodaya’ (1917, Dharwad) and the
‘Sachitra Bharata’ (1913), Dharwad, the ‘Karmaveera’ (1921, Dharwad), the ‘Kannadiga’ (1925,
Bagalkot) and the ‘Vijaya’ (1921, Dharwad) extended their maximum support to the nationalist
movement. D.V. Gundappa, a noted Kannada author, was also a journalist par excellence. His
journalistic ventures include the ‘Bharati’ (1907, Bangalore) a Kannada Daily, a bi-weekly the
‘Mysore Tim es’ (1909, Bangalore), the ‘Artha Sadhaka Patrika’ (1915) a Kannada monthly, and
the ‘Karnataka’ (1912, Bangalore) a bi-weekly in English. ‘Vibhakara’ (1917-18, Belgaum) a
Kannada-English weekly started by Panditappa Chikkodi who spearheaded the movement for the
backward classes. ‘Mysore S tar’ from Mysore started by the close of the 19th century did similar
work.

P.R. Ramaiah’s ‘Tai Nadu’ (1926,Mysore) was a staunch nationalist newspaper. In the
beginning, it was a weekly from Mysore, but laterwas transferred to Bangalore and converted into
a daily (1928). N.S. Seetharama Sastry
worked in both the weekly and daily
‘Desha Bandhu’ (1931, Bangalore)
edited by C.Hayavadana Rao. He was
succeeded by N.S.Venkoba Rao. The
'Veera Kesari’ (1928, Bangalore) of
Seetharama Sastry made its presence felt,
by his sharp editorials. T.T.Sharman who
had a penchant for the heckling of
authorities, endeared himself to the
freedom lovers. The writings in his
‘Vishwa Karnataka’ (1925) always
troubled the authorities. Siddavanahalli
Krishna Sharma ran the paper when T.T.
Sharma was unable to attend to its work
for some time. B.N.Gupta’s ‘Prajamata’
(1931, Madras) was an eye-sore to the
authorities constantly. When it was
shifted to Bangalore it experienced
difficulties and to avoid the proscribing
of its copies B.N.Gupta started
publishing it under the title ‘Prajamitra’
from Hubli. Gupta also founded the
‘Janavani’ an evening Kannada daily
(1934). Other journals such as the
‘Swadeshabh inian i' (Man galore, 1907)
the ‘Nadegannadi’ and the ‘Vikata Vinodini’ (monthly) the last being a monthly dedicated to
humour, ‘Koravanji’ being another such venture.

When the nationalist movement was at its peak, several literary journals managed to ncrease
their readership. Prominent among them are the 'Jaya Karnataka’ (1922, Dharwad) of Alur Venkata
206 A Handbook o f Karnataka

Rao, Galaganatha’s ‘Sadbodha Chandrike’ (1907, Agadi) the ‘Jayanthi’ (1938, Dharwad), the
‘Prabhuddha Karnataka’ (1932, Bangalore) and the ‘Kannada Sahitya Parishatpatrike' (1916,
Bangalore). ‘Jeevana’ (1940, Dharwad) was later brought to Bangalore where the noted litterateur
M astiV enkateshIyengaredited.it.

In North Karnataka, the freedom movement was led by ‘Samyukta Karnataka. ’ In 1929, it was
started as a weekly in Belgaum by a group of energetic men. Kabbur Madhva Rao, Rama Rao
Hukkerikar and Ranganatha Ramachandra Diwakar ran it for some time. In 1933, the Lokashikshana
Trust of Ditvakar took it over and started publishing it as a daily from Hubli. Its Bangalore edition
was launched in 1959. Hanumantha Rao Moharey played a very important role in the development
of Samyukta Karnataka. R.R. Diwakar \s ‘Nava Shakti’ (English 1923, Dharwad) was a weekly.
Patil Puttappa has been editing the ‘Prapancha’ weekly (1954, Hubli) and the ‘Vishwa Vani’ (1959,
daily). The ‘Kasturi’ (1956, Hubli) and the ‘Tushara’ (1973, Manipal) are the popular monthly
magazines in Kannada.

The Printers (Private) Limited, Bangalore, a joint stock company created history with their
newspapers, ihe ‘Prajavani’ (a Kannada daily) and the ‘Deccan H erald’ (an English daily) which
were started in 1948. Now it is a large institution in the state by virtue of its largest circulation. Its
other publications are ‘Sudha’ a Kannada weekly and ‘M ayura’ a Kannada monthly. Another
Kannada daily, the ‘Kannada Prahha’ belongs to the Express group of newspapers. Its inaugural
issue came out on November 4, 1967, with N.S.Seetharam Shastry as its editor.

The Mysore city has very large number of evening dailies, besides other periodicals and
journals. They include, ‘Mysore Patrike’ (1941), ‘Varthamana’ (1947), ‘Viswadoota’ (1962)
‘Ashoka’ (1964), ‘Rajya Dharma' (1967) ‘Sudharma’ (197Q)-a Sanskrit daily, the ‘Aruna’ (1947),
‘Vijaya’ (1947), ‘Independent’ (1967) and ‘Sankranti.’ ‘Sadhvi’ (1936) was run by Agaram
Rangaiah who had his training in Journalism under Dr. Annie Besant.

The beginning of the eighties was the period of censorship. The National Emergency days
1975 caused a suffocating atmosphere for Journals. Journalism in particular had to live down its
ignominy of buckling under pressure during the Emergency. Another important circumstance that
determined the role of the press was the need for effective opposition due to the one-party rule for
a long time in the country. Perhaps one of the most important magazines that caught the spirit of
this prevailing mood and was successful in expressing it sharply without any adornment was
'Lankesh Partike’ (1980). Not that there were no such attempts before. Sheshappa’s ‘K idi’ heralded
the trend by exposing the establishment. ‘K idi’ was Sheshappa’s one-man paper. Though Lankesh
followed his example he did it in a different and organised manner.

The 'Taranga' weekly published by the Pais of Manipal, is edited by an experienced journalist
Santhosh Kumar Gulvadi. Vykuntharaju’s ‘Vara Patrike’ became moderately successful with its
simple straight and sober handling of public issues. He also edits a popular monthly ‘Rajupatrike’.
Of the other commendable journalistic attempts were ‘Suddi Sangaati' of Indudhara Honnapura and
'Sanketha’ (a fortnightly) of I.K. Jagirdar and M.B. Singh, Manvantara of Ashok Babu, ‘M ardani’
of Janagere Venkataramaiah, ‘Abhimani’ of T. Venkatesh etc.,

Thus newspapers have played their own role in the political, social and literary life of
Karnataka. Their part in the freedom movement is notable. Newspapers supported the Unification
Culture 207

movement of Karnataka whole-heartedly

and they also fostered emotional
integration. The encouragement they
gave to the cultural activities like drama,
music, cinema, art, literature and sports
are commendable. They have played a
very prominent part in the propagation of
new and progressive thoughts and
popularising the spirit of democracy.

Theatre in Karnataka
The first written play in Kannada
belongs to the 17th century A.D. It was
titled ‘Mitravinda Govinda’ and was
written by a Mysore Court poet called
Singararya. It was an adaptation of Sri
Harsha’s Sanskrit play ‘Ratnavali’. As
the literary scene in Karnataka was
dominated over- whelmingly by Sanskrit
almost everyone could understand
Sanskrit plays and as all the Kannada
poets modelled their poems on great
Sanskrit poems, they took pride in
composing poetry than in writing plays.
Thus Sanskrit plays were the only ones
available until the 17th Century. Gradually the writing of plays in Kannada by eminent Kannada
writers picked up. Looking at the situation, in a historical perspective, we see that writing of plays
was at a time considered vulgar and of cheap taste. . .

A revolutionary change came over the Kannada people’s theatre when the stories of the two.
Sanskrit epics- the Ramayana and the Mahabharatha-were made available to them though in oral
tradition. The hold of these epics on the psyche of illiterate common people can be guaged from
the fact that to this day the majority of the themes of their plays come from the stories of these
epics. Dance and music predominated such plays. Gradually plays that were written to placate gods
to bestow goodwill on the subjects were written. This .gave rise to Yakshagana, Bayalata,
Krishnaparijata and many other forms of folk theatre. The British colonialists al&o contributed in a
great way for the development of the theatre. They brought with them theatre troupes which
performed plays of Shakespeare and other popular plays in English. Encouraged by this, translations
of these English plays appeared and they were staged successfully. Gradually, to cater to the people’s
tastes, plays with a lot of dance and music in them were written. In the early days, people of low
castes, who worked as labourers in the day time arid were illiterates, used to perform on the stages.
Gradually it changed and all sorts of people started acting in plays. Many literates started
performings and another fact was that earlier, only men used to appear on the stage. But after a
time, changes in society encouraged women also to appear on the stage. Professional drama troupes
started touring the state and performing at different centres. Some very old troupes like the Gubbi
Company toured the state successfully. They made a name even in the neighbouring states and
208 A Handbook o f Karnataka

flourished. In North Karnataka, the

companies like the Konnur Company,
the Shirahatti Company, the Vishwa
Gunadarsha Company, etc., who had
talented actors and singers like
Yallamma, Gurusiddappa, Venkoba Rao,
Garud Sadashiva Rao, Master Waman
Rao and others, gained prominence. In
Southern Karnataka, there were eminent
people like Varadachar, Gubbi
Veeranna, Mohammed Peer, Malavalli
Sundaramma, Subbayya Naidu, R.
Nagendra Rao, Hirannayya and others.
Thin stories, uninspiring dialogues and
melodrama notwithstanding, these
artistes held the audience spell bound by
their melodious voices and irrelevent
comedy. In spite of all this, failing to
respond to growing social consciouness
and unable to compete successfully with
cinema as a source of entertainment,
commercial theatre slowly disintegrated.
The latter part of the 19th Century and
the early 20th Century were the best
times for the commercial theatre.

Amateur theatre was the theatre of

the educated people. It catered to people of refined tastes and it has variety in subjects. Kalidasa’s
Shankuntala was translated into Kannada by Basavappa Shastri in the Mysore court. These plays
required educated artistes. This movement helped in bringing to light more and more educated
amateurs. In 1909, Amateur Drama Association (A.D.A) was started in Bangalore, Bharata
Kaiottejaka Sangha (1904) in Dharwad, Young Men’s Football Association of Gadag etc.,

The movement got a fillip in the second decade of the Century when Kailasam (Bangalore)
and Narayanrao Huilgol (Gadag) wrote their first original plays. To begin with, they were a protest
against the melodramatic commercial theatre. Secondly, they touched current social problems; and
thirdly, they did away with music, dance and irrelevent comedy. Vasudeva Vinodini Sabha, Kannada
Amateurs etc., were the new groups. There were playwrights like Ksheerasagar, A.N. Krishna Rao,
Parvatavani, Kaiwar Raja Rao, Sri Ranga and others. In the earlier years, the amateur theatre was
mostly a theatre to be heard. The amateur theatre was a protest against the artificiality of professional
theatre. The language of the dialogues was as near the colloquial style as the pompous, artificial
dramatic rhetoric o f the commercial theatre was farther from it. It was this which brought about an
intimacy between and audience and the play. After Independence, amateur theatre saw a spurt of
activity. Academies were established, subsidies were granted, drama festivals were conducted and
competitions were arranged. National schools of Drama established in Delhi trained some aspirarts
from Karnataka along with others. Sri Ranga introduced them to the Kannada amateur theatre. In
the commercial theatre the audience used to watch a great actor or listen to a great singer in that
particular troupe but in the case of amateur theatre they went to watch the play itself.
Culture 209

Thus, the need for a capable

director was felt. Talented directors like
B.V. Karanth, came into the limelight.

The latter part of the twentieth

century was a period of assimilation of
various Western ideas on theatre and
following some of their practices
regarding theatrical activity. Due to "these
inputs, contemporary theatre movement
gained momentum. Among the
playwrights of the romantic period,
Sriranga and G.B.Joshi could understand
the new wave of theatre and wrote plays
accordingly, and this happened after
. 1955, the reason being a change of
outlook with the advent of freedom to the
country.

Among the present day playwrights

Girish Kamad. Lankesh,
Chandrashekhar Patil, Chandrashekhara
Kambara, B.C. Ramachandra Sharma,
A.K. Ramanujan, Keertinatha
Kurthakoti, N.Ratna and Puchantc are
the important people who contributed to the movement. New directors like B. Chandrashekhar,
B.V.Karanth, M.S.Nagaraj. K.V.Subbanna and N.Ratna rose to the occasion. Plays like 'Yayati, ’
‘Tughlaq, ’ ‘Kelu Jariamejaya, ’ ‘Teregalu, ’ ‘Jokumaraswamy, ’ ‘Appa, ’ Kunta Kunta Kuruvatti, ’
‘Neelikagada,’ ‘N eralu,’ ‘Brahmarakshara,’ ‘Ellige, ’ ‘Yamala Prashne' etc., are important and
popular even to this day.

Sriranga has been a pioneer in this field, he has about 45 plays to his credit and all his plays
reflect social situations in the state. ‘Harijanavara’, ‘Prapancha Panipattu’, ‘Sndhyakctla’, 'Shoka
Chakra’, ‘Kelu Janam ejaya’, ‘Nee Kode Naa B ide’, ‘Swargakke Mure Bagilu\ and Avjusakshi'
are some notable plays j f Sriranga. The contributions of others are equally significant. Among them
G.B. Joshi, Girish Karnad, P. Lankesh, Chandrashekara Kambara are very important. Some plays
wrothy of mention of these writers are ‘Ma Nishada. ’ ‘Hayavadana, ’ Anju Mallige, ’ 'Hittina
Hunja,' ‘Kranthi Bantu Kranthi, ’ ‘Sangya Balya, ’ ‘Baka, ’ ‘Neralu Neeli Kadaga’ etc.,

Recent theatre enthusiasts like B.S.Venkataram, Prasanna, H.K. Ramachandra Murthy,

G.Shivanand, C.R. Simha and KaVem adopted or translated many English plays of Brecht and
staged them. In the 1980’s theatre enthusiasts like B.V.V.Raju, Srinivasa Raju, T.N. Seetharam,
Vishnu Kumar, ‘Shudra1 Sreenivasa and D.R. Nagaraj have been successful in carrying the theatre
tradition forward. B.V.V. Raju’s ‘Sandarbha’ and ‘Sannivesha,’ T.N. Seetharam’s Asphnta, ’
Srinivasa Raju’s ‘Nale Yaarigu Ilia ,’ ‘Yarillige Bandavaru’ and Vishnu Kumar’s ‘Donkubalada
Nayakaru’ have made them famous. The theatre movement has reached all districts centres while
210 A Handbook o f Karnataka

it was restricted to Mysore, Dharwad and

Bangalore initially. Young directors like
M.S. Prabhu, Ashoka Badaradinni, T.N.
Narasimhan, C.G. Krishnaswamy and
veterans like Prasanna and Jayashree are
in great demand. K.V.Subbanna of
Heggodu near Sagar has won the
prestigious international Ramon
Magsaysay award for fostering the
development of culture. This is a feather
in Karnataka’s cap. In the past decade,
the theatre movement has undergone a
sea-change. It failed to sustain the
interest of the audience and the plays
folded up with a whimper. Several
important theatre personalities migrated
to cinema and many others went out of
Karnataka in search of greener pastures.
To over-come this gloom, several trends
/ came to the fore in this decade. Stage
versions of popular Kannada novels,
Nagendra Rao short stories and even poems, appeared
on the scene, ‘Chomana Dudi,’
‘Karimayi,’ ‘Tabarana Kathe,’ ‘Odalala,’
‘Samskara,’ ‘Chidambara Rahasya,’ ‘Chikkaveera Rajendra,’ ‘Kalki,’ ‘Helathena Kela,’ ‘Saviraru
Nadigalu’. ‘Vaishakha’, ‘Kusuma Bale,’ ‘Bhoomigeetha,’ ‘Kindari Jogi’ etc., were staged.
Culture 211

Another trend was the one-man-show by C.R. Simha in 1983, titled Typical. T.P. Kailasam,’
Its success encouraged several similar attempts like ‘Neegikonda Samsa,’ ‘Shakespiyarna
Swapnanowke,’ ‘Rasa Rushi-Kuvempu Dasrshana’ etc., came to light.

During this period several plays reached their hundred show-mark and notched up a rare feat
in Kannada amateur theatre. Benaka’s ‘Sattavara Neralu,’ Kalagangothri’s ‘Mukhya M anthri,’
Ranga Sampada’s ‘Sangya Balya,’ Yashaswi Kalavidaru’s ‘Samsaradalli Sarigama,’ Sanketh’s
‘Nodi Swamy Naavirode Heege,’ Nataranga’s ‘Tughlaq,’ Vedike’s ‘Typical T.P. Kailasam,’

Several other institutions and dedicated theatre people at different centres of Karnataka are
doing very useful service to the theatre movement. Amara Kala Sangha, Samudaya, Samathentho
(Mysore), Bhoomika, Abhivyakthi, Yavanika, Abhinaya, Ranga Bhoomi, Ratha Beedi Geleyaru
(Udupi), Ranga Nirantara among the groups, Dr. Damodara Shetty, Ananda Ganiga, Devi Prasad,
I.K. Boluvaru (of Dakshiiu Kannada), Gopala Vajapeyi (Dharwad), Abhinaya Ranga, Garood (of
Gadag), Thavarageri, Ashok Badardinni, Dhruvaraj Deshpande (of Bijapur), Sripathi Manjanabailu
(of Belgaum), M.B. Patil and Girish Hiremath (of Raichur), Mudenura Sanganna (of Chigateri), Dr.
BasavarajaMalsetty (Hospet), Vishwanatha Vamshakirthimatha (Ilkal), Cariappa (Kodagu), Suresh
Anagalli (Davanagere) and many others are actively associated with several activities of the theatre.
Outside the state also several persons and associations are striving to spread the essence of Kannada
drama. Venugopala (Kasargod), Ballals, Manjunath, Karnataka Sangha and Mysore Association (all
of Bombay) and Karnataka Sangha, Kannada Bharathi Narayan Rao, Prabhakar Rao and Nagaraj
(of Delhi).

In the second half of the decade, significant plays emerged. H.S.Shivaprakash wrote
'Manteswamy Katha Prasanga’ and ‘Madari M adayya.’ T.N.Seettharam’s ‘Nammolagobba
Najukaiah,’ Gopala Vajapeyi’s ‘Doddappa,’ C.R. Simha’s ‘Bhairavi,’ Chandra Shekhara Kambara’s
‘Siri Sampige’ and Girish Karnad’s ‘Thale Danda’ and ‘Nagamandala.’ ‘Sutradhara Vartha Partike’
and ‘Ranga Tharanga’ are the two news letters documenting theatre activities. Hubli has ‘Ranga
Thorana.

A tragic loss to the amateur theatre was the accidental death of young talented actor-director
Shankar Nag in 1990. Kannada amateur theatre also went abroad in this decade. C.R. Simha’s
‘Typical T.P. Kailasam’ created a record by being the first play to travel outside India by presenting
sixteen shows in America and Canada in 1986. B.Jayashri took her ‘Laksha pathi Rajana Kathe’ to
Egypt and Bulgaria. Prabhath Kalavidaru went out to the Far-East and the U.S. Mysore’s Rangayana
presented it ‘Hippolytus’ in the New York.

K.V. Subbanna’s ‘Nee Naa Sam’ and ‘Thirugata’ and the State Government’s ‘Rangayana’ at
Mysore are active. With talented directors like Chidambara Rao Jambe, K.V.Akshara, K.G.
Krishnamurthy and guest director Prasanna. ‘Thirugata’ has been coming out with three or four
productions every year. Rangayana was headed by B.V. Karanth: With trained and talented people
like Jayatirtha Joshi, Basalingaiah, Raghunandan and Gangadharaswamy, Rangayana has come out
with significant productions like ‘Kindari Jogi,’ ‘Shakeshpeyarige Namaskara,’ ‘Kasuma Bale,’
‘Bhoomi-geetha’ and ‘Hippolytus.’ Prayogaranga and Yuvaranga, apart from their own productions,
organise drama competitions regularly in Bangalore to encourage college and industrial drama
groups, C.G.K’s Ranga Niranthara organises play writing by a group of young writers.

Karnataka Nataka Academy, in the last two years has provided a lot of impetus throughout the
state, by organising workshops, festivals and by providing Financial grants to deserving professional
2/2 A Handbook o f Karnataka

companies. This has been made possible by the enthusiasm of its recent President Chindodi Leela
and its dynamic Registrar G. Srinivas (Kappanna).

Painting in Karnataka
The earliest paintings of Karnataka are of the prehistoric period around 2000-1000 B.C. The
representations of animals, human figures etc!, are painted beneath the projected rocks which formed
the dwelling place of the prehistoric people. Such relics of the art of prehistoric man coult be seen
in the districts of Bellary, Bijapur,
Raichur and Chitradurga. The rocks of
Hirebenakal, Piklihal etc., contain
figures of hunters with weapons,
horse-riders, bulls, etc. Many coloured
figures on mud pots are plentifully found
in Brahmagiri, Chandravalli, Hemmige,
Herekal, Maski and Bangalore. The art
of painting and its existence in the
historical period have been referred to in
the contemporary literature and
inscriptions. Roots of painting dearly
encouraged in Karnataka may be traced
to the days of the Chalukyan rulei
Mangalesha, and only traces of the
paintings of his time are surviving in
Cave III of Badami. Due to historical
factors, there are gaps in the continuity
of this tradition of painting in Karnataka.
We eome across illustrated manuscripts
belonging to the Hoysala period. The
figures, settings and Jhe postures are
different from the Kalpasutra paintings
of Gujarat, illustrating the same themes.
The style is distinctly indigenous and
leaves an impression of • the
ornamentations in Hoysala sculptures.
Many references to portraits and pictures
are made by Kannada poets like
Rudrabhatta. ‘Manasollasa' by Emperor
Someshwara III has a section on this art.

A study of the paintings o f the Vijayanagara period reveals that mural paintings was practised
on a large scale. The earliest such specimens are found on the ceilings of the Virupaksha temples
at Hampi. A close study of the paintings in Karnataka indicates that instead of reflecting life as it
was during those periods, the painters had adopted conventionalised settings, highly stylised
postures, all bound strictly by .the dictates of the Aagamas. The paintings seem to be pictorial
versions of sculptures which are scene in abundance even todays. Even secular themes followed
these stylised postures. It is possible that almost all the major temples in Karnataka were decorated
with such murals. The Mysore Gazetteer edited by C. Hayavadana Rao mentions many such temples
Culture 213

where mural paintings are or were found in Karnataka. The Terumalleshwara temple at Hiriyur,
Narasimha temple at Sibi, the Jaina Matha at Shravanabelagola, Mallikarjuna temple at Mudukutore,
Virupaksha temple at Hampi, Prasannakrishnaswamy temple, Krishna and Varaha temples at
Mysore and the Divyalingeshwara temple at Haradanahalli are among them. The Daria Daulat at
Srirangapattana, Jaganmohan Palace at'Mysore, the mansions at Nargund, Kummatagi near Bijapur
and Nippani, Amminabhavi near Dharwad and Kempegowda's hajara in the Someshwara temple at
Magadi and a palace at Channapattana also have paintings.

From the later Vijayanagar period,,the art of paintings seems to have split into two branches.
The Vijayanagar rulers and their feudatories followed the ancient tradition bound by the Aagamas
while the rulers of Bijapur, Gulbarga and Bidar, were responsible for the development of a distinqt
style known as theDeccani style. Thefinest specimens of this schools were produced at Bijapur.
Though this schoolswasheavily influenced by the Mughal style, it had strong indigenous strain.

The southern parts of Karnataka, continued the ancient style which was developed at
Vijayanagar. After the fall of Vijayanagar, the court rnigrated to different places in the South. The
rulers of Mysore extended patronage to art. A considerable section of artists settled in
Srirangapattana under the partonage of Raja Wodeyair. The colourful paintings on the pillars, walls,
roofs, etc., of the Dariya Daulat at
Srirangapattana are of varied themes and
objects. Similarly traces of paintings aire
available in the palace of Tipu at Bangalore. In
addition to murals, the painters were also
commissioned to illustrate manuscripts. Such
illustrated manuscripts wilto attractive and
colourful drawings were in the possession of
many old families. The most famous of such
manuscripts, is the ‘Sritattvanidhi,’ a
voluminous work prepared under the patronage
of Mummadi Krishnaraja Wodeyar. This
manuscript has nine parts, dealing with different
topics, such as Shaktinidhi, Vishnunidhi,
Brahmanidhi, Shivanidhi, etc. The paintings
illustrate ancient knowledge in the branches of
the Aagama, Shilpa, Jyothisha, Tantra, etc. In
the Jaganmohana palace, has portrait pictures of
kings and other nobility and pictures relating to
puranic .themes either in water colour or oil
colours, on; clothes, glasses, etc. Sundaraiah,
Kondappa, -Yellappa, Durgada Venkatappa,
Narasimhaiah and others adopted and developed
this style. In those days, the painter prepared his
own materials. The colours were from natural
sources and were of vegetable, mineral or even
of organic origin. Gold.leaf was applied on the
214 A Handbook o f Karnataka

gesso works and was the hallmark of all traditional paintings of Karnataka. Besides paper, the
painters painted on glass.

Raja Ravi Varma in the early decades of the twentieth century influenced many painters of
the day in Mysore. Introduction of the European style o f painting as a course of study at the Sri
Chamarajendra Technical Institute, Mysore, relegated the older traditional painting style to the
background and produced a new generations o f painters trained in the Western modes and style of
painting.

Many painters were trained in different centres in India and even abroad. People like
K. Venkatappa, K.K. Hebbar, K.S. Kulkarni, Almelkar, S.G. Vasudev, N.S. Subbukrishna,
K. Keshavaiya, S.N. Swamy, Y. Subramanyaraju, Dandavathimath and N. Hanumaiah are artists of
outstanding merit and reputation.

Among other artists of the state, S.Nanjundaswamy of Mysore has made an impression by his
renderings on all aspects of the art of painting. M. Veerappa, S.R. Swamy and H.S. Inamati are
noted for their composition drawings and paintings, mainly of the Indian tradition. Shankarrao
Alandkar of Gulbarga is famous for his paintings which are intense with emotions. V.R. Rao,
S.S Kukke and R. Sitaram are adept at portrait painting. The composition paintings of Janab Sufi
and the exquisite incorporation of the art of painting in inlay works by Mir Shoukat Ali of Mysore
are memorable. Paintings of the historical episodes by Y. Subrahmanya Raju show an ideal
admixture of Indian and Western systems of art. Ragamalika Paintings of M.V. Minajigi and the
technique of mixing of water colours by M.A. Chetti in his paintings is superb. M.T.V. Acharya is
noted for his paintings based on puranic themes. The portrait paintings of S.N. Swamy in oil colours
and his pencil sketches, landscape paintings of Tanksale, N.Hanumaiah and F.G. Yelavatti in water
colours delight eyen a novice in art. Y.Nagaraju, B.H. Ramachandra, S.R. Iyengar, D.V.Halbhavi,
S.M. Pandit, S.N. Subbukrishna and M.H. Ramu are experts in portrait painting. Rumale
Channabasavaiah, Shuddhodhana, Subbukrishna, M.S. Chandrashekhar and P.R. Thippeswamy
have a typical style of exposing the rural life in varied colours. P.R. Thippeswamy is also an expert
painter of scenes of temples and shrines.

Effective line drawings and caricatures are also another aspects of the art of Technical
Educations. Many private institutions have been established in centres of Karnataka. The
government conducts examinations on modelling. The Karnataka Lalitha Kala Academy assumed
its present format in the year 1977. This academy arranges annual exhibitions and art shows. It has
also instituted awards that are given annually to outstanding works of art. The academy encourages
holdings of art exhibitions and purchase of useful books by making liberal grants. The academy has
built up its own collection of works of art. Art camps are organised by the Academy in different
centres of the state.

Central Lalithakala Academy is located at Delhi with its South Zone Cultural Centre in Madras
and South Central Cultural Zone in Nagpur. Bangalore city had the privilege of hosting many
prestigeous art exhibitions. Several camps have been organised by the Zonal Centres in which artists
selected from the state participated.

The academies also conduct periodic seminars on art and bring out systematic publications on
the subject. ‘Kalavartha’ is the magazine brought out by the Lalit Kala Academy.

Kondachari of Bellary, Purushottam, Agaram Krishnamurthy, Shevagur, Bayiri, T.K. Rama

Rao and K.B. Kulkarni of Hubli etc.,are famous for their line drawings. R.K. Lakshman, R.S. Naidu,
Culture 215

Murthy, Ramesh, Gopal, Hublikar, Ranga-

nath, N.C. Raghu, S.K. Nadig and other are
famous for their caricature drawings,
K.K.Hebbar is famous both as a traditional
and modern painter. P. Subba Rao,
R.M.Hadapad, G.S. Shenoy, S.G.Vasudev,
Alfanso, Dandavatimath, Halabavi,
B.G.Gowda, M.C. Chetti, G.S. Shenoy,
B.G. Badigera, T.P. Akki, S.M. Pandit,
Ramananarasaiah, Raghottama Putti,
Goolannanavar, M.E. Guru, S.Kalappa,
M.S.Nanjunda Rao, M.B.Basavaraj,
Vishnudas Ramadas, Sunkad, Manoli and
others have enlivened the art scene in the
state. P.R. Kamalamma, Subhashinidevi,
S.Dhanalakshmi, M.J.Kamalakshi, Sheela
Gowda, Pushpa Dravid, Pushpamala etc., are
among the noted lady artists. Siddalinga-
K. Venkatappa swamy, Nagendrasthapathi and Mahadeva-
swamy are noted artists in classical paintings
and drawing of traditional themes.

There are many constructive art critics o f whom G. Venkatachalam of Pandavapura,

Shivarama Karanth, A.N. Krishna Rao, S.K. Ramachandra Rao, B.V.K. Shastry and P.R.
Thippeswamy are note-wrothy. Art schools started by Halbhavi at Dharwad, by Minajigi at Hubli,
by Akki at Gadag and Andani at Gulbarga have become famous.

The Government has established institutes to impart training in this field. The Chamarajendra
Technical Institute at Mysore was started in 1913 and the School of Arts and Crafts, Davanagere
was established in 1964. It is now under the control of the Department of Technical Education. The
Karnataka State Government presented a bus to the Academy which has enabled it to organise
mobile art exhibitions. The vehicle moves in different places and works of art are exhibited in it.
The exhibition is of arranged at venues where the academy conducts its programmes like art
exhibitions, art compsseminars, symposia and also during the Dasara and Sahitya Sammelanas. The
state government awards outstanding artists with awards instituted by the Lalithakala Academy and
during the Rajyothsava awards.

Prominent among the award winners are N. Hanumaiah, P.R. Thippeswamy, K.K. Hebbar,
S.S. Kukke, Madhugiri Ramu, Y. Subramanyaraju F.M. Soofi, S.V. Nayak, N. Pushpamala,
M.C. Chetty, R.G. Raikar, V.G. Andani and S.G. Vasudev. Many artists have also been conferred
honorary doctorates by the premier Universities o f the state. K. Venkatappa award including a cash
prize o f Rs. One lakh has been instituted and K.K. Hebbar is its fist receipient (1995).

The following artists from the state have won the Central Lalithakala Akademy Awards.

1. K.K. Hebbar (1958), 2. S.G. Vasudev (1967), 3. Balan Nambiar (1981), 4. Yousuf
Arakkal (1983), 5. Vijaya Sindhoor (1983), 6. L.P. Ancnan (1984), 7. K.R. Subbanna (1984),
8. N. Pushpamala (1984), 9. K.S. Rao (1985), 10. R. Umesh (1987) and 11. V.G.Andani (1992).
216 A Handbook o f Karnataka

Music in Karnataka
Indian classical music consists of
two systems called Hindustani and
Karnataka. Interestingly both these
systems are prevalent in Karnataka. The
Tungabhadra river more or less divides
the domaine of these two in this state.
The word Karnataka in the context of
music denotes a system of music
prevailing in all the four states of south
India, i,e, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh,
Tamilnadu arid Kerala. In the evolution
of music, the role o f Karnataka has been
very significant.

Music, like literature and other

creative arts,, has been cultivated in
Karnataka from ancient times. It was an
indispensable part of the social and
religious -life of the people. Texts on
music . generally mention ancient
theoreticians but not the performers who
gave shape to these musical ideas.
Bharata’s ‘Natya Shastra,’ perhaps the
oldest treatise on the subject seems to
have been known in Karnataka from
early times. The most notable work is
Matanga’s Brihaddeshi. This work deals
elaborately with the science o f music of
the folk songs of his time. Matanga was
the first to use the work ‘raga’ for the
meodies that were current in his time and
and this probably laid the foundation for
the raga system of present day music.
Sharngadeva who was patronised by the
Yadava (Sevuna) king of Devagiri, has
given a total number of 26 ‘ragas’ in his work, ‘Sangeetharatnakara’. Between the li t h and 17th
Centuries only 32 ragas were in use and this is evident from a Vachana of Basavanna. Venkatamakhi
(1660 A.D) formulated his scheme of 72 melakartas and the classification of ragas was completed
by him.
A large number of theoretical works on music and dance were written by authors of Karnataka
origin. The prominent were ‘Abilashitartha Chintanmani’ also called the ‘Rajamanasollasa,’
‘Bharata Bhashya’, ‘Sangita Sudhakara’ written by Haripala, ‘Sangita Chudamani,’ Vidyaranya’s
‘Sangita Sara,’ ‘Bharatasara Sangraha,’ ‘Vivekachudamani,’ ‘Sangita Suryodaya,’ ‘Tala Deepika,’
‘Sangita Sudha,’ ‘Chaturdandi Prakashika,’ ‘ShadragaChandrodaya,’ ‘Ragamanjari,’ and ‘Nartana
Nirnaya,’ (these four by Pundanika Vithala) ‘Shivatattva Ratnakara,’ ‘Geetagopala,’
‘Sritattvanidhi,’
• 1
‘Shruti Siddhanta,’
T etc.
Culture 217

An abundant variety of instruments were in use in Karnataka. The Kannada poets were well
aware of the classical four fold divisions of musical instruments into string, wind, percussive and
solid. They also reveal familiarity with an astonishing number of these instruments which were in
vogue. Among the stringed instruments kinnari, vellaki, vipanchi, ravanahasta, dandika, trisari,
jantra, swaramandala and parivadini find a mention. Shankha, shringa, tittira, kahale, vamsa,
bambuli are the wind instruments mentioned. Among the large number of percussion instruments
ottu, karadi, mridanga, dhakka, pataha, dundubhi, panava, bheri, dindtma, trivali, nissala, dhamaru,
chambaka, dande, dolu and runja are prominently mentioned. Some solid instruments used were
ghanta, jayaghanta, kinkini, jhallan, tala and kamsala. Palkuriki Somanatha mentions about 32 types
of veenas and 18 types of flutes.

Khanda, Shukasarika, Tripadi, Chatushpadi, Shatpadi, Varna, Dhavala, Suladi, Pada, Vachana,
Kirtana, Tattva, Ugaboga were the different types of compositions. Karnataka had a great number
of reputed composers whose compositions are popular and relevant even today. There were many
composers of the Veerasaiva faith like Sakalesha Madarasa, Basavanna, Ninjaguna Shivayogi,
Muppina Shadakshari, Bala Leela Mahanta Shivayogi, Nagabhushana Ghanamatharya,
Madivalappa Kadakola, Nanjunda Shivayogi, Karibasavaswamy and Sarpabhusana Shivayogi. The
Haridasa Kuta is said to have been founded by Narahari Teertha, the disciple of Madwacharya.
Sripadaraya was called Haridass Pitamaha. Haridasas composed songs in Kannada in praise of Lord
Vishnu. Vyasaraya, Vadiraja, Purandaradasa, Kanakadasa and others composed Kirtanas. Mummadi
Krishnaraja Wodeyar was also an able composer.

Purandara Dasa strode like a colossus

in the musical history of Karnataka. ‘Pillari
geetas’ composed by Purandaradasa form
the foundation steps for learning Karnataka
music even today. Purandara Dasa is revered
as the ‘Karnataka Sangita Pitamaha’ and is
credited to have given a new direction to
Karnataka music.

In the 19th and 20th.centuries, there

was a marked separation of the popular and
classical compositions. Mysore Sadashiva
Rao adorned the royal court of Mysore and
was the guru of celebrities like Veena
Subanna, Sheshanna and others. Mysore
Sadashiva Rao, Subbanna, Sheshanna,
Sambaiah, Muthaiah Bhagavathar, Mysore
K. Vasudevacharya (composed in Kannada,
Sanskrit and Telugu), Devottama Jois,
Karigiri Rao, Bidaram Krishnappa, Mysore
T. Chowdiah, Jayachamaraja Wodeyar,
Aliya Lingaraja, Veena Krishnacharya,
Rudrapattanam Venkataramanayya,
Tiruppanandal Pattabhiramaiah, Kolar Chandrashekara Sastry, Bellary Raja Rao and others have
left behind a rich tradition of their compositions. Among the lady musicians mention may be made
of Bangalore Nagarathnamma who renovated the samadhi of Sri Tyagaraja at Thiruvaiyar.
218 A Handbook o f Karnataka

The reign of the Wodeyars of Mysore may

be considered as the golden age of music in
Karnataka. They extended patronage to local
musicians and also musicians of other regions.
Veena Bhakshi Venkatasubbayya,
Shivaramaiah, Pallavi Ramalingaiah and
Lakshminarayana were, prominent among the
musicians of the state who received royal
patronage. Other eminent vocalists who lived
elsewhere or graced the Mysore durbar were
Sadashiva Rao, Lalgudi Ramayyar, Mugur
Subbanna, Krishnayya, Karigiri Rao, Bhairavi
Kempe Gowda, Rudrappa, Janjhamarutam
Subbayya, Lalgudi Guruswamy Iyer, Bidaram
Krishnappa, K.Vasudevacharya, Tiruvaiyaru
Subramanya Iyer, Kolar Nagarathanamma,
Shatkala Narasayya, Chikka Rama Rao,
Belakavady Srinivasa Iyengar, Chintalapalli
Venkata Rao, B.Devendrappa and
T.Chowdaiah.

H industani M usic: As mentioned earlier,

Pundarika Vitthala (1562- 1599), a native of
Satanur near Magadi was proficient in both
Kamatak and Hindustani music. Though the
Mysore rulers mainly patronised Karnatak music,
they also encouraged Hindustani music. In the
northern part of Karnataka, petty prinicipalities of
Ramadurga and Jamakhandi patronised Hindustani
music. Eminent Hindustani musicians were
employed in these durbars. Giants of Hindustani
music like Balakrishna Raste, Ganapat Rao Raste,
Nandopant Joglekar, Balanwantrao Vaidya, Dada
Khare, Antubuva Apte, Balanwantrao Katkar,
Alladiya Khan, Khan Abdul Karim Khan, Rahmat
Khan, Ramakrishnabuva Vaze, Shivarambuva,
Munji Khan, Vishnupant Chatre, Rahmat Khan,
Nilkanthbuva, Shankardikshit Jantali, Dattopant
Pathak, Panchakshari Gavai, Hanumantharao
Valvekar, Vithalrao Koregaonkar and Ramabhau
Kundgolkar or Savai Gandharava were some
artistes who resided permanently in these regions or
graced these placesvwith their music.

Some recent stawarts in the Hindustani arena

from Karnataka are Dr. Mallikarjuna Mansoor,
GangubhaiHanagal,Basavaraja Rajaguru, Bhimsen Joshi, Kumar Gandharva, Devendra
Murdeshwar,Vishnudas Shirali,Puttaraja Qavai, Basavaraja Mansoor, Krishnabai Ramdurg,
Culture 219

Phakeerappa Gavai, Gurubasavaiah

Hiremath, V.V. Uttarkar, D. Garuda,
N.G. Majumdar, R.S.Dcsai, Arjunasa
Nakod, Sheshagiri Hanagal, Lakshmi.G.
Bhave, Manik Rao Raichurkar and
Sangameshwar Gurav.

Many vocalists and instrumentalists

have attained distinction and enriched
the tradition o f Karnataka by their
original contribution. Among the
vocalists, Chintalapalli Ramachandra
Rao, Channakeshavaiah, Padmanabha
Rao, T.N. Puttaswamaiah, R.S. Narayana
Swamy, R.K.Ramanathan and R.K.
Srikantan, Kurudi Venkannacharya,
Thitte Krishna Iyengar,
L.S.Narayanaswamy Bhagavathar,
B.S.R. Iyengar, A.Subba Rao,
R.Chandrashekhariaha, Pallavi
Chandrappa, M.A.Narasimhachar,
Rallapalli, Ananthakrishna Sharma,
Sandyavandanam Srinivasa Rao, Srinivasa Iyengar, Vasadam Iyengar, Chokkamma, Neelamma
Kadambi, Channamma, Papa Chudamani, etc. are prominent.

Among the instrumentalists, Veena players

like Srikanta Iyer, V. Doreswamy Iyengar,
Balakrishna, R.N. Doreswamy, M.J. Srinivasa
Iyengar, R.K. Srinivasamurthy, R.K.
Sufyanarayana, R. Visweshara, Chokkamma,
Alamelu, Suma Sudhindra and Rajalakshmi
Tirunarayana are notable. The flutists include
M.R. Doreswamy, B. Shankar Rao, V.
Deshikachar, M.P. Upadhyaya, Rajanarayana,
Shashidhar and Shashank (child prodigy).
The notable violinists are R.R.
Keshavamurthy, Anoor Ramakrishna, H.V.
Krishnamurthy, A. Veerabbadraiah,
Mahacevappa, M. Nagaraj and M. Manjunath,
Sheshagiri Rao, A.V. Krishnamachar,
H.K. Venkatram, Tatachar, Kanchana
Subbaratnam, M.S. Subratnanyam, M.S.
Govindaswamy, H.K. Narasimhamurthy,
T.G. Tyagarajan and B.Viswanath. Players of
percussion instruments include M.S. Ramaiah,
V.V. Ranganathan, Ramachar, M.S. Seshappa,
Bangalore. K. Venkataram, A.V. Anand, T.A.S.
Mani, K.N.Krishnamurthy, V.S.Rajagopal,
 A Handbook o f Karnataka

Rajachar, Rajakesari, Chandramouli,

Bhadrachar, Praveen, Sonala
Sheshgiridas, B.G. Lakshminarayana,
Sukanya Ramagopal, Dattatreya Sharma,
Ananthakrishna Sharma and K.
Muniratnam. Naranappa (mukhaveena),
Ramadasappa, Kodandaram, M.V.
Nagendrappa, Ravikiran (gotuvadya)
and Kadri Gopalnath (saxophone) are
other instrumentalists who are popular.

Gamaka art in an ancient one. The

practitioners of this art in recent times
y \ 'S ., include Joladarasi Doddanna Gowda, S.
Nagesha Rao, B.S.S. Kaushik, H.K.
Ramaswamy, Gunduramaiah, S.
Vasudeva Rao, R.Shankarnarayana,
Hosabele Seetharama Rao, G.B.
Gopinatha Rao, Talakadi Mayigauda etc.
There is a Gamaka Kala Parishat at
Bangalore.

The romantic poetry of modern

Savayee Gandharva
period deserved a new style, melody and
new musical form. It was called ‘Sugama
Sangitha’. This form of music was
influenced both by classical Karnataka and
Hindustani music and also Western music.
P.Kalinga Rao was a pioneer in this field. He
was followed by Mysore Ananthaswamy
who made this form of music extremely
popular. C.Aswath, Shimoga Subbanna,
Ratnamala Prakash, Malathi Sharma,
Kasturi Shankar, Shyamala G.Bhave,
B.R.Chaya, B.K.Sumitra, Shymala
Jahagirdar, Yashwant Halabandi, Usha
Ganesh,. Narisimha Nayak, Indu
Vishwanath, H.K.Narayana, B.G.Ramanath,
etc., have made light music popular.

The Government of Karnataka has a

separate section devoted to the advancement
of -music in Karnataka. The secondary
education board conducts examinations in
music and- awards certificates to the
participating candidates. Many universities
in the state offer courses at the graduation
and post-graduation levels in music. The
Culture 221

government also awards scholarships to

talented and deserving candidates who
are interested in learning music. The
casette revolution has made an immense
contribution in popularising light music
and also classical music by taking it into
every household in the state. The role of
the Kannada stage in popularising music
is in no way small. VaradacharT
Malavalli Sundramma, Aswanthamma,
Nagesh Rao, Subbayya Naidu, Gangubai
Guledgud and Sonubai are a few artistes
who made a name in this field.

-In addition, the annual music

festivals like the Ramanavami and
Ganesh Chaturthi, music festivals in
Bangalore and Mysore, art festival in
Hubli, Savai Gandharva Festival at
Kundagol and a host of other music
festivals conducted annually by different
organisation and association are
providing stimulus for the popularisation
of music in the state. Several institution
run by organisations are training students
and aspiring youngsters in music. Sri
Ayyanar College of Music, Vijaya
College of Music, Ganakala Mandira,
Vijayakalamandira, Sri. Venkateshwara
Gananilaya, Sri. Vijaya Sangeetha
Vidyalaya (all founded in Bangalore),
Sri. Panchankshari Krupa Poshita
Sangita Shala (Gudur, Bijapur), Sri
Raghavendra Sangita Vidyalaya
(Raichur), Tyagaraja Sangeeta
Vidyalaya (Ramanagar), Sri. Vanividya
Society (Shimoga), Sri. Panchakshari
Lalitha Kala and Sangitha Kala Sangha
(Bijapur), Suptha Mahilamandir,
Tumkur, Lalitha Kala Vrinda, Karkala,
Ekanatheshwari Sangita Kala Mandira
(Chitradurga), etc. are some of the
institutions affilicated to Karnataka
Sangita Nritya Academy, Bangalore. In
addition to this a large number of private
institutions are running music classes in
R.K. Srikantan
many urban centres of the state.
\
222 A Handbook o f Karnataka

Yakshagana

Yakshagana, one among a number of folk theatrical forms of Karnataka is known by that name
only in recent times. Earlier it was called ‘Bayalata’, ‘Bhagavathara ata’ or ‘Dashavatara ata’. It
acquired its present name because these plays were written in the form of musical dramas and that
particular style of music was called Yakshagana. This term now has become a synonym for the
theatrical form too.
We get rich harvest of Yakshagana plays from 16th to 18th Centuries in Karnataka. In about
the 16th and 17th Centuries Siddendra Yogi the founder of the Kuchipudi School of dance wrote
his plays in the Yakshagana style. Tirthanarayana Yati, the disciple of Siddendra Yogi took these
plays to Tanjore. Later, most of the 300 and odd playwrights came from the coastal regions of
Karnataka, mainly Dakshina Kannada. Old playwrights had exploited the Yakshagana style of music
for every type of emotions and situations in their songs and drama. Over 160 ‘ragas’ were used in
their compositions, through today
Bhagavatas are rarely conversant with 30
ragas or so. There are few ragas that are
not found even in classical music.
Nepali, Gujarati, Madhavi, Panchagati,
Gopanite, Huvu, Divali, Charite, Haradi,
Mechale etc. are some of them. The
themes for the play are selected from the
Ramayana, Mahabharata, Bhagavata and
the Puranas. Being a few narrative lines,
all the rest was set to raga and tala. One
essential element of depiction consisted
of music and the other, dance. Both had
simple literary material as their basic
text. The dance elements had good
support from percussion instruments like
Chande, Maddale and cymbals. The
characters of the play wore ankle bells
( ‘gejje’) too. The essence of the drama
was conveyed to the audience in prose
which is dependent on the textual content
of the songs.
To an audience not conversant with
the Kannada language, the range of
costumes and make-up seemed to
capture the grandeur of a wonderland,
which has ably supported by a rich
musical background. In totality,
Yakshagana theatre is one of the few rich
theatre forms that has persisted even
today. The ethical and religious
background provided by temples have
yielded to commercialism, bringing with
it all the evits of popular entertainment.
Culture 223

Towards the begining of this century, there were a number of Yakshagana troupes, sponsored
by prominent temples in the district of Dakshin Kannada. Saukur, Marnakatte, Mandarthi in the
north, Mulki, Dharmasthala and Koodlu in the south are prominent among them. The temples
concerned used to maintian them from their funds and some devotee of the temple used to pay for
each performance which was free to the audience. There were quite a number of local patrons in
the villages too. The plays were staged each night by special request. The actors and dancers who
were originally agriculurists, served in the plays more as service to the deity than as a profession.
From the fourth decade onwards things began to change very much in the institutional set up
of the throupes. Temples began to auction the rights of conducting the shows. By then, the influence
of the commercial drama troupes had attracted people very much and Yakshagana artises began to
copy the stage costumes and slowly discard traditional dance. Another feature, namely, the running
of the troupes on a commercial basis with tents and allowing spectators entry into the tent by selling
tickets, began to gain ground; with this the total attitude of Yakshagana theatre changed.
Now, there are a dozen commercial troupes and very few temple troupes maintained by
devotees that offer free performance. Yakshagana has becomes a financial success by catering to
mass appeal. Many traditional elements of the Yakshagana theatre have been left in the cold. Prose
has eclipsed dance. Like the cinema’s craze for novelty, new themes have driven away all old
popular themes based on puranic and epic ones. Vulgarity in dialogue has become the chief element
in creating mass appeals. A few prominent Yakshagana troupes are from Ira, Surathkal, Saligrama,
Dharmasthala, Amrutheshwara, Perdoor and Idugunji. Among old temple troupes those belonging
to Mandarti, Katil and Maranakatte still thrive, but there too the trend of giving up old plays seem
to gain ground. The M.G.M. College of Udupi has a Yakshagana Kendra where about a dozen
students are taught traditional dance and Yakshagana methods. Two more training centres have been
started at Kota and Dharmasthala in 1972. The creative art form of Yakshagana with its rich
costumes, dance and music has great potential but the people have yet to realise its greatness. All
efforts at bringing out Yakshagana as a sophisticated art form have received scant rcspect and
encouragement.
Several artises of Yakshagana have enriched the art by their efforts. Veerabhadra Nayak,
Uppuru Narayana Bhagavata, Irodi Sadananda Hebbar. Polali Shastri, Malpe Shankaranarayana
Samaga, Movvaru Kittanna Bhagavatha, Alike Ramayya Rai, Haradi Krishna Ganiga, Haradi
Narayana Ganiga, Haradi Rama Ganiga, Damodara Mandecha, Basava Naik, Bailpa Subbaraya,
Hiriyadka Gopala Rao, Agari Srinivasa Bhagavata, Kuriya Vithala Shastri etc., are among the noted
exponents of Yakshagana from Dakshina Kannada. Keremane Shivarama Heggade(Kendra
Sangeetha Nataka Academy awardee in 1971), K.Sadananda Heggade, Ganapathi Bhatta, Mudkani
Narayana Heggade (Kendra Sangeetha Nataka Akademy awardee), Babu Bhatta, etc., are among
the noted artises in Uttara Kannada.
Yakshagana is very popular even in other parts of Karnataka and it is identified as
‘Mudalapaya’, Aparala Tammanna the author of ‘Sri Krishna Parijata’, Kulagoda Tammanna of
Kulagodu in Belgaum district and Aliya Lingaraja of Mysore are famous Yakshagana poets. In the
coastal region, Nanjaiah, Parthi Subba, Halemakki Rama, Hattiangadi Ramabhatta, Venkata «
Ajapura, Nityananda Avadhuta, Pandeshwara Venkata, Gerasoppe Shanthappaiah, N agn.
Subrahamanya, Dhwajapurada Nagappaiah, noted Kannada poet Muddanna and Halasinahalli
Narasimha Shastry are among the noted writers. In Dakshina Kannada there are two schools of
Yakshagana, called Tenkuttitu (Southern) and Badaguttittu (Northern). They vary in costumes,
dance and other aspects of each other. Many Telugu Yakashaganas also came to be written in
Karnataka and among these Kempe Gowda, the feudatory of Bangalore composed ‘Ganga Gowri
224 A Handbook o f Karnataka

Vilasam’. Many more such works were composed in the Mysore Court. In Puppet Theatre too, the
text and theme is of Yakshagana itself. Uppinakuduru Kogga Kamath from Dakshina Kannada is
an outstanding master of this art.

Mudala Paya is the variety of Yakshagana seen on the plateau,, as mentioned above. An institute
to foster it is functioning at Konchalli in Tiptur tq, by the efforts of Prof. J.S. Paramashiviah, noted
folklorist. The Mysore University Folk Arts Department also promotes this school. In Gulbarga and
Dharwad area it is called Doddata. Karibantana Kalaga, Sarangadhara, Kumara Ravmna Kathe are
popular themes. Basavaraja Malasetty at Hospet is a noted director in the field. Narasappa Bhagavata
of Konchalli, Puttashamachar of Bellur (Mandya dt.) Yatirajayya, (Gondenahalli) are some of the
artises from Southern Karnataka. Monappa Sutar from Afzalpur, Budeppa from Byahatti,
Nanjundayya Hiremath from Talur (Sandur tq), Ganachari from Gogi and Chandanna Gogi from
Hugar (Shahpur tq) are among the artises of this school.
Dance in Karnataka

As dance is a visual art, the visual impressions of this dynamic art are lost on the sands of
time. The tradition of dances current in Karnataka can be broadly divided as Janapada and Shista,
the former being localised in certain area only whereas the latter has spread to other parts outside
the state. Very few art lovers of yore have left any written literature on the then existing dance. The
tTamil text ‘Silappadikaram’ refers to a dance of the Kannadigas witnessed by the Chera king
Senguttavan. An inscription in Pattadakal reveals that Devadasis were engaged in ‘Nritya seva’ in
temples. Ganga rulers like Durvineeta and Narasimhadeva Satyavakya are described as well versed
in dancing and singing. During the Rashtrakuta and the later Chalukya periods, the courtesans had
duties assigned to them in temples and they were accomplished dancers. Many inscriptions have
praised Shantaladevi, the queen of Hoysala Vishnuvardhana as being an expert in dance. Bhandary
Lakshminarayana the Natyacharya in Krishnadevaraya’s court was called Abhinava Bharata.
Dancers and artistes were encouraged to
perform during the annual Dasara
celebrations by the Vijayanagar rulers. The
Mysore court also encouraged traditional
dance, following the footsteps of the
Vijayanagar rulers. ‘Manasollasa’ of
Someshwara III, Pundarika Vitlhala's
‘Narthana Nirnaya’, ‘Lasya Ranjana’ of
Simha Bhupala, ‘Rasikajana Manollasini’
‘Sara Sangraha’ and ‘Bharata Shastra’
written by Venkatamudarasani, are works
devoted to the arts of music and dancing.
Perhaps, the greatest phenomenon that
contributed to the preservation and
flourishing of dance in the state was the
practice of Devadasis offering service in
temples. By the end of the 19th century, in
Mulbagal, Mugur, T.Narsipur and
Poovalavadi near Chintamani, there were as
many as 200 professional dancing women
living with a number of Nattuvaras (or dance
masters). There were many Brahmin
Culture 225

scholars well versed in Sanskrit, Baratanatya and Abhinaya who taught the Devadasis the intricate
art of Abhinaya. In the erstwhile Mysore state, it is heartening to note that Bharatanatya develop “id
its own style, due to their efforts. There developed a repertory of Bharatanatya in which Mangalam,
Stuti, Alaripu, Jatiswara, Varnam, Pada and Tillana came in a sequence. During that period Kavisvar
Giriyappa, Kashi Guru, Amritappa, Appaya, Dasappa, Kittappa and Jetti Tayamma were some
reputed teachers, while, Venkatalakshamma, Puttadevamma, Ramamani and Mugur
Triputasundaramma were dancers of repute.
Bangalore came to be recognised as a very important centre for the teaching o f Baharatanatya.
Between 1910-1930, the art and the artistes had a decline due to breakdown of social values and
also due to the influences o f Western education which eclipsed the traditional and indigeneous art.
After 1930, people like E.Krishna Iyer, Rukmini Arundale, Ramagopal, U.S. Krishna Rao and his
wife Chandrabhaga Devi popularised this art in the 1940s.
During the wake of this renaissance in the 40s, many dance teachers gained ground in
Karnataka. In the 50s the state of affairs changed with the foundation of the Central and State
academies of dance, drama and music. These academies extended grants and aid to good teachers
and institutions. Gradually, in the erstwhile Mysore state and later in Karnataka, the dissemination
of the knowledge of dance art improved. Later, the then government of Mysore started the
government examination in Junior, Senior and Proficiency grades in Bharatanatyam. The whole
horizon of Bharatanatyam also changed after the Reorganisation of the State. As the 1970s dawned,
Karnataka, especially Bangalore and Mysore could boast of many dance teachers and institutions
capable of producing proficient dancers. The Bangalore University started the department of dance,
drama and music. The future of Bharatanatya therefore promises to be very encouraging in
Karnataka.
Many institutions run by veterans of the art, are imparting training in Bharatanatya and other
styles. In Bangalore city, apart from the Mahamaya Nritya Peetha of Dr. U.S.Krishna Rao, the others
like Sanatana Kalakshetra of V.S.Koushik, Keshava Nritya Shala of H.R.Keshavamurthy, Menaka
Nritya Shala of T.S.Bhat, Bharata Natya Kalashale of Manikyam, Bharateeya Vidya Bhavana Nirtya
Kendra, Ganesha Nritya Shale of Lalitha Dorai, Saraswati Nritya shale of Shekhar, Venkateshwara
Natya Mandira of Radha Sridhar, Meenakshi Sundaram Pillai School o f Leela Ramanathan,
Chittaranjan Kalakshetra o f C.Radhakrishna, M.V.School of Bhataranatyam, Sri Venkateshwara
Natya Mandira and Gana Nritya Kalashale of V.S.Lokaiah are among the noted ones. Many other
schools in different centres of the state have gained reputation.
A dance village named Nrityagram was established in Hesraghatta on the outskirts of
Bangalore city by the famous Odissi exponent Protima Gauri. She has arranged for the training of
students in all disciplines of traditional Indian dance under one roof in her Nrityagrama.

Even though Bharatanatyam scene is overwhelmingly dominated by female artists, some men
have stormed into this female bastion and have gained great reputation as worthy challengers. Some
of them are, K.R.S.Prasanna, Dr. A.R.Sridhar, Ramoo, Arun and B.K.Shyamprakash.

Many artistes of great renown have been striving for popularising the art of whom,
N.Gundappa and Venkatalakshamma, S.Sundramma, M.Jejamma, Subbamma, Chandrakantamma,
Maya Rao, Shantha Rao, Chinnamma, U.S.Krishna Rao, U,K.Chandrabhaga Devi,
H.R.Keshavamurthy and V.S.Koushik are the awardees of Karnataka Sangeetha Nritya Academy.
Besides, Leela Ramanathan, B.K.VasanthaIakshmi, C.Radhakrishna, Radha Sreedhar, Lalitha
Srinivasan, Padmini Ramachandran, Padmini Ravi, Usha Datar, etc. have become famous and have
also gained international recognition and reputation.
226 A Handbook o f Karnataka

Folk Literature*
Who among us has not heard the story of a rich boy or girl falling in love with a poor girl or
boy and marrying her or him eventually after many hardships including fierce opposition from
would-be parents-in-law? Our folk literature abounds in such stories such as our films do. Or,
consider the story of a vagrant husband whose exploits are finally discovered by the wife but
pardoned immediately, true to spirit of Adarsha Naari. This, as you may have thought is not a film
story either. This is the story of our Lord Srikanteswara, of Nanjangud, who inspite of being wedded
to the beautiful Deveri, had an affair going, with Chamundi, of the Chamundi hills. Or, take the
story of Lord Ranganath, o f the Biligiri hills, who fell in love with a poor Soliga tribal girl - and
married her. So much credence is given to this story by the local people, the Soligas, that they even
to this day address Lord Ranganatha as ‘Bhava’, that is brother-in-law. These are stories Which
could make wonderful film material, and it is no exaggeration if we say that the genesis of a nflTyority
of film stories is the folk literature.
When we say folk literature we do not always mean written literature only. Folk tradition here,
as elsewhere, began orally, or even earlier, may be, only with gestures.

The systematic study of folk literature was initiated by European scholars. Anyone who glances
at the Kittel dictionary is sure to be amazed by the abundant collection of proverbs, most of which
are of folk origin, in it. Kittel was helped in this by his immediate superior at the Basel Mission
Church, Mangalore, Rev. Moegling. Abbe Dubois’ work ‘Hindu Customs, Manners and
Ceremonies’ contain a number of folk tales. May Fsere’s ‘Old Deccan Day’ is an independent
collection o f folk tales. Among Kannadigas, Nadakeriyanda Chinnappa, a scholar from Kodagu,
published in 1924, a book in Kodava language called ‘Pattole Palame’, which was a collection of
regional folklore with Kannada commentary. This was followed by Halasangi Brothers of North
Karnataka who published three volumes of folksongs and Ballads, titled ‘Garathiya Haadu,’
‘Mallige Dande’ and ‘Jeevana Sangeetha.’ B.N. Rangaswamy of South Karnataka brought out a
book ‘Huttida Halli Halliya Haadu’ which depicted the rural traditions of an entire village. During
pre-independence period B.S. Gaddagimath was perhaps the first scholar in Kannada to secure a
doctorate for his thesis on folklore. This was followed by Jee. Sham. Paramashivayya’s series of
articles in Kannada Journals on folklore. Haa.Maa, Naik, a scholar in linguistics, published many
papers on the study of folk culture. D. Javaregowda, as Vice- Chancellor of Mysore University,
established a folklore research centre at Mysore. The Universities of Bangalore and Karnataka also
offer Doctoral programme in the study of folk culture.
Two other main centres for the study of folk literature are the Karnataka Janapada Trust and
the Karnataka Janapada and Yakshagana Academy. The former has a collection of 1,000 folk songs
recorded from all over the state. The latter brings out an annual collection of folklore of about 100
pages at a nominal price of one rupee.
Mathighatta Krishnamurthy has brought out a series of voluminous books like ‘Grihini
Geethegalu’, which are a collection of folk songs. S.K. Karim Khan has travelled the length and
breadth of Karnataka giving lectures on folk literature. Popular playwright - novelist
Chandrasekhara Kambara has to his credit many popular adaptations of folk stories like Siri
Sampige, Singaravva Matthu Aramane, Kadu-Kudure and Sangya-Balya. Girish Karnad won
international acclaim for his play ‘Nagamandala’ based on a folk story. And so did A.K. Ramanujan
for his collection of folk stories. B.V. Karanth and C.Aswath are pioneers in adapting folk music

contributed By C. Seetharam
Culture 227

to films. They made their debut as music directors in ‘Vamsha Vriksha’ and ‘Kakana Kote’
respectively.
Certain folk tales are common to all regions. One such is about a Harijan youth masquarding
as Brahmin and marrying a girl from that community. The girl when she discovers the deceit throws
herself into pyre and becomes a goddess. Another is woven round a chaste woman who sacrifices
herself for the successful completion o f village tank. And then we have any number of animal tales
in which the fox is the trickster.

When we come to the realm of songs we find songs for every rural activity, be it grinding,
pounding, christening the baby,, lullaby, marriage, nuptials, or even tattooing. The last named is the
forte of a distinct community called the ‘Koravanjis’. Kolatam or stick dance is perhaps unique to
Karnataka.

Ballad o r narrative folk song is another distinct form. ‘Jeeshampa’ has classified them
to twelve groups or traditions as 1. Devara Guddas, 2. Neelagaras, 3. Ganeplayers, 4.
Gorvas, 5. Choudikeyavaru, 6. Aradigalu 7. Karapaladavaru, 8. Tamburiyavaru, 9. Kinnara Jogigalu,
10. Dombidasaru, 11. Helavaru, and 12. Telugu Jangamaru.

Some of the popular ballads are Gunasagari, Sarjappa Nayakana Kathe, Madakari Nayaka,
Kitthuru Chennamma, Sangolli Rayanna, Balanagamma, Malaya Madeswara Kavya, Manteswami
Kavya, Yallammana Kavya and Mailaralingana Kavya.

Folk theatre too has a rich tradition in Karnataka. Who, for instance, has not heard of
‘Yakshagana’ of Coastal Karnataka, also in vogue in different parts of Karnataka, as Doddata,
Bayalata etc? Puppet theatre is another folk form, classified into two categories as Thogalugombe
and Keelugombe. The former is shadow play with the help of leather cut into human or animal or
super-human forms and the latter are performed with the help of dolls with movable limbs controlled
by strings by the operaters. What interests as literature is the narrative technique which would be
quite engrossing.

And then there are a host of books on folk medicine such as ‘Padartha Sara’, ‘Vaidyaratnakara’
etc. Many of these were brought out by, or with the help of the royal family of Mysore.

Closely connected with folk literature are folk arts like Kamsale, Chaudike, Ekatari etc., and
dances like Lambani dance, Patada Kunita, Nandikolu Kunita, Veeragase, Dollu Kunita, Gorawara
Kunita, Gondala, etc. These are all connected with religious rituals, connected with some deity, and
Yakshagana and puppet show are also of similar origin.

Cinema in Karnataka*

The Film industry in Karnataka has a history of over six decades. In their early phase, films
produced in Karnataka were only based on themes from the Kannada Theatre. The first ‘M ooki’
(silent) film was produced and directed by Mohan Bhavanani with Yenakshi Rama Rao, Kamaladevi
Chattopadhyaya, T.P.Kailasam,. G.K.Nanda and others and it had the title ‘M richchakatika’. During
the 1930s two Bombay Industrialists, Haribhai R.Desai and Bhogilal Dave established the first

Contributed by T.G.Ashwathanarayana
228 A Handbook o f Karnataka

studio of Southern India in Bangalore named

Surya Film Company and made about 40 silent
films in about four years. During 1929, with the
co-operation of Devudu Narasimha Sastri,
Gubbi Veeranna and Algod of Belgium, an
organisation named ‘Karnataka Pictures
Corporation’ was established through which
silent movies ‘Harimaye’, ‘Song of Life’ and
‘His Love Affair’ were produced. ‘Sadarame’
(1935), ‘Subhadra’ (1941), ‘Jeevana Nataka’
(1942), ‘Hemareddy Mallamma’ (1945),
‘Gunasagari’, ‘Bedara Kannappa’ (1954),
‘Bhutarajya’ and ‘Domingo’ were the
prominent movies of that age with the last two
being produced by Dr.Shivaram Karanth. Other
notable films were ‘Sati Sulochana’ ‘Samsara
Nauka,’ Vasanthasena,’ ‘Purandaradasa,’
‘Bhakta Markandeya,’ ‘Satya Harishchandra,’
‘Bhakta Kumbara,’ ‘Mahatma Kabir,’
‘Krishnaleela,’ ‘Chandrahasa,’ ‘Bharathi,’
‘Nagakannika’ and ‘Jaganmohini.’

The notable personalities who made an impact on the silver screen in the early times were
T.P.Kailasam, M.G.Mari Rao, Gubbi Veeranna, R.Nagendra Rao, M.V.Subbiah Naidu, Tripuramba,
C.T.Sheshachalam, M.V. Rajamma, B.RPantulu, Kemparaj Urs, Shanker Singh,
B.V.Vithalacharya, H.L.N.Simha and B.S.Ranga, the last two of whom were instrumental in
bringing the Kannada Film field from Madras to Bangalore. ‘Bedara Kannappa’ (1954) launched
Rajkumar who later grew into a colossus in the Kannada film industry. In the 1950’s '.he trend of
social films began and the notable films of that decade were ‘Premadaputri,’ ‘Modala Tedi,’ ‘School
M aster,’ ‘Kanyadana.’ ‘Adarshasati,’ ‘Bhakta Markandeya,’ ‘Ratnagiri Rahasya,’ ‘Nala
Damayanti,’ ‘Bhookailasa,’ ‘Jagajyothi Basaveshwara,’ ‘Dashavatara,’ ‘Ranadheera Kantheerava’
and ‘Bhakta Kanakadasa.’

The year 1964 was significant in the history of Kannada films for the production of the first
entirely colour movie ‘Amarashilpi Jakanachari’. The same year witnessed the release o f ‘Naandi,’
a new wave film, made by N.Lakshminarayan. In the 1960’s the man acknowledged by one and all
as the greatest director in Kannada film history, Puttanna Kanagal, made memorable films, like
‘Bellimoda’ (1967), ‘Gejje Pooje’(1968), ‘Sharapanjara’ and in the 70s movies like ‘Sakshatkara,’
‘Nagara Havu’ etc. The first film based on Children’s subject ‘Makkala Rajya’ was also released
during this period.

In the 1970’s film makers started adopting kannada novels by famous authors to the screen
and this phenomenon became immensely popular. The novels of eminent novelists like Aa Na Kru,
Ta Raa Su, Krishnamurthy Puranik, Triveni and T.K.Rama Rao were made into movies. Poems of
great poets like Bendre, Kuvempu, K.S.Narasimhaswamy, Gopalakrishna Adiga etc., were
converted into film lyrics and they gained acclaim.
Culture 229

The decades of the 1970’s is considered the age of the new-wave or experimental films through
films like ‘Samskara’ (1970), ‘Vamsha Vriksha ’ (1972), ‘Abachurina Post Office’ (1973), ‘Kadu’
(1974), ‘Hamsageethe’ (1975), ‘Chomana Dudi’ (1975), ‘Pallavi’ (1976), ‘Karavali’ (1977),
‘Kanneshwara Rama’ (1977), ‘Ghatashraddha’ (1977), ‘Ondu Orina Kathe,’ ‘Ondaanondu
Kaaladalli,’ ‘Maleyamakkalu,’ ‘Spandana’ (all in 1978), ‘Kadu Kudure’ and ‘Arivu’ (1979),
‘Yellindalo Bandavaru’ (1980), ‘Grahana’ and ‘Mooorudarigalu’ (1981), ‘Bara’ (1982), etc. The
commercially successful films of that period were ‘Nagara Havu’ and ‘Bangarada M anushya’
(1972), ‘Yedakallu Guddada M ele’ and ‘Professor Huchchuraya’ (1973), ‘Upasane’ and
‘Bhootayyana Maga Ayyu,’ (1974), ‘Shubghamangala’ (1975), ‘Rutugana,’ ‘Harake,’ ‘Kokila’ and
‘Sangharsha’ (1977), ‘Aparichita’ and ‘Parasangada Gendethimma’ (1978), ‘M other,’ ‘M ithuna’
(1980) and ‘Gaali M aatu’ (1981).

In the 1980s the Government of Karnataka granted 50% tax exemption to Kannada films
completely made in Karnataka and it increased the subsidy amount to Kannada films. L.V.Prasad
established a Colour Processing Laboratory in Bangalore. Besides, Sanketh, a recording studio of
the Nag Brothers and the Chamundeshwari studio were started. The availability of good
infrastructure, encouragement received from the Government and the viewership had a cascading
effect and there was a jum p in the number of films made each year, in this decade. Films based on
political themes, like ‘Accident,’ ‘Antha,’ ‘Bara,’ ‘Chakravyuha,’ ‘Aasphota,’ etc., were made in
this decade. Films that were commercially successful in this decade were ‘Antha,’ ‘Chakravyooha,’
‘Hosabelaku,’ ‘Haalu Jenu,’ ‘Mududida Taavare Aralithu,’ ‘Bandhana,’ ‘Benkiya Bale,’
‘Anubhava,’ ‘Ananda,’ ‘Rathasaptami,’ ‘Neebareda Kaadambari,’ ‘Premaloka,’ ‘Pushpaka
Vimana,’ ‘Ranadheera,’ ‘Suprabhata,’ ‘Sangliyana,’ ‘Nanjundi Kalyana,’ ‘Avale Nanna Hendathi,’
‘Hendthige Helbedi,’ ‘Indrajit,’ ‘Dada,’ ‘Deva,’ ‘Anjadagandu,’ ‘Hridaya Haadithu,’ ‘Gagana,’
‘CBI Shankar,’ ‘Gajapathi Garvabhanga,’ ‘Ramachari,’ ‘Chaitrada Premanjali,’ ‘Bhanda Nanna
Ganda,’ ‘Jeevana Chaitra’ and ‘Aakasmika.’

Even though the background instrumental music was in vogue in silent films, songs were sung
in the first talkie film in 1934. It is said that the advent of modern orchestra in films was due to the
efforts of P.Kalinga Rao in 1941. Playback singing became popular later. Music directors like
P.Shamanna, R.Sudarshan, G.K.Venkatesh, T.G.Lingappa, Vijaya Bhaskar, Rajan Nagendra and
Hamsalekha have become popular. B.V.Karanth, Girish Kasaravalli, M.S. Satyu, Siddalingayya,
Girish Karnad, Suvarna and G.V. Iyer are film directors who have won national awards.

Many Kannada films have won a large number of State and National awards over this period
of time. Karnataka Film Chamber of Commerce was started in Bangalore in 1944. Some amateur
film societies are producing films in 16 mm or 8 mm cameras. These are ‘Aseema,’ ‘Srishti,’
‘Swajan’ and ‘Suchitra’ societies.

The first regional office of the National Film Archives of India, Pune, was started in Bangalore
in 1982 at Chowdiah Memorial Hall. It is engaged in collecting and preserving old and memorable
films made in all the regional language of South India. The popular film studios of Karnataka are
Premier Studio at Mysore and Chamundeshwari, Sree Kantheerava and Abhimaan at Bangalore.
Many colour laboratories, processing units and recording units are also functioning in Bangalore,
which is the film city of Karnataka.
 Chapter XIV
KARNATAKA, THE TOURIST PARADISE
Both nature and human efforts have combined to make Karnataka a Tourist Paradise. Its long
sea shore has silvery beaches. The tall Western Ghats have lush green forests full of variety offauna
and flora and a number of east and west flowing rivers emanating from the Ghats enrich the soil of
the land and contribute to State’s agricultural prosperity. The rivers create many water falls which
are a feast to the eyes of the onlookers. The plain area is renowned for its beautiful river banks and
projecting wonderful stony hills looking like rock parks that are natural creations. The hilly tracks
have many animal sanctuaries. The kings that ruled over Karnataka like the Gangas, Kadambas,
Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, Hoysala, Vijayanagar Rulers, Bahamins of Gulbarga and Bidar,
^Adilshahis of Bijapur, Wodeyars of Mysore and the Keladi rulers raised wonderful forts, beautiful
*temples with plastic art and magnificent mosques and mausoleums of Indo-Saracenic style. The
advent o f the Portuguese and the English introduced European Renaissance architecture and
impressive churches and captivating buildings were raised. The National Parks and the animal and
bird sanctuaries can provide the visitor the sight of wild animals like elephants, tigers, bisons, deers,
black bucks, peacocks and variety of animals in their natural habitat. The National Parks also
acquaint the visitor with a rich variety of flora like tall trees, bushy plants and creepers that try to
entwine him. Karnataka is known for its aromatic sandal wood and broad beautiful trees of pipal
and banyan with their hospitable broad shade. If one is spiritually inclined, there are living seers
whether Hindu or Muslim who can provided one with spiritual solace. There are also tombs of great
religious leaders of Hindu, Muslim, Christian, Jaina or Veerashaiva. In the precincts of these tombs,
even to-day people seek spiritual solace.

The tallest water fall in India is at Jog (Shimoga District) where the river Sharavati jumps from
a height of 293 mtr into four cascades of everlasting beauty. The Jog is activated now only during
July to October every (rainy season) year. The Cauvery at Shivasamudra falls (in Mandya district)
has twin jumps, Gaganachukki and Bharachukki, one km away from each other and their water has
been harnessed for production of power from 1901. Mandya district has also a fall of the Shimsha,
14 km from Bluff, the power station of Shivasamudra. The river Shimsha is a tributary of the
Cauvery and its falls is in Malavalli taluk in Mandya district. Kodagu district with its headquarters
at Madikeri which is a perennial hill-station, has the Abbi Falls, 5 km away from Madikeri. The
Irpu falls is 48 km from Virajpet, a place in Kodagu District, and has an old Rameshwara temple
too near it. Chikmagalur district has many water falls. The hill stations at Kemmannagundi has the
Hebbe Falls and it is created by a stream later joining the Bhadra river, and the water jumps down
from a height of about 500 feet. Manikyandhara is yet another water falls near the famous pilgrim
centre Baba Budangiri Dattatreya Peetha and here water spills down like small balls and visitors
can enjoy a memorable shower bath. The Kallatti Falls at Kallattipura in Tarikere tq is 10 km from
Kemmanugundi; water leaps down here from a height of 400 feet and there is an old Veerabhadra
temple very near the Falls. Mysore district has the picturesque Chunchanakatte Falls at the place of
the same name and beside which there is a Rama temple. Uttara Kannada is famous for its Unchalli
(Lushington) Falls, about 450 feet in height and the Aghanashini river creates this water cascade at
a place which can be reached from Yellapur (19 km away) in Uttara Kannada. Belgaum District
has the famous Gokak Falls, which is 8 km away from the Gokak Town and Gokak Road Station,
and here is 170 feet tall cascade and is called ‘Mini Niagara’ for its spread and shape. Power was
harnessed here to run the cotton mill as early as in 1887. There are many beautiful old temples at
Karnataka, the Tourist Paradise 231

Gokak falls and also a

suspension bridge across
the river, Ghataprabha.
The Mahadayi river
creates the Vajaropha
Falls in the thick Jamboti
forest in Khanapur taluk.
While the river travels
towards Goa, it is called
Mandovi. Near Bangalore
is Muthyalamaduvu not
far away from Anekal, and
40 kms from Bangalore.
The proper season to visit
these water falls is
between September and
January and Gokak Falls
must be visited in
July-August when it will
be in full bloom.

To the religious-
minded and the devotees
of every denomination,
there are places worthy of
a visit. To the Muslim, one
of the oldest mosques of
Karnataka is in the
Gulbarga Fort, built 1367,
by the Bahmani ruler
Muhammad Shah. It is the
biggest mosque in
Karnataka, and when compared in plan and design the mosque resembles the mosque at Cardova
in Spain. The Jamiya mosque in Bijapur is another wonderful huge monument built by Ali Adilshah
(16th century). It has a proportionate dome and its mihrab is gorgeously painted. The Malika Jahan
mosque in black stone is another notable mosque in Bijapur. Bidar has the famous Solaha- khamb
mosque with 16 cylindrical pillars and was raised in 1423. Raichur has Ekminar mosque and
Lakshmeshwar (Dharwar dt) has artistically raised mosque in the style of a Hindu temple, and is of
Adilshahi times. Bhatkal has magnificant Chinnada Palli and M angalore’s bunder mosque is known
for its fine wood w o rk . The Jami Mosque at Srirangapattana with its two tall minarets is the creation
of Tipu. Sira has a mosque of Mughul times. The mosque in the City Market, Bangalore, is a large
modem structure in marble with a series of windows crowned by arched canopies and rows of
minaret-like pilasters.

The Dargahs of Muslim Saints and kings are equally famous. The Bande Nawaz Dargah at
Gulbarga is in a vast sprawling complex where a Mughul mosque is also seen. The Mausoleum of
Ahmed Shah Wali, at Ashtur near Bidar, is a tall structure with paintings in it. The prince is
venerated as a saint by both the Hindus and Muslims. Bijapur has two princely Mausoleums. Ibrahim
232 A Handbook o f Karnataka

Rauza, a twin structure is standing on arched platform. One end of the platform has a tomb and
another end a mosque, both domed structures, the domes emerging from lotus petals and having
metallic pinnacles on them. Gol Gumbaz is the most famous mausoleum of another prince. Dargah
of Malik Rihan is the most notable with its multigonal layout, a Mughul structure at Sira. The
Gumbaz where rest Haider and Tipu’s mortal remains is a tall structure with a huge dome at
Shrirangapattana. Its door have fine inlay work. Syed Madani Dargah at Ullala near Mangalore is
a modern structure. At the Asar Mahal palace of Bijapur, Hazrat Bal, a hair of the Prophet is believed
to be preserved in a casket, Belgaum has the fine Safa mosque of Adilshahi times in the fort built
by Asad Khan Lahiri. Another mosque in the fort is Jamia Masjid raised by Sher Khan of Bijapur
in 1586-87. Wherever there is Muslim population they also raise dargahs ("chillas") of Mehboob
Subani (famous Saint from Baghdad) and Chamanshah Wali. Uruses are also held at these places.
Many of the uruses are very large gatherings, attended by Hindus also as at the Raja Bagh Sawar
urus at Yamanur near Navalgund or the one of Ahmadshah Wali at Ashtur near Bidar, which is also
considered as the jatra o f Veerashaiva Saint Allamaprabhu. A Veerashaiva priest officiates at it,
beginning the rituals by doning green robes.

For those interested in seeing churches, the best are at Bangalore and Mangalore. Though
Christianity was propagated by the efforts of the Portuguese in Canara (coastal area) far earlier than
on the plateau, many of the churches they raised on the coast during the 16th to 18th Century were
razed to the ground by the Mysore ruler in 1790s. Mangalore has the magnificent St. Rozario
Cathedral church with its tall frontal towers. The original building was of 1526, rebuilt in 1910.
Milagres Church with beautiful tall facade accommodating many artistic images on its parapet
reminds one of St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome. Equally notable is Our Lady of Sorrow church at
Kodialbail built in 1857. It has a frontal tall wall facade divided into four rectangles of equal size
with a pediment atop them. Mangalore has the Shanti Cathedral of the Basel Mission (now C.S.I)
raised in 1862 which is a beautiful simple structure with its complex well-planned layout.

Virajpeth in Kodagu has a Catholic Church in Gothic style and it celebrated its bicentenary in
1993. The small Anglican Church in Madikeri in Kodagu now houses the Government Museum
and has beautiful glass paintings.

The St. M ary’s Church in Belgaum is a huge granite structure built in 1869 in the Camp area
with fine piers in the prayer hall and gorgeous stained glass windows. The St.Philomina Church at
Mysore with its two tall towers of imposing size can be the pride of any town and the building has
a crypt.

Bangalore has its oldest St.Mary’s Basilica in Shivajinagar supposed to be raised around 1600,
rebuilt in 1832, and it has a tall Gothic tower at the entrance. St.Marks Cathedral that took the
present shape in 1927, is another imposing structure in the former Cantonment area, now of the
Church of South India. The St.Patrick’s with North-South alignment is in Greeco-Roman style, was
originally built for Irish soldiers in 1844 and rebuilt in 1898. The Trinity Church in the Mahatma
Gandhi Road was the official Anglican Church of British times which was attended by Residents
and other officers. It took its present shape in 1908, though originally built in 1851. It has fine Ionic
pillars and a portico with majestic look. Its nave is also 90 feet long and the back-wall has fine
wooden carvings.

The Buddhists had their Tara Bhagavati temples at Belgami near Shiralkoppa(Shimoga dt),
Koliwada and Dambal, (both in Dharwad dt, are now gone.) Remains of the razed Stupas and a
large number of Buddhists plaques at Sannatti in Gulbarga dt are unearthed recently. Kadri in
Karnataka, the Tourist Paradise 233

Mangalore has three Buddhist bronze images in the Manjunatha temple and of these, one of
Avalokiteshwara is more than five feet tall, and of the ninth century. The Tibetan Settlements at
Mundgod in Uttara Kannada and Bailukuppe in Mysore district look like mini-Tibet with their multi­
coloured beautiful stupas and artistically painted prayer halls. The Mahabodhi Society in Bangalore
has a magnificent stupa, and a huge temple on the model of the Bodhagaya temple is being raised
inside the compound.

Jainism had been a very old religion of Karnataka and Shravanabelagola with its 58 feet tall
Gommata (installed in 981-82 AD) and many Jainabasatis on two rocky hills is the most important
Jaina Centre. It is in Hassan dt. and in the neighbouring district of Shimoga is Humcha, famous for
the worship of Yakshi Padmavathi. Simhanagadde in Chikmagalur dt (Narasimharajapur tq) has a
Jaina Matha of antiquity. Dakshina Kannada has many Jaina Centres. Mudabidre has the biggest
Jaina Basadi in Karnataka called Thousand-pillared basadi with wonderful Jaina icons, both in metal
and wood. The pillars of this 16th Century structure are highly artistic. At this place, there are many
more Jaina monuments. Neighbouring Karkala town has a Gommata monolith installed in the 15th
century, and a beautiful Chaturmukha basadi. Another town nearby is Venur which has another
monolithic Gommata installed in 1604, and also has the Shantinatha Basadi. Dharmasthala, a famous
Shaiva Centre has a monolithic Gommata installed during this century. Belgaum district has the
beautiful Kamala basadi in Chalukyan style in the Belgaum Fort. The ancient centre Tavanidi near
Nippani and newly created centre at Shedbal (all in Belgarem dt.) where 24 Tirthankaras in white
marble have been installed in a cluster, are quite imposing. Lakkundi in Dharwad district has a huge
Brahma jinalaya o f Chalukyan style, built by a noble lady, Attimabbe. Near Mysore is Gommatagiri
with a 20 feet tall Gommata monolith. A picturesque hill, Maleyur in Chamarajnagar taluk with a
Parshwanatha basadi atop the hill and also the samadhi of the great Jaina Savant Pujyapada is
another holy centre. This place on a rocky hill has serene atmosphere.

To the Shaivas, Gokarna is a great all-India centre where the Atmalinga (Mahabaleshwara) of
Shiva, brought by Ravana is believed to have been installed. Nearby is Murdeshwar where a huge
modern Shiva temple in Dravidian style has been raised, renovating an ancient shrine. Both the
places are on the sea-shore in Uttara Kannada. At Hampi is the famous Virupaksha Temple,
venerated by generations of poets, scholars, kings and commoners. Madikeri has the famous
Omkareshwara temple built by the Kodagu rulers during the 19th century. Its domes and arches
make it look like an Indo-Saracenic building. Dharmasthala in Dakshina Kannada is the most
popular Shaiva centre in Karnataka. Nanjangud in Mysore has the huge Shrikantheshwara temple,
more than 1000 years old. The Chamarajeshwara in Chamarajanagar is built (in 19th Century) by
Krishnaraja Wodeyar III in memory of his father Chamaraja, and both these huge temples have fine
stucco images. The Nanjangud temple is a museum for the study of Shaiva Iconography with its
fine stone figures in the round. Bangalore has the Ulsoor Someshwara temple of the 16th Century
built by the Kempegowda family with tall imposing Rayagopura.

The Shiva temple in Kudala Sangama in Bijapur district is famous for its association with Saint
Basaveshwara. Remarkable pieces of art are the Virupaksha and the Mallikarjuna at Pattadakal in
Bijapur dt. Temples at Talakadu and Mudukutore (Mallikarjuna on a hill) are together famous as
five holy Lingas (Panchalingas) and are on the bank of the Cauvery. On Shivaratri Day, jatras are
held at all these centres.

The Veerashaivas have many venerated places either associated with Basaveshwara or his
contemporaries. Basavanna Bagewadi was his place of birth and Kudala Sangama the place of his
spiritual practices and both are in Bijapur dt. The latter is at the confluence of the rivers Krishna
234 A Handbook o f Karnataka

and the Malaprabha. Basava Kalyana, the ancient Chalukyan capital in Bidar district was the place
where he conducted his socio-religious movement. Ulvi in Uttara Kannada, a quiet place amidst
forests, has the ‘samadhi’ o f Chennabasavanna, Basaveshwara’s nephew. Belgami (Balligavi), the
famous Chalukyan art centre in Shimoga dt. is identified as the birth place of Allama Prabhu and
Udugani near it is the native place of Akkamahadevi.

Later Veerashaiva saints are associated with many plai es. The Mahadeshwara Betta in Mysore
dt. is associated with a Veerashaiva Saint ascribed with many miracles. Yediyur in Tumkur dt. has
the ‘gadduge’ of Tontada Siddhalinga Yati, another renowned saint. Balehonnur in Chikmagalur dt.
and Ujini in Bellary dt. are the two among the five (Pancha) major important Veerashaiva Peethas
of India in Karnataka. A than; has the ‘samadhi’ of the famous Veerashaiva Saint Shivayogi. Some
of the outstanding Veerashaiva Mathas are seen at Naganur near Bailhongal and Kalmatha in
Belgaum dt. Durudundeshwara Matha at Arabhavi and Mahantaswamy Matha at Murgod are also
in Belgaum dt. Murugha Matha (Dharwad), Annadaneshwara Matha (Mundargi), Tontadarya Matha
at Gadag and Dambal, Moorusavira Matha at Hubli, Murugha Matha (Haveri) and Hukkeri Matha
(Haveri), all in Dharwad dt. Taralabalu Matha at Sirigere, Mumgharajendra Matha at Chitradurga,
Banthanala Shivayogi Matha at Chadachan and Mahantaswamy Matha (Ilkal) in Bijapur dt. are
equally notable. The ‘samadhi’ of Sharanabasappa Appa at Gulbarga, the Belimatha in Bangalore,
Siddhaganga Matha near Tumkur and Jagadguru Shivaratreeshwara Matha at Mysore and Suttur
are equally important. Kolar District has Nidumamidi Matha. These places and many more of the
Veerashaiva Mathas are visited by pilgrims in thousands.

O f the Adwaita School propounded by Shankara, there is the famous Matha at Sringeri in
Chikmagalur District. Kudli has another Matha in the same tradition in Shimoga dt. Avani in Kolar
dt. Shivaganga in Tumkur dt. and Sankeshwar in Belgaum dt. are the others of the school. Of the
Adwaita* Sampradaya, there is the famous Siddharudha Matha at Hubli and Shivananda Matha at
Gadag, both in Dharwad dt.

Dattatreya worship is popular is Karnataka and Devala Ganagapur is in Gulbarga dt. where
the famous saint from Karnataka, Narasimha Saraswati had stayed for long, and Dattatreya devotees
from all over throng the place. Kurugadda, an island in the Krishna in Raichur dt. has the ‘samadhi’
of Sripada Vallabha, another devotee of Dattatreya, the guru of Narasimha Saraswathi. At
Balekundri near Belgaum is the ‘samadhi’ of another devotee of Dattatreya called Pantha Balekundri
Maharaj. Murgod in Belgaum dt. and Agadi in Dharwad dt. have similar centres. Inam Dattatreya
Peetha at Bababudan Giri in Chikmagalur dt. is worshipped by both the Hindus and Muslims. As
a Muslim devotee of Dattatreya, Dada Hayath Khalandar stayed and worshipped Dattatreya at this
shrine (cave) and the latter’s ‘samadhi’ (tomb) is also seen there. Maniknagar near Humnabad is
another centre of Dattatreya worship and was consecated by the presence of a saint, Manik Prabhu.

Among the Shaivas, there are Nathapanthis. Handibadaganath in Khanapur taluk, Appachiwadi
near Nippani and Kadri in Mangalore are their notable centres. Bhairava, a manifestation of Shiva
is worshipped in many places, and of these Adichunchanagiri in Mandya dt. and Seethi Betta in
Kolar dt. are quite famous. Adichunchanagiri has now the famous Matha of the Vokkaliga
community.

Mailara Marthanda or Malatesha or Khandoba is another manifestation o f Shiva, whose

temples are seen at Gudda Guddapur in Ranebennur taluk, Mannetti Mailara in Bellary dt., Khanapur
in Bidar dt., Mangasuli in Belgaum dt., and Bellur and Bhairapatna in Mandya dt. All these are
popular centres of pilgrimage.
Karnataka, the Tourist Paradise 235

Another popular manifestation of Shaivism is Veerabhadra. He is supposed to be the son of

Shiva. Popular centres of his worship are spread all over Karnataka, but Yedur on the banks of the
Krishna and Godachi in Belgaum dt., Mugbalu and Savanadurga in Bangalore dt., Channappanapura
in Mysore dt. and the Uddhana Veerabhadra temple at Hampi are some notable pilgrim centres of
this God.

Shakti, the consort of Shiva is worshipped by many. The village deities like Maramma,
Durgamma, Patalamma, Matangamma etc., have been identified with her. O f the Shakti centres to
be noted are Chandralamba at Sannati (Gulbarga), Mayakka at Chinchli and Yellamma at Saundatti,
Banashankari near Badami (Bijapur dt.), Bhuvaneshwari at Hampi, Marikamba at Sirsi (Uttara
Kannada), Chamundeshwari in Mysore and Hemadramma at Bannur (Mysore dt.), Mahalakshmi at
Doddagaddavalli near Hassan, Hasanamba at Hassan, Honnamma of Shivaganga, Mariyamma at
Huskur near Bangalore and Kolaramma at Kolar. These places are visited by devotees of Shakti.

Among the Vaishnava centres Udupi and Melkote are the foremost, the former connected with
the Dwaita school and the latter Visishtadvaita. Lord Krishna at Udupi was installed by Acharya
Madhwa and he founded eigth Mathas to help conduct services of the Lord at Udupi. The Madhwa
Vaishnavas have their own holy places like Sonda in Uttara Kannada where Vadiraja Swamiy’s
‘Brindavan’ is seen. The Uttaradi Matha of the sect is at Hospet. The Navabrindavana or the
‘brindavanas’ of nine great seers of the sect is at Anegundi to the North of Hampi in an island amidst
the Tungabhadra. Mulabagal in Kolar dt. has the Brindavana of Sripadaraja. Nanjangud, Sosale and
Savanur are holy places to the Madhwas, the last named having the Brindavan of Satyabodha
Teertha of Uttaradhi Matha, a contemporary of Haider who paid him honours. The great Madhwa
saint, Kanakadasa’s samadhi is at Kagineli in Dharwad dt. where recently a Matha has been founded
with the name Kanakapitha.

Srivaishnavism was preached by Ramanujaacharya during the 12th century and he stayed at
Saligrama (Mysore dt., where there is the Bhashyakara Temple in his memory), Tonnur and
Melukote in Mandya dt. At the last place he is believed to have renovated the Cheluvanarayana
Swamy temple and conducted the pujas for long. These are holy places to Srivaishnavas and also
to others. There is the Parakala Matha at Mysore and Jeeyar Yatiraja Matha at Bangalore
(Malleshwaram).
Apart from the above places which are holy to Srivaishnavas, temples of Vishnu and his
incarnation are found all over the state. Reference is already made to Udupi, Melkote, Biligiri
Rangana Betta and Himavad Gopalaswamy Betta. Narasimha is worshipped in notable places like
Raibag and Halasi (Belgaum dt.), Nagamangala and Maddur in Mandya dt., Zarani Narasimha near
Bidar, Devarayanadurga and Sibi in Tumkur dt., Toravi near Bijapur and at T.Narasipur in Mysore
dt. Ranganatha has two famous centres of worship in islands in the Cauvery at Srirangapattana and
Sivasamudra. Both the places are visited by hosts of devotees. Equally famous Ranganatha temple
is seen at Anegondi in Raichur dt. The Chennakeshava at Belur, Keerti Narayana at Talakad,
Veeranarayana at Gadag are famous Vaishnava pilgrimage centres. Chunchanakatte in Mysore
District and Hiremagalur near Chikmagalur have very old Rama temples. Hanuman as a popular
Vaishnava deity has his temples in Hampi, Bannur (Mysore), Banaswadi near Bangalore, Yalagur
in Bijapur dt., Mulbagal in Kolar dt., and a host of other places. Muttatti on the banks of Cauvery
in Mandya dt. also has a famous Hanuman Temple.
Subrahmanaya, son of Shiva has his own centres of worship at Sandur in Bellary district
(picturesque hill resort), Ghati Subrahmanya in Bangalore district and Subrahmanya in Dakshina
236 A Handbook o f Karnataka

Kannada. In certain areas, Kartikeya is identified with serpent worship, and elaborate ritual called
Nagamandala is performed in a huge arena decorated with coloured powders and flowers. Around
this special dance rituals are performed by trained priests. Witnessing Nagamandala or a Yakshagana
in coastal Karnataka will be a unique privilege to the visitor. So is seeing Bhuta worship rituals of
which are colourful and captivating. Other folk arts like Veeragase intended to please God
Veerabhadra hold one spell bound. Dollinakunita to please Biredevaru is a mighty performance.
Curious and funny is Somanakunita which entertains the onlookers by the huge mask wearing artists.
The Kaunsale dance by the Devaraguddas (devotees) of Mahadeshwara is fascinating. The pageant
of folk arts of Karnataka will captivate the audience for a long period. Janapada Loka near
Ramanagaram (Mysore-Bangalore Road) and the Regional Resources Centre at the M.G M.College,
Udupi, provide audio-visual tapes, and there is a huge folk museum in the Mysore University.

The Sikhs have their famous Nanak Zhira in Bidar, a place supposed to have been visited by
Guru Nanak. There is a modern Gurudwara at Ulsoor, Bangalore, built in white marble. The Parsees
have their fire temple in Bangalore.

The State has many National Parks and Wild Life Sanctuaries. Of the National Parks one at
Bannerghatta near Bangalore is about 100 sq km in area and there is an animal safari. Bandipur in
Mysore District is more than 800 sq km in area and famous for its wild elephants. The Kudremukh
National Park is 600 sq km and is on the ranges of the Western Ghats and is known for all kinds
of flora and fauna. The Kudremukh Iron Co. at Malleswara is amidst the park and has maintained
a township and guest house. The Nagarahole National Park spread over 640 sq km includes areas
both in Kodagu and Mysore districts has forest lodges to accommodate visitors and this park is
famous for its tiger population. The Brahmagiri wild life sanctuary is in Kodagu where nature in
all its wild growth and animals in all their wild movements can be seen. This is at more than 2000
to 3000 ft above sea level. Ranebennur Wild Life Sanctuary in Dharwad district is more than 100
sq km and is known for its agile blackbuck population. Adichunchanagiri has the peacock sanctuary.
It is a hilly place where there is a Bhairava temple and a Matha of the Vokkaligas and peacocks
can be seen in gay abandon in the mornings. Dandeli Wild Life Sanctuary in Uttara Kannada District
is famous for bisons, deers and variety of other wild fauna. Ranganathittu near Srirangapattana and
also Mysore is a small island in the cauvery where there is bird sanctuary and emigrant birds of all
types like pelican, storks and large number of other varieties are found perching on the trees and
bushes, feeding or busy flying to feed their young ones. Gudvi bird sanctuary in Sorab taluk and
Mandagadde bird sanctuary in Tirthahalli taluk are both famous, and they are in Shimoga district.
An equally famous bird sancturay is at Kokrebellur near Maddur in Mandya district. Lovers of wild
life who love serenity of the f&rest and trekking at the hill tracks can visit these places and enjoy
the natural bounty of the land of Karnataka. Herein you come across tanks, rivulets and water falls
to help cool your heels. The chirping sound of birds and of wild insects provide you with fine natural
music.

Karnataka has many cool hill resorts of which Kuduremukh is one, mentioned above.
Kemmannagundi in Chikmagalur district (in the Western Ghats) is another hill resort surrounded
by a park with good accommodation facilities arranged by the Horticulture department (housed at
Lalbag, Bangalore). Biligiri Ranganabetta in Mysore district is famous for its ancient Srinivasa
temple atop a hill and around the temple, there exists a wild life sanctuary. Wild elephants are seen
around the place. The place is inhabited by Soligas tribe. Himavathgopalabetta (Gopalaswamy
Betta) is another resort (in Mysore dt.) where there is a Venugopala temple atop of hill. Rest house
and food facilities are provided in the small hamlet that has grown around the temple.
Karnataka, the Tourist Paradise 237

Devarayanadurga in Tumkur district has temples of Lakshmi Narasimha and Yoga Narasihma atop
the hill which is a cool resort and the whole hill is surrounded by picturesque fortification.

Nandidurga in Kolar district is an ancient place with the Yoganarasimha temple of Chola times
atop it and fortifications around it, built by Haider and Tipu. The place is provided with lodging
facilities, under the Horticulture department which has raised a fine park above the hill. Mahatma
Gandhi had stayed here more than once when he was in poor health. Agumbe in Shimoga district,
though not a hill resort, is a hill track from where the sunset can be observed and it is an heavenly
experience. There are hill resorts at Ramdurga in Bellary district and also at Jogimatti in Chitradurga
district.

If you want to bask in the sunshine of the sea shore or get beaten by the oceanic waves th :re
are fine beaches. At Bengre which is almost an island and at Ullal both near Mangalore are notable
beaches. Ullal has provision for cottages and food facilities. Not far away from Mangalore is he
beach at Thanneerubhavi near Surathkal where there is the Regional Engineering College. M Ipe
near Udupi (both places were associated with great Vaishnava saint Madhwacharya) has a ong
magnificent beach and also an island near it.

Marvanthe in Kundapur taluk on the borders of the two districts of coavial Karnataka f is a
fine beach on one side and river on the other, running parallel to the coast for a considerable disf nee
before its confluence with the sea and the sunset here is a magnificent spectacle. Gokarna, the ioly
town in Uttara Kannada, has a very long beach which has also become a second resort to many
people who visit Goa. Karwar has a rum ber of beaches around it and P ret Rabindranath Tagore
238 A Handbook o f Karnataka

had unforgettable experiences at Karwar beach to which he has given expression to in poetic prose.
These are only a few among the many. The beaches not only provide you an encounter with the
sea, but also give you a chance to taste sea food available there.

V ' !

The sea coast has some captivating inlands too and of these the St.Mary Island or Tonseparu
near Malpe has peculiar pillar-like natural rock formations. The Nethrani Island near Murdeshwar
is another wonderful place. Basavaraja Durga near Honavar is an island fort raised by the Keladi
Rulers during 16th and 17th Centuries. It is surrounded by a strong fortification raised by gigantic
laterite blocks and the hill has a flat top. Devagad and Kurmagad are two islands near Karwar.
Visiting these places will be a wonderful experience, but regular arrangements for one’s visit are
yet to be made. One has to make his own arrangements to cross the sea by hiring vehicles, but after
such an effort, the visitor, will be back with rapture and tears of joy.

If the visitor is interested in old paintings, the mural paintings of Vijayanagara times are seen
at Hampi Virupaksha temple and also at Haradanahalli in the Mysore dt. Earlier, there were some
paintings in the Cave No.3 at Badami of the 7th century. They have faded. There are old paintings
of consi^rable antiquity at the Jaina Matha at Shravanabelagola. Paintings of Bijapur times are
seen at Asar Mahal Palace and Ibrahim Rauza of the 16th-17th century. Asar Mahal has mostly
floral figures and so also the Ibrahim Rauza, but the latter are fading. Ragmala paintings and portraits
of kings and queens like Chand Bibi are preserved in the Bijapur Museum. A place near Bijapur,
Kumatagi has also some wall painting around a swimming pool. Eighteenth century paintings are
seen at Danya Daulat Palace at Srirangapattana, some of them are war scences, others personal
portraits. The Si hi Temple near Tumkur also have paintings of the 18th century.
Karnataka, the Tourist Paradise 239

The Eighteenth century paintings are also seen at Kittur, Haleparivaradavara Chavadi at
Kollegal, and the Nalkunadu Palace in Kodagu. The paintings from Kittur have been transferred to
a Hire Matha at Amminbhavi in Dharwad dt. The 19th century paintings are seen at the palace of
Nippani, Nargund (Dharwad dt) and two temples in the precincts o f the Mysore palace. The
Jaganmohan Art Gallery has mural painting and also traditional paintings of Gods and Goddesses
drawn on cloth and also on glass. The traditional paintings of Mysore are preserved in the Chitrakala
Parishat in Bangalore too and they are mostly framed paintings of gods and goddesses o f the Mysore
style. Small round ‘ganjifa’ cards and various ‘snake and ladder’ type game boards of the 19th
century also have fine paintings. Sritattvanidhi, a manuscript of the 19th century has hundreds of
miniature paintings. This was prepared at the Mysore Court.
Schools of art also have good collection of modem painting such as School of Art of Andani
of Gulbarga, of Akki at Gadag, of Halbhavi at Dharwad, of Minajigi at Gadag Hadapad’s Ken
School or Chitrakala Parishat or Kalamandira at Bangalore can be specially mentioned. Art
exhibitions are generally held in Bangalore, Davanagere, Udupi and other centres. Chamarajendra
Academy of Visual Arts (CAVA) is a Government institution at Mysore.
Of the handicrafts of Karnataka, brocade weaving can be seen at Bangalore, Hubli, and other
places. Wood inlay work is practised at Mysore and it is unique a rt Lacquer ware working can be
seen at Channapatna, Kinhal and Kalaghatgi. Kinahal in Raichur district is doing special type of
works. Sculptors are seen at Mysore, Shivarapatna, Bangalore and other centres, sculpting stone
figures. Sandalwood carving is practised by the Gudigars at Sagar, Sorab, Kumta and Honavar who
undertake delicate works, big and small. They also use other soft and hard wood as the medium
sandalwood is very costly. Their delicate works have few equals. Bidar has a special metallic craft
called Bidariware in which on. a black metal surface fine silvery or gold designs are embossed
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i

Jaganmohan Art Gallery

240 A Handbook o f Karnataka

artistically. The Lambanis are known for their special embroidery work. Doll making is also
special talent found in Karnataka. Wonderful braziers are found at Nagamangala (Mandya
dt.), Gollaradoddi near Ramohalli (Bangalore dt.). Udupi and Chikodi in Belgaum dt. Observing
the nimble fingers at work on cane or bamboo or with chisel is a hair-raising experience.
The Canara Bank at Jogaradoddi and the Sandur Industries at Sandur have opened workshops
to make various types o f craftsmen to sit under a single roof and work together. A show
room is also opened to help the secure remunerative price for their products. Govt. Cauvery
Emporia at Bangalore, Mysore and other centres have showrooms of craft products for
Karnataka.

O f the Museums in the State, for art lovers, Jaganmohan Art Gallery housed in an old gorgeous
palace of Mysore is a must. There are not only fine art works (including some by Raja Ravi Varma)
in colours, metals, ivory and wood but a huge collection of musical instruments too o f yore. The
Mysore Palace proper has a large collection works o f arts from various countries, but also a gallery
of armou’-y of olden days including a sword that can be worn round the waist like a belt.

Ban galore Government Museum (1880) too has a collection of ancient arms, a sculpture gallery
and a collection of old coins, which are shown at special request. There are exclusive collections
of n o ted «nists K.Venkatappa and K.K.Hebbar and plaster of paris scultptures of the former. There
is district museum of Shimoga (housed in an old palace) where queer items of Keladi rulers are
preserved. The Gulbarga Museum has not only the items of Bahmanshahi times but also a huge
collection of Buddhist sculputres (decorative plaques) had from Sannati. Chitradurga Museum
(1947) has many antiquities connected with the local chieftains and herostones, weapons and other
items. Thei e are State Government Museums at Kittur, Hassan, Keladi, Raichur, Basavakalyana,
Dharwad et .,

The Ce tral Government (the Archaeological Survey) maintains a rich collection of armoury,
coins, manuscripts and paintings at the Museum near Gol Gumbaz, Bijapur Hampi (at Kamalapura)
has a similar nuseum of Vijayanagara days, and it also contains many objects unearthed during
recent excavat' >ns at Hampi. Srirangapattana’s Daria Daulat palace has a Museum on Tipu (1959)
which contains manuscripts, drapery, coins, arms and paintings of his time. Halebidu, Banavasi,
Lakkundi, Aihok Badami etc. have Museums maintained by the A.S.I.

In addition tc the Folk Art Museum at the Mysore University, the museum at the Janapada
Loka, Ramanagarar; founded by H.L.Nagegowda has to be specially mentioned. The Kannada
Research Institute, Karnataka University has a famous Museum o f antiquities and its epigraphical
gallery is the most nc table. There is the Visweswaraya Industrial Museum at Bangalore beside the
State Museum founded (1962) by the Council o f Scientific and Industrial Research.

The finest and the best Museum in Karnataka is ‘M anjusha’ seen at the famous pilgrim centre
Dharmasthala which has 2 huge collection of all items like vessels, implements of day-to-day use,
jewellery, watches, clocks, art pieces, typewriters, cars, coins, weapons, icons, manuscripts, copper
plates, curious items, drapery etc., dating back to several centuries. Shaswati is a unique museum
for women, the items they used, created, wore etc., giving a complete picture of their life. It is
situated in the N.M.K.R.V.College for Women at Jayanagar, Bangalore.
Karnataka can boast of the best pathology museum in India at the Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial
Medical College, Belgaum, run by the K L E Society. It is both educative and entertaining, both to
a layman and a medical person because all sorts of aberrations in human body in all its dimensions
are attempted to be unmasked with detailed academic notes being provided at this museum.
Karnataka, the Tourist Paradise 241

Karnataka has one of the finest zoos in the country at Mysore. The Sri Chamarajendra
Zoological Gardens founded in 1892 spread over an area of 100 acres and has collection of nearly
1000 animals of all variety including many exotic ones like sloth bear, chimpanzee, orangoutang
etc., and also the white tiger. The Bannerghatta National Park near Bangalore, has the animal safari.

No survey of Karnataka from the tourist point of view will be complete without mentioning
about its historical forts. The whole range of ancient capitals of Bidar, Gulbarga, Bijapur,
Vijayanagara, Badami, Basava Kalyan, Srirangapattan, Keladi, Chitradurga, Mysore, etc. had their
forts. In addition forts were built at strategic centres. There are'hill forts at the Nandi Hill (Kolar
dt.), Savanagudrga (Bangalore dt.), Madhugiri, Pavagada, Midigeshi etc., in Tumkur dt., Ucchangi
near Davanagere and Sandur, both in Bellary dt., Jamalabad in Dakshina Kannada, Manzarabad
near Sakleshpur in Hassan dt. and Kavaledurga in Shimoga dt., Chitradurga Shahapur and Shorapur
in Gulbarga dt., Nargund fort built by Shivaji in Dharwad dt. and Parasgad and Hargapur forts in
Belgaum dt., also raised by Shivaji. Bangalore, Devanahalli, Magadi (in Bangalore dt.), Aymangala
in Chitradurga dt., Chikbanavar in Hassan dt., Belgaum etc. have fortifications round part of the
towns even now. Old forts have huge granite stones used without plastering materials.
Shrirangapattana fort is protected by the arms (branches) of the Cauvery. The coastal island forts
like Bahadurgad, Basavaraja Durga, Devagad and Kurmagad have already been mentioned. Old
forts exist in hundreds in Karnataka. A visit to them gives an idea of the ancient architects’, stone
workers’, builders’ and military, strategists’ skill and fore-thought. They take your mind to the past,
helping you to trace the foot-prints on the sands of time, make you think of men who fought to
protect or to scale them, blood that was shed, intrigues involved in capturing them, and a long
pageant of past events.

To substitute the effort made till now to pinpoint the centres of special interest to visitors and
tourists of various tastes and temperament, further efforts are made here to describe some notable
and outstanding tourist spots in Karnataka. It is calculated that every year on an average two to three
crore people visit Bangalore for a variety of reasons and they also turn tourists and visit Mysore in
considerable numbers. They do not know that Karnataka has outstanding tourist spots and good
facilities to visit them and also stay at those places. There is enough facility for trekking, water
sports, sports like golf, snooker and other sophisticated games. Bangalore and Mysore have horse
racing seasons too. Dasara at Mysore is a great festival. Vairamudi at Melkote is another unique
occasion when the Utsavamurthy of Lord Narayana with a diamond studded dazzling crown
(‘mudi’) is taken in procession. The Bangalore Karaga on Chaitra Poornima night is also a colourful
festival. Places are introduced here in an alphabetical order.

Adichunchanagiri in Mandya dt. is 66 km from Mandya and is a noted centre of Bhairava

worship on a hill. It was formerly a Natha Panthi centre and is now a seat of the Swamy of the
Vokkaliga community. The place has a peacock sanctuary too. The Maltha provides accomodation
in its guest house to visitors. The place can be reached by bus too. From Nagamangala it is 21 km.

Aihole is a great centre of Badami Chalukyan art. These temples were raised from the 6th to
the 12th Century and many experiments in temple construction were carried out, making Percy
Brown to call it "one of the cradles o f temple architecture". It is 510 km from Bangalore, 24 km
from Hungund and can be reached from Bagalkot. It has a Jaina and a Vedic rock-cut shrine, both
of about 6th Century, the former having fine Tirthankara images in the round and the latter Nataraja
dancing, Matrikas surrounding him, in life size but in relief. The place has a Durga Temple which
is apsidal, the Ladkhan which is square. Other temples are Huchchi-malligudi, Gaudaragudi and
Chakragudi, all in a variety of designs, some big and some small numbering over 100. The Meguti
242 A Handbook o f Karnataka

on a hill is a Jaina basti which has

the famous Aihole inscription of
Pulikeshin II and also a Buddhist
two-storied rock-cut shrine be!-w
it. The temples here are fujl of
plastic art, and to a student of
temple architecture a visit to
Aihole is a must.

Amritapura is in Chikma­
galur dt. and 247 km away from
Bangalore and is in Tarikere tq.
where there is a (Hoysala)
Amriteshwara temple built by
Amrita Dandanayaka during the
12th century. It has a star-shaped
ground plan, and like many other
Hoysala temples, is full of plastic
art, and is one of the finest in the
style. The earliest inscription
found in the temple is of 1197 and
temple has a wonderful life-size
image of seated Saraswathi.

Anegundi is to the North of

Hampi across the Tungabhadra
and is to be reached by crossing
the river with basket boats or by
car from Ganagavathi. It has the
famous Huchchappayan Matha,
now in ruins with fine Chalukyan glazing pillars and worn out paintings on its ceiling. The ruined
palace of the last rulers, Aravidu dynasty, is seen here and their descendants also stay at Anegundi.
There is Navavrindavana or the Samadhis of nine Madhwa Saints in an island of the Tungabhadra.
There is the cave shrine of Sheshashayi, the Ranganatha temple, Gagana mahal, an interesting
Indo-Saracenic structure and a Jaina basti which has a wonderful decorative Chalukyan door frame.

Annigeri in Dharwad district, 30km from Hubli onthe Hubli-Gadag line has the famous
Amriteshwara temple of thetime of the Kalyani Chalukyas. It was the headquarters of the once
famous rich province of Belvola-300. It was the last capital of Chalukya Someshwara IV (1184-89).
It is the birth place of great Kannada Poet Pampa and there is a Jain basadi of Parshwanatha. A
partially ruined Banashankari Temple and seven mosques are seen at the place, in addition to two
Veerashaiva Mathas. Near the railway station is an ancient Veerabhadra temple.

Aralaguppe is a place in Tumkur dt., six km from Banasandra railway station where there is
a famous Kalleshwara temple in the Ganga-Nolamba style of the 9th century. Its ceiling has
wonderful dancing Shiva sculpture with musical accompanists and eight Dikpalas surrounding him
Karnataka, the Tourist Paradise 243

with all their paraphernalia. There is a Chennakeshava temple of the Hoysala style, i he image of
Vishnu in the garbhagriha is magnificent. There are four Ganga temples at the place.

Arasikere is a commercial town and a railway junction in Hassan district, famous for its
coconut gardens and is 41 km from Hassan and 176 km from Bangalore. There is the Kattameshwara
temple here. It is also called Chandramoulishwara and referred to as Kalmeshwara in a record of
1220 A.D. It is a fine Hoysala monument with a rare polygonal frontal mantapa with special design.
There is a fine Haluvokkalu Temple. There is also Sahasrakuta Jinalaya built in 1220 in the Hoysala
style. This was raised by Racharasa, a minister of Ballala II. Malekal Tirupathi near Arasikere has
a Venkataramana temple visited by many devotees.

Avani in Kolar dt. is 13 km from Mulabagal, and the place has a Shankara Matha and a
wonderful complex of temples of the Nolambas who were ruling from Henjeru or Hemavati in the
Madakshira tq. in Andra Pradesh during the 9th and 10th Centuries. A record of 399 calls it as the
‘Gaya of the South’. According to legend sage Valmiki had his Ashrama here, and Sita gave birth
to the twins at the same spot. There are Rameshwara, Lakshmaneshwara, Bharateshwara,
Shatrighneshwara and also Sita and Subrahmanya temples. The Lakshmaneshwara here is full of
plastic art and the most ornate. On the hill here Agni Tirtha, a pond, and the Ekantha Ramaswamy
Temple are also seen.

Badami was the ancient capital o f the Early Chalukyas. It is 500 km from Bangalore and 113
kms from Bijapur. It was known as ‘Vathapi’ and ‘Badavi’. Its fort was raised by Chalukya
Pulakeshin I in 543. He made it his capital and it continued under the Chalukyas till 753. The place
is known for its wonderful rock-cut shrines o f Vedic traditions. The fort was renovated by Hyder
and Tipu-built a fine mosque at that place. The first rock-cut shrine has 18 armed Nataraja to its
right at the outset engaged in Tandava dancing, a remarkable figure. On ceiling of one of the caves
is Nagaraja and Vidhyadhara couple. Figures of funny Kubjas or dwarfs are seen in variety of poses.
There are more than life-size Bhuvaraha and Trivikram figures. The third cave is the most important
and it is called the Vaishnava cave caused to be wrought in 578 by Mangalesha and here are figures
Paravasudeva seated on coiled serpent Bhoovaraha, Narasimha and Harihara, all engraved in
vigourous style, and are taller than life-size figures. The cave at the top is Jaina, full o f figures of
Thirthankaras, Yakshas and Yakshsis. The Gommata figure here has long locks. The ‘Upper
Shivalaya’ on the rocky fort has been identified as an earlier Vaishnava temple, ‘Malegithi
Shivalaya’ as of Surya and Lower Shivalaya as of Ganapathi. The Jambulinga, which is a triple
shrine housing Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva is another important monument of the place. Queen
Vinayavathi built it in 699. There is a huge pond called Agasthya Thirtha. Badami rock-cut shrines
are engraved in hard sand-stone and the figures here are of unrivalled beauty. There are also bracket
figures with secular scenes on the pillars in the rock-cut shrines.

Bagali situated at a distance of 9 km from Harapanahalli on the Harapanahalli-Hadagali Road

in Bellary dt. was known as ‘Baguli’. Here is a complex o f temples called Kalleswara which is
mentioned in an inscription of 1013. There are twin temples o f Chalukyan times with wonderful
plastic art on their outer walls and 59 shining polished pillars inside the temple and it shikharas
have most peculiar erotic figure. The A.S.I. has maintained a sculpture shed near this magnificient
Chalukya monuments.

Banavasi in Uttara Kannada District was the capital of the Kadambas. It is a very ancient place
as Ashoka is said to have sent his missionaries to ‘Vanavasa’ and a family called Chutus, the
244 A Handbook o f Karnataka

feudatory line of the Shatavahanas was ruling from here. The place is on the bank of the Varada
river and its laterite fort is surrounded by the river at its three sides. Recent excavation at Vanvasi
have brought to light some Buddhist brick monuments. Chutu prince Nagashri built a Buddhist
Vihara, a tank and installed a Naga image at the place according to a Prakrit record at the place.
The striking monument at Banavasi, the Madhukeshvara temple has been renovated and expanded
by the Sode rulers. The Kadamba Nagara shikhara (stepped pyramidical) is seen on the garbhagriha
of this temple. Around this main temple are shrines of Vithoba, Ardhaganapathi, Rama etc., and to
its left is Parvati shrine and to the right Narasimha temple of Vijayanagara times. The temple has
a beautiful monolithic cot with highly artisitic designs. Records here indicate that Buddhism and
Jainism were popular at this place. Not far away from Banavasi is Gudnapur with a vast tank and
Jain temple now housing Veerabhadra. There must have been a Manmatha temple at the place as
indicated by the recently discovered Gudnapur inscription of Kadamba Ravi Varma.

Bangalore is the capital of Karnataka from 1956, and it took the status of a capital in modem
times from 1831 when the British Commissioners took over the administration of Mysore State from
the Mysore prince. Earlier, it was the headquaters of the Yelahanka Nadaprabhus who ruled under
Vijayanagara empire and built the new town with the fort. Kempegowda I is believed to have raised
the fort in 1537 as per the orders of Emperor Achutharaya of Vijayanagar. The old Gavipura natural
cave shrine of Gangadhara came to be expanded and the monolithic Basava in Basavanagudi was
got engraved by this family. The family also built the most beautiful Someshwara Temple at Ulsoor.
The dynasty also created many tanks which included the Ulsoor tank, Dharmambudhi tank (present
Bus Stand) and Kempambudhi tank. In 1637 Bijapur Army conquered Bangalore and granted
Bangalore as Jagir to Shahji, Shivaji’s father. Shahji and his son Ekoji had Bangalore under their
control till 1687 when it was conquered by the Mughul army and the city was given on lease to
Chikkadevaraya of Mysore. He built the Venkataramana temple and a new fort beside the existing
fort. Bangalore which had grown as an industrial and commercial centre under the Kempegowda
family and the Marathas was further developed by Chikkadevaraya as he invited weavers from
Baramahal (Tamilnadu) area to come and settle down in Bangalore. Later Bangalore was granted
as Jagir to Hyder and when he usurped power
from the Wodeyars, he strengthened the new
fort by using granite blocks.

He built a palace near the

Venkataramana temple and started Lalbagh,
the famous Botanical garden of Bangalore.
Bangalore was captured by the British in
.1791 under the leadership of Lord Cornwallis
and it was returned to Tipu after he signed a
treaty with them. He dismantled the existing
fort as it was found to be more useful to his
enemies than to himself. Under Haider,
Bangalore grew as a prosperous commercial
city also catering to the needs of luxury of the
Srirangapattana court. But under Tipu, its
trade declined. The British who defeated
Tipu in 1799 handed it over to the Mysore
Hindu Prince. Dewan Purnaiah rebuilt the
demolished fort. The British stationed their
Karnataka, the Tourist Paradise 245

Gavi Gangadhara Swamy

troops in 1809 at Ulsoor and a twin town, Bangalore Cantonment emerged helping introduction of
European way of life and modem ideas to the old Bangalore town which became the capital in 1831.
The Atharakacheri, High Court building, Central College, and Museum building were raised in the
European Renaissance stlye and English education was introduced into Bangalore. Many churches
in European Renaissance style were built in Bangalore during this period. Modem Textile mills like
Binny were started in the city. The city came to have a municipality in 1862 and the Cantonment
area also had a separate Municipality. The two came to be merged in 1949 to form the Bangalore
City Corporation. After Independence, many Central Government Industries were started in the city.
There are ancient temples at Begur, Madiwala (Tavarekere), Kadugodi, Hesaraghatta and
Dommalur. Other temples like Gavi Gangadhara in a natural cave, Basavanagudi with monolithic
Nandi, Rangaswamy temple built around 1600 in the Rangaswamy Temple street, the Someshwara
temple at Ulsoor and Kadumalleswara temple in Malleshwaram which had received a grant from
Ekoji are some of the interesting monuments. In addition, a large number of new temples have come
up. The Dharmaraya temple o f the Thigala community celebrates the famous Karaga festival on the
full moon day of Chaitra. The Muslims have the Taramandal Sangeen Jamia Masjid built by a
Mughal Officer in around 1687. The Ibrahim Shah Shahib’s Mosque at Kumbarpet was raised in
1761. the Jamia Mosque at the City market is the creation of the 1940s and it is a vast modem
building, equally impressive, built by using white marble. There is a dargah of Mastansab Wali at
Cottonpet which is highly respected by Hindus as well as Muslims.

The oldest Church in Bangalore is St.Mary’s Basilica in Shivajinagar supposed to have been
originally built in around 16th Century, but took the existing shape in 1832. There is the Trinity
246 A Handbook o f Karnataka

Bangalore City Corporation

Church of the Anglicans on the M.G.Road and St.Marks Cathedral on the same road. St.Patrick
church was originally for Irish Catholic soldiers and St.Andrews on the Cubbon Road for the
Scottish soldiers. The Catholic Cathedral is St.Xaviers, a large granite building. The London Mission
raised the Hudson Memorial Church. A huge Rajarajeshwari temple at Kenchenahalli on the Mysore
Road and the Meenakshi Temple on the Bannerghatta road have been raised recently. There are
many Jain Basadis of which the one in Gandhinagar is notable though modem. The Sikhs have their
Gurudwara at Ulsoor, and Parsis have their fire temple. Bangalore has beautiful gardens like Lalbag
and the Cubbon Park, which are the pride of the city. One of the fine large modern building raised
by using granite is Vidhana Soudha. Tipu’s palace is a wooden structure and Bangalore Palace is
modelled on the Windsor Palace of Britain. Bangalore has the Govt. Museum and the Sir
M.Visveswaraya Industrial Museum. Bangalore is well connected by roads, railways and airways
and has pleasant weather, attracting tourists from far and near. Bangalore has Bangalore University,
Agricultural University, the Indian Institute of Science, Indian Space Research Organisation, and
Institute of Management and all modem amenities for education. It has industries producing tractors,
railway coaches,aeroplanes etc. and finer things like silk sarees and sandalwood images. It is called
the electronic city of India
Bankapura in Dharwad dt. about 80 km away from Dharwad and is in Savanur tq. The town
was built by Bankeya, a commander of Amoghavarsha Nripatunga (9th century) and later under the
Chalukya many beautiful temples were raised an the city including the wonderful Nagareshwara
temple in the fort. There is another Chalukya temple in the town called Siddheshwara. When the
place was conquered by Ali Adilshahi in about 1567, his records claim to have destroyed many
temples and the Nagareshwara in spite of the damage it has suffered is a magnificent monument.
There is a beautiful mosque in the fort. Pancharabhavi, a swimming pool like structure in the town
has an attractive queer design. Bankapur has the Kilari Cow Breeding Centre and a rabbit breeding
centre with its office inside the fort. The Bijapur commanders, who had this place as their
headquarters, later shifted to Savanur, and were famous as savanur Nawals.
Karnataka, the Tourist Paradise 247

Basava Kalyana, the taluk headquarters in Bidar dt. is 80 km away from Bidar. It was the
capital of the Chalukyas. It has an old fort renovated by the Bahmanis and inside it is an
archaeological museum. Not much ancient remains of the Chalukyan or the Kalachuri times remain
here except the dilapidated Narayanapur temple of the Chalukyas in the outskirts of the town. There
is a modern Basaveshwara temple, Prabhudevara gadduge, Jurist Vijnaneshwara’s cave, Madivala
Machiah’s pond Akka Nagamma’s cave, fully renovated Siddheshwara temple and a new structure
called Anubhava Mantapa. The Qaji’s mosque is an impresive structure. There is also Raja
Baghsawar Dargah. Basava Vana has been formed to commemorate the eighth centenary of Saint
Basaveshwara.

Basavana Bagewadi in Bijapur dt is 43 km to the east of Bijapur and is a tq. headquarters

where Saint Basaveshwara was bom (12 Century). It was an agrahara. Basaveshwara was the son
of the head of this institution. The main temple here is of Chalukyan style, the Basaveshwara, but
called as of Sangamantha in records. The Samadhis of Siddharameshwara and Gurupadeshwara of
the Inchageri school of spiritual pursuit are seen here.

Basaral in the Mandya district, 25 km away from Mandya has to be visited for the highly
embellished Mallikarjuna temple of Hoysala style. It was built by Harihara Dandanayaka in 1234.

Belavadi in Chikmagalur dt. is known for its fine Veeranarayana temple of the Hoysalas. It is
triple ( ‘trikuta’) shrine with its cells housing beautiful images of Veeranaryana, Venugopala and
Yoganarasimha of wonderful workmanship. It has a record of 1206 and the temple must be previous
to it and the place is 29 km from Chikmagalur. The local people claim that it was Ekachakranagara
of the Mahabharata days. There is a Ganapathi temple called as Huttada Ganapathi here.

Belgaum, ancient ‘Venugrama’ ( ‘Bamboo village’) is the district and divisional headquarters
now, 502 kms away from Bangalore on the Bangalore-Pune Road. It was the capital o f the Rattas
who shifted to this place from Saundatti during the close of 12th century. The place has a fort inside
which there is the famous Kamalabasti built by one Ratta Officer called Bichiraja in 1204. It has a
fine huge protruding lotus (Kamala) in its ceiling and this beautiful structure in Chalukyan style
houses Neminatha Teerthankara image. The place came under the Sevunas (Yadavas) and
Vijayanagara and later conquered by Mahamood Gawan in 1474 on behalf of the Bahmanis. The
fort was strengthened by the Adilshahis and there is an excellent structure, Safa Mosque with three
entrances with floral and calligraphis designs. Two of its pillars have Kannada inscriptions in Nagari
scripts, one of 1199 of Ratta King Kartaveerya IV and another of 1261 if of Sevuna (Yadava)
Krishna. The Persian Inscription here states that the mosque was built by Asad Khan, Bijapur
Commander. The Jamia Masjid in the fort was built by Sher Khan in 1585-86. There is a dargah of
Khanjar Wali near it. Belgaum later came under the Mughuls (who called it Azamnagar) and the
Maratha till its conquest by the British in 1818. The the British founded their Cantonment here and
they made it the head-quaters of Maratha Light Infantry. The St.Mary’s Chruch here was built in
1869. The Maruthi temples here is quite vast and has some antiquities of Chalukyan times. The fort
has Chalukyan Pillars spread all over. The Kapileshwar temple in Shahpur area was of Chalukyan
times, now totally renovated. Shapur a suburb of Belgaum was in Sangli State; Wadgaon, another
suburb was a separate state called Junior Kurundwad. Near Wadgaon, a Shatavahana settlement
with the head of stucco Buddha figure have been excavated. Belgaum has a City Corporation. It is
a place with pleasant weather. It played a leading part in the freedom movement. The Jawaharlal
Nehru Medical College here has a highly educative pathology museum.
246 A Handbook o f Karnataka

Bangalore City Corporation

Church of the Anglicans on the M.G.Road and St.Marks Cathedral on the same road. St.Patrick
church was originally for Irish Catholic soldiers and St.Andrews on the Cubbon Road for the
Scottish soldiers. The Catholic Cathedral is St.Xaviers, a large granite building. The London Mission
raised the Hudson Memorial Church. A huge Rajarajeshwari temple at Kenchenahalli on the Mysore
Road and the Meenakshi Temple on the Bannerghatta road have been raised recently. There are
many Jain Basadis of which the one in Gandhinagar is notable though modern. The Sikhs have their
Gurudwara at Ulsoor, and Parsis have their fire temple. Bangalore has beautiful gardens like Lalbag
and the Cubbon Park, which are the pride of the city. One of the fine large modern building raised
by using granite is Vidhana Soudha. Tipu’s palace is a wooden structure and Bangalore Palace is
modelled on the Windsor Palace of Britain. Bangalore has the Govt. Museum and the Sir
M.Visveswaraya Industrial Museum. Bangalore is well connected by roads, railways and airways
and has pleasant weather, attracting tourists from far and near. Bangalore has Bangalore University,
Agricultural University, the Indian Institute of Science, Indian Space Research Organisation, and
Institute of Management and all modern amenities for education. It has industries producing tractors,
railway coaches,aeroplanes etc. and finer things like silk sarees and sandalwood images. It is called
the electronic city of India
Bankapura in Dharwad dt. about 80 km away from Dharwad and is in Savanur tq. The town
was built by Bankeya, a commander of Amoghavarsha Nripatunga (9th century) and later under the
Chalukya many beautiful temples were raised in the city including the wonderful Nagareshwara
temple in the fort. There is another Chalukya temple in the town called Siddheshwara. When the
place was conquered by Ali Adilshahi in about 1567, his records claim to have destroyed many
temples and the Nagareshwara in spite of the damage it has suffered is a magnificent monument.
There is a beautiful mosque in the fort. Pancharabhavi, a swimming pool like structure in the town
has an attractive queer design. Bankapur has the Kilari Cow Breeding Centre and a rabbit breeding
centre with its office inside the fort. The Bijapur commanders, who had this place as their
headquarters, later shifted to Savanur, and were famous as savanur Nawals.
Karnataka, the Tourist Paradise 247

Basava Kalyana, the taluk headquarters in Bidar dt. is 80 km away from Bidar. It was the
capital of the Chalukyas. It has an old fort renovated by the Bahmanis and inside it is an
archaeological museum. Not much ancient remains of the Chalukyan or the Kalachuri times remain
here except the dilapidated Narayanapur temple of the Chalukyas in the outskirts of the town. There
is a modem Basaveshwara temple, Prabhudevara gadduge, Jurist Vijnaneshwara’s cave, Madivala
Machiah’s pond Akka Nagamma’s cave, fully renovated Siddheshwara temple and a new structure
called Anubhava Mantapa. The Qaji’s mosque is an impresive structure. There is also Raja
Baghsawar Dargah. Basava Vana has been formed to commemorate the eighth centenary of Saint
Basaveshwara.

Basavana Bagewadi in Bijapur dt is 43 km to the east of Bijapur and is a tq. headquarters

where Saint Basaveshwara was bom (12 Century). It was an agrahara. Basaveshwara was the son
of the head of this institution. The main teniple here is of Chalukyan style, the Basaveshwara, but
called as of Sangamantha in records. The Samadhis of Siddharameshwara and Gurupadeshwara of
the Inchageri school of spiritual pursuit are seen here.

Basaral in the Mandya district, 25 km away from Mandya has to be visited for the highly
embellished Mallikarjuna temple o f Hoysala style. It was built by Harihara Dandanayaka in 1234.

Belavadi in Chikmagalur dt. is known for its fine Veeranarayana temple of the Hoysalas. It is
triple ( ‘trikuta’) shrine with its cells housing beautiful images of Veeranaryana, Venugopala and
Yoganarasimha o f wonderful workmanship. It has a record of 1206 and the temple must be previous
to it and the place is 29 km from Chikmagalur. The local people claim that it was Ekachakranagara
of the Mahabharata days. There is a Ganapathi temple called as Huttada Ganapathi here.

Belgaum, ancient ‘Venugrama’ ( ‘Bamboo village’) is the district and divisional headquarters
now, 502 kms away from Bangalore on the Bangalore-Pune Road. It was the capital of the Rattas
who shifted to this place from Saundatti during the close of 12th century. The place has a fort inside
which there is the famous Kamalabasti built by one Ratta Officer called Bichiraja in 1204. It has a
fine huge protruding lotus (Kamala) in its ceiling and this beautiful structure in Chalukyan style
houses Neminatha Teerthankara image. The place came under the Sevunas (Yadavas) and
Vijayanagara and later conquered by Mahamood Gawan in 1474 on behalf of the Bahmanis. The
fort was strengthened by the Adilshahis and there is an excellent structure, Safa Mosque with three
entrances with floral and calligraphis designs. Two of its pillars have Kannada inscriptions in Nagari
scripts, one of 1199 of Ratta King Kartaveerya IV and another of 1261 if of Sevuna (Yadava)
Krishna. The Persian Inscription here states that the mosque was built by Asad Khan, Bijapur
Commander. The Jamia Masjid in the fort was built by Sher Khan in 1585-86. There is a dargah of
Khanjar Wali near it. Belgaum later came under the Mughuls (who called it Azamnagar) and the
Maratha till its conquest by the British in 1818. The the British founded their Cantonment here and
they made it the head-quaters o f Maratha Light Infantry. The St.Mary’s Chruch here was built in
1869. The Maruthi temples here is quite vast and has some antiquities of Chalukyan times. The fort
has Chalukyan Pillars spread all over. The Kapileshwar temple in Shahpur area was of Chalukyan
times, now totally renovated. Shapur a suburb of Belgaum was in Sangli State; Wadgaon, another
suburb was a separate state called Junior Kurundwad. Near Wadgaon, a Shatavahana settlement
with the head of stucco Buddha figure have been excavated. Belgaum has a City Corporation. It is
a place with pleasant weather. It played a leading part in the freedom movement. The Jawaharlal
Nehru Medical College here has a highly educative pathology museum.
248 A Handbook o f Karnataka

Belgami is ancient ‘Balligamve’ or

‘Baligrama’ the capital of the prosperous
province of antiquity called
Banavasi-12,000. It is in Shikaripur tq.,
12 km away from the taluk hq. It was the
place where Allamaprabhu was born and
Akkamahadevi was married to Chalukya
Governor of the place called Kaushika or
Keshimayya. The place has the
Kodimatha which was the Kedareshwara
Matha of the Kalamukhas who were
known for their learning. They ran a
centre of learning or a university here.
The Matha is a beautiful Chalukyan triple
shrine on the banks of a tank. The
Tripurantaka temple here is another
Chalukyan temple. Allamaprabhu is
believed to have been attached to this
temple. It was a cosmopolitan town with
Mathas of five various denominations. A
Buddhist Tarabhagavati image has been
found here. There was a Buddhist Vihara
here. There is a small Nagareshwara
temple, the Panchalingeshwara temple
and Virabhadra temple which are all
Chalukyan. The Kalika temple is of
Vijayanagara times. Hoysala
Vishnuvardhan’s famous queen Shantala,
and the builders of the Belur Temple,
Dasoja and Chavana belonged to this
place. A Chalukya general installed a
Bherunda stambha to commemorate his
victory. The place has a museum run by A.S.I. Belgami had been a great centre of learning and
cultural activity.

Bellary is a district headquarters, 306 kms to the north-west of Bangalore. It has spread round
two rocky hills, and one of them called Balahari Betta has a temple. The fort was built round the
hill in Vijayanagara times. It passed into the hands of Bijapur, Marathas, the Nizam and Haider.
After the fall of Tipu, the town was ceded to the British by the Nizam. The Durgamma temple here
has the deity represented by the heap of earth. The place has two large mosques. A Government
Medical College was founded here in 1961.

Belur in Hassan district (222 kms from Bangalore) is famous for its magnificent Hoysala
temple complex. The Chennakeshava temple here was completed in 1116 by Hoysala
Karnataka, the Tourist Paradise 249

Hoysala Sculpture

Vishnuvardhana to commemorate his victory over the Cholas, calling the god Vijaya Naryana. The
magnificent image is 3.7 mtr tall and the temple standing on a platform has exquisite plastic art
work on its outer walls and bracket figures of dancing girls in various poses in perfect proportion.
There are shrines of Kappe Chenniga, Andal, Saumya Nayaki, etc., in the precincts of this temple
which is in a compound with ‘gopura’ (entrance tower) built by Belur Nayaka, a Vijayanagara
feudatory. The temple here is a classic example of Hoysala art, and Belur was one of the Hoysala
capitals.

Bhadravathi, an industrial town in Shimoga dt., 256 km away from Bangalore, was formerly
called ‘Benkipura’. There is a 13th Century Lakshminaryana Temple in Hoysala style here. The
Visveswaraya Iron and Steel Works, a Cement Factory (1938) and Paper Factory (1935) function
at this place on the banks of the Bhadra river.

Bhagamandala in Kodagu dt. is 288 km from Bangalore and 35 km from Madikeri and is on
the banks of the Cauvery. It has a Shiva temple called Bhagandeshwara. It has gabled roofs covered
with copper plates and has magnificent wood work, gaily painted. The attractive wooden figures,
big and small engage the attention of the onlooker. Ganapathi, Vishnu and Subrahmanaya are other
shrines here. This serene place with natural beauty will have big jatra on Tula Sankramana.

Bidar is the District headquarters described as the place Vidura of Mahabaratha times. It is
740 kms to the north of Bangalore. It is a cool place, being at an altitude of 664 metres. The
Bahmanshahi rulers made it their capital, in 1626 and fortified it, and inside the fort there is the
Sola Khamb mosque (1423) and palaces like Takht Mahal, Chini Mahal and Rangeen Mahal; some
of them are highly decorated with mosaic and wood work etc. The fort has magnificent doorways
250 A Handbook o f Karnataka

and massive bastions. Gawan’s Madrasa in the town is gorgeous imposing building of
Indo-Saracenic style. After the decline of Bahmanis the Barid-Shahis ruled over Bidar and it was
taken over by the Bijapur rulers in 1619. It fell to Aurangzeb, and finally it came under the Nizam.
Jharani Narasimha temple here is quite famous. Ashtor near Bidar has tombs of Bahmani Sultans
which are tall structures, and one of them has paintings. The Gurudwara at Bidar is built at Nanak
Zhira, which is described as a fountain created by Guru Nanak during his visit.

Bijapur, the district headquarters, 579 km away from Bangalore is one of the most important
centres of Indo-Saracenic art, being the capital of the Adilshahis of Bijapur (1489-1686). The Gol
Gumbaz here has the biggest dome in India, 126 feet in diametre at its base and is the Mausoleum
of Mohammed Adilshah (1626-56). It has an astonishing whispering gallery and it covers an area
of 15,000 square feet. Ibrahim Rauza is marvellous mausoleum of Ibrahim II (1580-1626) which
stands on a platform supported by rows of arches, and at one end is the mosque and the other the
tomb. Cousens called this as "the Tajmahal of the South". Anand Mahal, Gagan Mahal, Asar Mahal
etc are palaces at Bijapur. There are fine tanks like Tajbavadi and Chandbavadi. Asar Mahal has
paintings. The fort round the town has 96 bastions and six imposing doorways. Mulk-Maidan is a
huge gun here weighing 55 tons. Near Gol Gumbaz is a museum. The place has a Municipal
Corporation. It has many grand artistic mosques like Kali Masjid, Mecca Masjid, Malika Jahan’s
mosque and the Jami Masjid, the biggest one with a proportionate large dome, The M ahtar Mahal,
the entrance of mosque has delicate stone brackets of intricate workmanship. To the west of the
citadel is a Dattatreya temple, where a pair of sandals of Narashimha Saraswati are worshipped and
the shrine was raised by Ibrahim II. There is a Parshwanatha basadi (1927) in the city and many
modern temples of which Eppattu Shivalinga temple (1954) is notable. Bijapur had a population of
over one million in its hayday and was a great commercial centre, called as "the Queen of Deccan".
After its take over by Aurangzeb, the city lost its importance. It regained its importance after the
British made it their district headquarters during 1870s.

Chikmagalur, the district headquarters of the coffee growing Malnad area, is 251 kms from
Bangalore and was known as'Kiriya Mugali’ in inscriptions and ‘Piriya M ugali’ is Hiremagalur an
extension of this town where there is a Kodandarama temple of Hoysala times. (Mugali is the name
of a plant), th e Sangeen Mosque here is an old structure. Jami Mosque built during the 19th century
is the largest one in the district. St. Joseph’s Cathedral and St.Andrews Church (1880) are impressive
monuments. The Kattiramma temple here has a priest of the SC community. The Kannika
Parameshwari and the Rukmini Panduranga are modern temples. The town is placed in the backdrop
of the Chandradrona Parvata or Bababudan Hill of the Western Ghats and Inam Dattatreya Pitha
is 35 km from here.
Chitradurga, the famous hill fort town is the district headquarters, 202 km away from
Bangalore on the Pune-Bangalore road. It had a feudatory dynasty of Vijayanagara called the
Nayakas known for their heroic expoits. They built this hill fort with seven rounds of ramparts, a
pictursque sight. In the hill fort there are temples of the Sampige Siddheswara, Hidimbeshwara (a
cave shrine), Ekanathamma, Phalguneshwara, Gopalkrishna, etc., amidst thick rocky surroundings.
Those who know the heroic history of Chitradurga rulers will go into raptures while seeing the
magnificent bastions doors and ramparts of this vast hill-fort. The galimantapa opposite to the
Hidimbeshwara is a unique tall stone structure. Near Rangayyana Bagilu is the Archaeological
Museum. In the town are temples of Chennakeshava. Venkataramana, Anjaneya etc., and the
Murugharajendra Brihanmatha is a venerable centre of the Veerashaiva sect.
Karnataka, the Tourist Paradise 251

Dambal in Dharwad dt is 21 kms from Gadag. It is known as ‘Dharmapolal’ in inscriptions.

It was a Buddhist Centre too. The Doddabasappa Temple and the Someshwara are two notable
Chalukyan temples here and the Doddabasappa has multigonal star-shaped garbhagriha and fine
sculptural representations and a huge Nandi image. The Someshwara could have been an old basadi.
In the old ruined fort, there is a huge Ganapati image in small shrine. The town has a 400-year old
vast tank. There is the Thontada Siddhalingeswara Matha at the place.

Davanagere is a modern industrial town that grew round a tank where itinerant traders took
rest. The tank had the name Davanikere, ‘Cattlerope Tank’, davani being the rope tying the cattle,
it was earlier a suburb of ancient centre Betur, a township under the Sevunas, and it was granted as
a Jahgir by Haider Ali to Appaji Ram one of his officers who was responsible for its growth as a
commercial centre. Davanagere grew as a centre of textile industry. It has also grown as an
educational centre with a medical and engineering College. The Eswara of Anekonda is an important
temple here. It is on the Pune- Bangalore Road 267 km from Bangalore and is in Chitradurga dt.

Devala Ganagapura in Afzalpur tq in Gulbarga dt. is 651 km away from Bangalore. It is to

be reached from Ganagapur railway station. Sri Narasimha Saraswati who had stayed here for long
and was granted a jahgir by the Bahmani Sultan. The Saint had cured the Sultan of a serious
(incurable) boil. The saint is treated as an incarnation of Dattatreya and devotees from Maharashtra
and Karnataka throng the place daily.

Dharmasthala is a very prominent Shaiva Centre where Manjunatha (Shiva) is worshipped by

;0. dhwa Vaishnava priests and the temple administrator is Jaina and the temple treats Bhutas (the
r e inant of animistic cult, in which departed persons are deified) as the ‘ganas’ of Shiva. It is 75
m from Mangalore and is amidst hilly green attractive settings. The temple has the main
Mianjunatha Linga and Devi. The place has Chandranatha basti and a Gommata monolith 11.9
netres in height, installed during this century. The ‘Manjusha’ museum here is unique. Buses are
available from all major centres of Karnataka and choultries for stay are plenty. The temple
management runs many institutions of learning.

Dharwad, a district headquarters on the Pune-Bangalore Rd, is 437 km from Bangalore is the
cultural headquarters of North Karnataka. It was the home o f Alur Venkatrao, the father of
Karnataka Unification movement, poet Bendre and outstanding Hindustani Vocalists Mallikarjuna
Mansur. Now a part o f Hubli- Dharwad Corporation, Dharwad became the district headquarters
when it came under the British from the Marathas in 1818, and grew to be a centre of learning due
to the English School opened in 1848, high school opened by the Basel Mission in 1868 and the
Training College initiated in 1867 which became the centre of Kannada movement. The Karnataka
Vidyavardhaka Sangha (1890) sowed the seeds of Kannada renaissance.

Mentioned as ‘Dharawada’ in a record of the 12th century of the Kalyani Chalukyas, the place
came under the Sevunas, the Vijayanagara, and Bijapur rulers, Mughuls, Marathas and Haider and
Tipu. the Vijayanagara rulers built a fort here which was strengthened by Bijapur rulers. Its
door-frame alone remains now. The Durgadevi temple near the fort is renovated now and the
Someshwara on Kalghatgi Rd. has a Chalukyan temple and £ tank. The Mailara Linga temple at
Vidyagiri is a Kalyani Chalukyan monument converted into a mosque by Bijapur army but again
changed as a temple by the Peshwas. The place has many temples like Venkataramana, Nandi Kola
Basavanna, Dattatreya, Ulavi BasavaTma etc., The Murugha Matha is a centre of religious activity.
The Sanskrit College is a four-storeyed building of the late 19th Century. The Karnataka University
(1949), the Agricultural University (1986) and the All India Radio Station gave new life to the
252 A Handbook o f Karnataka

educational and cultural life of the the City. Dharwad played a prominent part in the freedom
movement. Dharwad firing in 1921 which killed three Khilafat workers caused a stir in the country.
Dharwad has Churches of the Basel Mission and the Catholics.

Doddagaddavalli is a village 14 km from Hassan known for the Lakshmidevi temple here with
five garbhagrihas, built in 1114 by a merchant called Kallahana Rahuta. It is among the earliest
Hoysala works. It is called Dakshina Kolhapura and Lakshmi worshipped here represents Shakta
Lakshmi. Bhairava and other deities are also worshipped here.

Gadag-Betgeri is a twin city Municipality on the Dharwad-Guntakal Railway line, 80 km from

Dharwad and in the same district. It is a great centre of Kalyana Chalukyan art with the large
Trikuteshwara temple, originally Rashtrakuta, later expanded by the Kalyana Chalukyas into a vast
complex, and it has triple shrines once housing Shiva, Brahma and Surya. The Saraswati temple in
its precincts has the finest shining decorative pillars, and the Saraswathi image, though now
damaged, is the finest examples of Chalukyan art. The place has the Someshwara and Rameshwara
temples of Chalukyan style and the Veeranarayana temple of Chalukyan times, completely
renovated in Vijayanagara times including the image of Narayana too replaced, the great Kannada
poet Kumaravyasa composed his famous Kannada Bharatha in this temple. Gadag has a mosque of
Adilshahi times, highly artistic. There is a Church too of the Basel Mission (Now C.S.I.). Betageri
has many artistic herostones, some dating back to 9th-10th centuries. ( ‘Kaldugu’ is the old name of
Gadag and ‘Battakere’, ‘Round Tank’ of Betgeri). Gadag-Betageri are famous for weaving industry,
and of late, Gadag has excelled in printing. To reach Lakkundi, Dambal, Itgi and Kukanur, Gadag
is the gateway.

Gokarna situated in coastal Karnataka is 453 kms from Bangalore and about 55 kms from
Karwar, the District headquarters. It is described as a Shaiva Centre, as important as Kashi and
Rameshwar and the Mahabaleshwara Temple here has indications of at least being originally built
during 11-12th Century and the Portuguese destroyed it during the 18th century and it was renovated
then. There is a famous Ganapathi Temple, and the deity here is two-armed, standing, and is atleast
1500 years’ old. Tamragauri is another shrine here. The Bhadrakali and Venkataramana temples,
Kotiteertha tank etc., are other holy places here. Gokarna has a long beach on the west and the
Western Ghat ranges closeby in the east and is in a wonderful natural settings. Atmalinga brought
by Ravana got struck here and his efforts to extricate it resulted in his throwing the coverings of
the Linga to Dhareshwar, Gunavanteshwara, Murdeshwar and Shejjeshwar Temples (the last place
is very near Karwar), according to tradition. All these places are in Uttara Kannada district.

Gulbarga, the district and divisional head-quarters was formerly in the Nizam’s state, and is
623km from Bangalore, and was the first capital o f the Bahmanis from 1347. Kannada records call
the place as Kallubarige, and it was named laterby Muslims as Gulbarga, giving it a floral touch.
The fort here was originally built by one Raja Gulchand, a feudatory of the Orangal Kakatiyas, and
was rebuilt by Alla-ud-din Bahmani with 15 majestic towers. Inside the fort is the huge wonderful
mosque built by Muhammed Bahmani in 1367 and it covers 38,000 sq. feet area. The place has a
huge sprawling complex housing the tomb of Bande’ Nawaz, the great Sufi saint, who came to
Gulbarga in 1413. His tomb’s walls have paintings and a mosque built by the Mughuls is near the
tomb. The Khandar Khan’s mosque and Hirapur mosque (1585) built by Chandbibi are some other
monuments here, and the tomb of Sultan Hassan and Firoze Shah are imposing structures. In all
there are seven mausoleums of Sultans. Sharana BasappS Appa’s tomb here is highly venerated.
The place has many modern temples and Gulbarga University is housed here. The state Archaelogy
Museum here has Buddhist plaques brought from Sannati. The City has a Municipal Corporation.
G anapathi, M elkote. G a n a p a th i , G okunui.
C h a m a r a je s w a r ti temple, C h a m d r a jim a g a r .
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Lotus Mahal, H a m pi

Jaga nm oha n Palace , Mysore.

M aha deva temple, Itgi,
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Keerthinarayana temple, Talkad

R a m eshw ara temple, A vani

Brahma Jinalaya, Lakkundi

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C hanm ikeshava temple, B elur

Ilo xsa leshw ara temple, Halebidu.

Ganapati temple, Han gal Veeranarayatia temple, Belavadi,

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N arasim ha temple, Melkote

V ad irqja M a th a , So n d e
Bhaga nd esw a ra temple, B hagam andala

M anjunatha temple, Dharm astala

St. J o s e p h ’s Theological Seminary, Mangalore.

St. M arks Church, Bangalore.

St. A n n e ' s C l u i r c h , V ir a jp e t. K o d a g u
Central College. Bangalore.

K a r n a t a k U n iv e r s it y , D h a r w a d .
CAVA & C.T.l. Mysore.
Karnataka, the Tourist Paradise 253

Halasi in Belgaum dt is in Khanapur, 14 km from Khanapur Railway Station, and was the
second capital of the Kadambas of Banavasi. It has the oldest basadi of Karnataka, built by the Early
Kadambas who patronised Jainism. But the basadi is in dilapidated condition now. The huge
Bhuvaraha Narasimha temple here was rebuilt by the Goa Kadambas during the 12th Century, and
has fine tall images of Varaha, Narasimha, Narayana and Surya. Halasi was the headquarters of a
major province called Halasige - 12,000 under the Kalyani Chalukyas. The place has a fort, and
also temples of Gokarneshswara, Kapileshwara, Swarneshwara and Hatakeshwara. The place is in
the background of Western Ghats in lush green atmosphere.
Halebidu (former Dwarasamudra) in Hassan district is in Belur taluk and 27 kms away from
Hassan and was the capital of Hoysala after Belur. It has one of the finest Hoysala temples said to
have been started by Ketamalla, a commander of Vishnuvardhana in 1121. The twin Shiva Temples
with a common platform and two garbhagrihas, one beside the other have a common broad
navaranga. One of them houses Vishnuvardhana Hoysaleshwara Linga and the other
Shanthaleshwara Linga. In front of the Hoysaleshwara is the Nandimantapa and behind that is a
shrine of Surya with a two-metre-tall image. The temple doorways are highly ornate and impressive.
Outer walls have rows of intricate figures narrating episodes from epics like Ramayana, Bharatha
and Bhagavata. The place has a Parshwanatha basadi with highly polished pillars in which
on-lookers queer images are reflected. There is a Museum of the A.S.I. The Kedareshwara temple
is another monument built by Ketaladevi, Ballala II’s Queen. Chatchatnahalli (nearby) has a trikuta
temple built by Chatta Dandanayaka in 1220.

A Sculpture from Halebidu

254 A Handbook o f Karnataka

Hampi, the site of the capital of Vijayanagara (1336), was an ancient city and Buddhist remains
of the early Christian era are found here. Known as Pampakshetra, because of Pampadevi temple,
is on the banks of Tungabhadra. On the Hemakuta Hill behind the famous Virupaksha temple of
Chalukyan times, there is a Badami Chalukya temple. Poet Harihara in Kannada has praised God
Virupaksha during the 12th Century. This rocky hilly area with Anegundi to the north of the river
is identified as Kishkindha of Ramayana times. Virupaksha temple was provided with a long
Kalyana Mantapa which is a pillared pavilion with complex artistic monolithic pillars by
Krishnadevaraya (1509-1529) in commemoration of his victory against Bijapur and the Gajapatis.
Its entrance tower called Bhistappayyana Gopura became the model for all Vijayanagara Gopuras
built all over South India, called as Rayagopuras. Called as an open-air Museum, Hampi has the
Krishnaswamy temple, Hazara Ramaswamy Temple, Achutaraya Temple housing Ranganatha,
Kodandaramaswamy temple, Vithalaswamy temple, Irugappa’s Basti (called Ganigitti Jinalaya
(1385), Uddhana Virabhadra temple, monolothic Narasimha (29 Feet tall installed by
Krishnadevaraya in 1529), huge Badavi Linga, Kamala Mahal, Elephant’s stables, Mahanavami
Dibba, monolithic Ganeshas called as Kadalekalu and Sasivekalu Ganesha and a large number of
other temples and monuments. Recent excavations have brought to light many palace foundations,
a fine stepped tank with polished stone and some Jaina bastis and some Buddhists plaques. The
‘Moorish quarter’ has a mosque. The foreign visitors to the capital during the 15th and 16th centuries
has called it bigger than Rome. They are stunned by the grandeur of its Dasara Festival and the
trade of the town. People from the East and the West were seen there. The City was destroyed and
deserted in 1565, but its remains continue to be intact, though in a destroyed condition, spread over
Karnataka, the Tourist Paradise 255
256 A Handbook o f Karnataka

more than 25 square km area. Kamalapura has an ASI Museum. The Kannada University is also
functioning here. Hampi is 10 km from Hospet in Bellary dt.

Hanagal in Dharwad dt. is a taluk headquarters. It was the capital of the Hangal Kadambas,
feudatories of the Chalukyas of Kalyana. It is mentioned as ‘Panungal’ in records and identified by
tradition with Viratanagara of Mahabharatha days. Eighty km away from Dharwad, it was once the
headquarters of district called Panugal-500. The Tarakeshwara temple here is a huge structure with
wonderful series of images and polished tall Chalukyan pillars spread over a very long area. The
Virabhadra, Billeshwara and Ramalinga etc., are other temples here, and the Ganesha temple near
Tarakeshwara has a northern curvilinear (Nagara) shikhara. The town is on the left bank of the
Dharma river, and has ruins of some fortification on the river bank. There is a famous Veerashaiva
Kumaraswamy Matha here.

Harihara on the banks of the Tungabhadra is 277 km. from Bangalore on the Pune-Bangalore
Rd, and is in the Chitradurga dt. The rivulet Haridra joins it here and the place was called Kudalur,
and it is called as Harihara now because of the temple of the name (of Hari and Hara unified), built
by Polalva Dandanayaka under Hoysala Narasimha in 1233. This is a highly artistic monument.
There are also temples of Srirama, Dattatreya and Ishwara and the place grew to be an industrial
centre with the Kirloskars starting their unit. Now Harihara Polyfibr.L are started near Kumarapatna,
a suburb of Harihara, but within Dharwad dt. border.

Hassan is the district headquarters, 186 km from Bangalore. It is a centre of trade for coffee.
Traditions say that the place name originated from Simhasanapura. The town is ascribed to a Chola
Officer called Bukkanayaka of the 11th Century. There is the Hasanamba temple here, opened only
once in a year in Ashvija for a week for jatra. The Siddeshwara temple is ascribed to Belur
Feudatories under Vijayanagara. There is a Jaina basadi here, and also Chennakeshava, Malleswara
and Virupksheshwara temples. The last named is said to have been renovated by the sage
Vidyaranya (14th century). There is a State Archaeology Museum here, and Mosale, Koravangala,
Kondajji are all places around Hassan where fine Hoysala temples are seen

Hubli is the part of Dharwad-Hubli City Corporation and is 408 km away from Bangalore on
the Bangalore-Pune road and is a railway junction and an industrial town. Rayara Hubli, also called
‘Eleya Puravada Halli’ or ‘Purballi’ was the old Hubli, where there is a Bhavani Shankara temple
and Jaina basti. Under Vijayanagara Rayas, Rayara Hubli grew as a commercial centre, famous for
trade in cotton, saltpetre and iron. The British opened a factory here when it came under the
Adilshahis. Shivaji looted the factory in 1673. The Mughuls conquered it and the place came under
the Savanur Nawab who built a new extension Majidpura and trader Basappa Shetty built new Hubli
around the Durgadabail (fort maidan). There is the famous Moorusavira Matha, and the Matha
authorities claim that it was begun in the days of Basaveshwara himself by a Sharana, who was a
contemporary of Basaveshwara. Hubli was conquered by the Marathas from the Savanur Nawab in
1755-56. Later Haider conquered it, but it was retaken by the Marathas in 1790, and the old town
was administered by one Phadke under the Peshwa and the new town by Sangli Patwardhan. British
took old Hubli in 1817 and the new town with 47 other villages was handed over to the British by
the Sangli Patwardhan in lieu of the subsidy in 1820. Hubli is a prosperous handloom weaving
Karnataka, the Tourist Paradise 257

centre and has a Textile Unit. The

Railway Workshop started here in 1880,
made it a reckonable industrial centre.
The Bhavanishankar temple in old Hubli
and the Chaturlinga temple in Unakal are
Chalukyan temples here. The
Siddharudhaswamy (1837-1929) Matha
in Old Hubli is visited by hundreds. In
addition to the impressive Moorusavira
Matha, Rudrakshi Matha and Hanneradu
Matha, there is Mahdi mosque at
Bandiwadbase and Mastan Sofa Mosque
in O ld Hubli. Of the churches, the
Church of Ascension (1905), Church of
Holy Name (1928), St. Joseph’s (1858)
and the St.Andrew’s (1890) are notable
Christian centres of worship. Unakal has
a church of the Basel Mission and there
is a Gurudwara of the Sikhs in
Vidyanagar. The place has Medical
(Govt), Engineering and other colleges
and all educational facilities. The place
has Indira Gandhi Memorial Glass
House and Nripatunga Park on a Hillock.
Kundgol, 15 km south of Hubli, has the
huge Shambhu Linga temple of
Chalukyan times.

Ikkeri was a capital town o f the Keladi Nayakas from 1512, and a place very near to Sagar in
Shimoga dt. The Aghoreshwara temple is a 16th Century monument of great attraction. There is
also a Paravathi temple nearby. The Italian traveller Pietro Della Valle gives a long description of
this capital he had visited in 1623. Keladi is another place nearby the original capital. It has the
Rameshwan. and Veerabhadra temples. There is also a Museum.

Itagi in Raichur District can beeasily reached from Gadag (about 40 km) and is within the
reach of Bhanapur, a Railway station in Gadag-Hospet line. It has the best of the Kalyana Chalukya
temples built by Mahadeva Dandanayaka (a commander of great Chalukya ruler Vikramaditya VI)
in 1112. This huge temple of fine polished pillars intricately carved broad doorways and deep
Bhuvaneshwaris in the ceiling with miniature carvings. It is a magnificent structure o f ever-lasting
beauty. There are a number of other temples around it and there is a huge tank in front. A Saras\Vati
Matha meant for the residence of students is also there. Percy Brown called the temple "as one of
the best" after Halebidu. Kukanur, 10 km from here has the Navalinga temple complex o f the
Rashtrakutas and the Mahamaya, Kalleshwara and the Mallikarjuna of the Kalyana Chalukya times.

Karkala in Dakshina Kannada (52 km from Mangalore) has been a notable Jaina Centre with
the seat of Jaina dynasty called Bhairarasas or the Shantarsas who raised the Gommata statue here
in 1432 (by prince Veera Pandya). They also built the ornate Chaturmukha basti with four entrances.
It houses Ara, Mall' m d Suvrata Trithankaras and was built during the 16th century. There is an
258 A Handbook o f Karnataka

Ananthashayana Temple and Venkataramana temple of considerable antiquity and the vast sheet of
water in Ramasamudra. There is another basadi on its bank. The St.Lawrence church here is highly
venerated. Mudabidri, 28 km from Karkala has nearly 20 basadis of which Savirakamabada Basadi,
was built in 1429-30 by the merchants of the town and is the biggest Basadi in Karnataka. It has
unique metallic images. There is the old Chauta Family’s Palace with very fine decorative wood
work in it.

Karwar is a district town headquarter of Uttara Kannada districts bordering Goa. The town
was founded in 1863 by the British naming it after Kadwad village (in the interior on the banks of
the Kali, where they had their factory from 1638) which they used to call as ‘Karwar’. Karwar has
one of the finest facilities for an all-weather port with a row of islands, Anjadiv, Kurmagad, Devgad
etc., protecting it from storm. It has some of the finest beaches and is to the South of the Kali which
meets the sea here. Across the Kali, crossing a new bridge is Sadashivagad, a hill fort built by Sode
Sadashiva Nayaka. Sadashivagad has a Durga temple and Darga of Peer Kamruddin. Binaga is to
the South of Karwar. It has a modern Caustic Soda factory. Goods movement along the Kali from
her mouth reached Kadra and taken by land to the interior during medieval times. Anjadeev Island
(under Goa administration) is near Binga. The Sea Bird Naval project is coming up near Karwar.

Kittur on the Dharwad-Belgaum Road, 33 km from Dharwad was the headquarters of a

Desagati (minor principality) which became famous due to the revolt of Desayini Channammaji
against the British in 1824. The place has the ruined Wada, a bastion, which the part of fortification.
Karnataka, the Tourist Paradise 259

The State Govt. Museum here has many items from the Desai Wada preserved. Inside the fort is
the Kalmeshwara Temple and the place has a Veerashaiva Mathas called Chauki Matha and Hire
Matha. Kittur has a W omen’s Sainik School. At Bailhongal, a taluk headquarters the Samadhi of
Channammaji, on which her bronze statue is installed. Degaon, five kms from Kittur has a
12th-Century Kamala Narayana Temple in Chalukyan style, built by the Goa Kadambas. It is a fine
monument known for its sophisticated art work.

Kolar, the district headquarters, is 72 km away from Bangalore on the Bangalore-Madras Road.
Ancient "Kuvalalapura" the first capital of the Gangas, has the famous Kolaramma temple.
Originally of the Gangas, later it was renovated by the Cholas, Kolaramma is Mahishamardini and
she is one among the seven Mothers (Sapta Matrikas) installed there. In another shrine next, there
are fine stucco figures of Sapta Matrikas. The Someshwara temple here is a Dravidian structure
expanded in Vijayanagra times. The Anjaneya, Nanjundeswara, Venkataramana and Kodandarama
are other major temples in the town. The ‘Makbara’ here has graves of Haider Ali’s relations. Kolar
is known for its local product, the country blanket (Kambli). Antaragange, three km away from
Kolar on the Kolar hill has a stream emanating from the mouth of a bull. It is considered as a holy
spot.

Koppal in Raichur district is ancient ‘Kopana’ a holy place of the Jainas and the place has two
Ashokan inscriptions at Palkigundu and Gavimatha. It has a hill fort. It was the capital of a branch
of Shilaharas under the Chalukyas of Kalyana. Mundargi Bheema Rao and Hammige
Kenchamagaud died fighting against British here in June 1858 (during the 1857 rising series).
Palkigundu is described as the Indrakila Parvata of epic fame and there is an ancient Shiva temple
260 A Handbook o f Karnataka

called the Male Malleshwara. Kinhal 13 kms away from Koppal is famous for its traditional
colourful lacquerware work.

Lakkundi in Gadag tq., 12 km from Gadag is one of the most famous centres of Kalyana
Chalukyan art. The place has the highly ornate Kashi Vishveshwara temple in damaged condition,
a twin temple, one housing Shivalinga and the other facing it of God Surya, now vanishing. Another
notable monument of the place is the huge Brahma Jinalaya ascribed to a noble lady called Dana
Chintamani Attimabbe. This small town, full of ruined temples has Mallikarjuna, Lakshminarayana,
Manikeshwara, Virabhadra, Nanneshwara, Someshwara, Nilakanteshwara and other Chalukyan
temples, mostly ruined. The place has a Museum of the A.S.I. There is a darga of Zindeshah Wali.
Lakshmeshwar, ancient ‘Huligere’ or ‘Puligere’ was the headquarters of Puligere - 300 district
in historical times, and is 72 km from Dharwad. The Somanatha and The Lakshmaneshwara are
famous temples here, and over 50 stone records fotmel here speak o f its cultural importance. It was
a Jaina Centre and Shankha basadi appears to o f the d^ys o f the Chalukyas of B adam i,.
subsequently renovated. The Kali Masjid here is an ornate structure, built by Bijapur Comihander
Ankush Khan. Before Independence, the place belonged to the Miraj Patwardhan State.
Maddur, a taluk headquarters in Mandya dt. is 20 km from Mandya. It is described in records
as "Arjunapuri agrahara", the institution (agrahara) being ascribed to epic hero Arjuna. Maddu-
ramma is the village goddess of the place. The Narasimha Swamy Temple here of the Hoysalas has
the figure of Narasimha, seven feet in height. The Varadaraja temple is a Chola structure with a 12
feet tall Varadaraja image. The first session of Mysore Congress was held at Shivapura (1938) near
here and there is a modern building. ‘Satyagraha Saudha’ to commemorate it.
Madhugiri in Tumkur dt. is 43 km from Tumkur, and is famous for its hill fort which is very
vast. The ancient name of the place is Maddagiri and it has temples of Venkataramana and

Madhugiri Hill
Karnataka, the Tourist Paradise 261

Malleshwara built by Vijayanagara feudatories. There is also a Mailinatha basadi. Rani Virammaji
of Keladi. was held captive here by Haider Ali, and later Marathas released her, and she died on her
way to Pune. The fort has majestic gateways called Antaralada Bagilu, Diddibagilu, Mysore Gate
etc. Midigeshi 19 km from here is another tall hill fort.

Madikeri, the headquarters of the Kodagu district is on the ranges of Western Ghats, 250km
from Bangalore. It was the capital of a royal family called Haleri Rajas whose rule was ended by
the British in 1834, The place has a fort and a palace building in which district office functions.
The walls of the building have some paintings. There is an old Church in fort which houses the
State Archaeology Museum. The Omkareshwara Temple and the tombs of the Kodagu Rajas,
Doddaveera Rajendra and Lingarajendra are all in Indo-Saracenic style. The Raja’s Seat overlooking
a valley gives a panaromic view o f the surrounding coffee and paddy growing lush green lands. The
Kodavas have their own distinct culture and folk arts; they are known for their hospitality. Near
Madikeri is ‘Roshanara,’ the residence of Gen.K.M.Kariyappa.

Magadi is a taluk headquarters of Bangalore Rural dt., 41 km from Bangalore. Kempegowda

was forced to leave Bangalore in 1638 and make Magadi his headquarters where his family built
the fort and the Rameshwara temple. There is also the Someshwara temple built in 1712 with
Kempegowda’s hazara near it. It has fading wall paintings. Tirumale is a hill near the town where
there is a vast Ranganatha Temple, but actually the deity being worshipped is Srinivasa.

Mahadeshwara Betta is a hill very close to the Eastern Ghats, 220 kms from Bangalore and
142 kms from Mysore in Mysore dt. A saint called Mahadeshwara who it is said, could ride tiger
lived during the 14th- 15th century has his gadduge here. The hill is full of thick forests and
thousands of pilgrims visits the place which has guest houses and other facilities. It is a very
picturesque spot of natural beauty.

Mandya, a district headquarters town in between Mysore and Bangalore is 100 km from
Bangalore and it has a large sugar factory (1933). Though its name is ascribed to Mandavya Rishi,
records speak of ‘M antheya’. The place has Lakshmi-Janardhana Swamy temple which is a vast
renovated structure. Mandya has a small zoo-garden. It is a prosperous place.

Mangalore is an ancient town, ‘M angalapura’ and is on the coast with an old and modern port.
It is the head-quarters of the Dakshina Kannada district. It was for long the capital of the Alupas.
The Vijayanagara rulers posted one of their governors here. It came under the Banga feudatory and
the Portuguese opened a factory here for trade and brought Roman Catholic religion too. Conquered
by Haider, it became the chief port of Mysore and Sultan’s Battery near the port is reminescent of
his rule. When it fell to the English (1799) they made it the district headquarters o f Canara. The
Basel Mission that came here in 1834 started an English school, printing, tile factory and weaving
and helped to modernise the place. The first Kannada newspaper ‘Mangalura Samachara' (1843)
was a missionary venture.

Mangalore has the old Mangaladevi temple and the Kadre Manjunatha temple where once
Buddhist had stayed. There are fine bronze statues of Avalokiteshwara and Dhyani Buddha and
some laterite caves around the Kadre temple. The Venkataramana, Mahamayi and the huge modem
262 A Handbook o f Karnataka

Gokarna Natha are important temples of Mangalore. Bengre has a fine beach. The Light House Hill
has the Idagah. The St. Aloysius College here has a chapel with fine paintings. St.Rozario Church,
Church of the Most Holy Rosary and the Milagres Church are some fine Christian monuments here.
Shanti Cathedral of the Bassel Mission is also famous. The port area has an old mosque with fine
wood work. Dongarkery has the Shamir mosque. Mangalore is famous for its sea food and jasmine
known for its unique aroma. Mangalore has the University and the first college founded in Karnataka

in 1868-69. Mangalore has tile, coffee curing,fish processing and cashew processing units. Beedi
production is a home industry. Mangalore Fertilizers is a major public enterprise. Mangalore has a
City Corporation.
Melukote, the temple town in Mandya district is a great centre of pilgrimage. The
Cheluvanarayana Swamy here was for long worshipped by Acharya Ramanuja (12th Century). The
temple came to be expanded under Vijayanagara and Mysore rulers. The latter presented the temple
with many costly jewels including Vairamudi, a diamond-studded crown. On the hilltop there is a
Narasimha temple also. Melukote is a great centre of traditional Sanskrit learning and the Samskrita
Academy is a newly founded institution here with many modem amenities. It has a good collection
of palm leaf manuscripts.
Mysore, the district and divisional headquarters, is the ancient royal capital and the garden
"city. It is 139 km west o f Bangalore. Though described as ‘Mahishapura’, the old records speak
‘Maysooru’ which has nothing to do with Mahisha or Mahishasura. The Mysore royal palace is a

Nandi Mysore
Karnataka, the Tourist Paradise 263

Oriental Library, Mysore

major attraction with Indo-Saracenic exterior and Hoysala interior, completed in 1907. It is
illuminated during evenings. The palace’s Kalyana Mantapa has fine wall paintings .of the Dasara
procession and Durbar scenes done in 1930s and 1940s by the Palace artists. The Chamundi Hill
has a Mahishasura Statue outside, done in cement and a large entrance tower at the Chamundi
Temple. Beside this temple, there is a tenth century Mahabala temple and records call the hill as
"Marbala Betta". The temple has steps and on way is a monolithic Nandi. Lalita Mahal Palace in
264 A Handbook o f Karnataka
\

the city is a hotel now. Another Palace (Cheluvamba mansion) houses C.F.T.R.I. The Jagan Mohan
Art Gallery also a palace. The Parakala Matha is an imposing building near this. Mysore has the
famous zoo garden too. The Oriental Manuscript Library is also housed in an impressive building.
The University was founded in 1916. The Sutturu Matha, the Railway Museum, the Premier Studio,
the Ramakrishna Ashrama are other attractions of Mysore. The St. Philomina Church is a beautiful
imposing structure o f Mysore. Krishnaraja Sagar (Mandya dt.) can be reached from Mysore by bus
and there is a dam across the Cauvery, and the Brindavan gardens. The garden with musical fountain
is to be seen in the evenings. Mysore is the most important tourist centre of Karnataka. Its Dasara
festival is the most attractive pageant. Mysore has grown to be an industrial centre too with the
Railway workshop, Ideal Jawa Factory, B'.E.M.L. Unit, Vikrant Tyres, etc., It has a City Municipal
Corporation.

Pattadakal saw the Badami Chalukya art in its full bloom. It is 22 km away from Badami and
514 km from Bangalore. Here the best temples of the style, the Virupaksha and the Mallikarjuna
are seen. These were built by the queens o f Vikramaditya II (734-44) in memory of his Victorious
march against Kanchi, the Pallava capital, and the temples were named by them after themselves
as the Lokeshwara (by Lokadevi) and Trailokeshwara (by Trailokadevi), which came to be known
as the Virupaksha and the Mallikarjuna respectively. The two magnificent temples with their nicely
engraved lively figures on walls and the massive square pillars are in sand stone. Pattadakal itself
was known as Kisuvolal ( ‘Red Town’) as the sand stone here is reddish in colour. The
Sangameshwara, Chandrashekhara, Jambuling and Kadasiddeshwara are the other major temples
here, and Pattadakal has also a Jaina basadi of Rashtrakuta times with two beautiful elephants in its
front. The Galaganath here which is dilapidated, has caurvilinear (rekhanagara) shikhara. -

Raichur the headquarters of the district o f the same name is 475 km away from Bangalore. It
has a hillfort originally built (in 1294) by a Kakatiya (of Orangal) officer and later expanded by the
Bahmanis. A 41-feet long slab near the Raichur bus stand, fixed into the fort wall has a Telugu
record and also sculpture of the scene of how huge slabs were transported atop the hill with the help
of buffalo driven carts. The outer fortification has five majestic gateways, the Sikandari Di.rwaza
and Sailani Darwaza being impressive. The Navrangi Darwaza is created by Vijayanagara rulers
with many court scenes of Vijayanagara. The town has a majestic Ekminar mosque o f the days of
Mohammedshah Bahmani. The lone minaret is 65 feet tall. The Jami Masjid in the town is the
biggest of the mosques of the place. There are many modem temples in the town o f which
Manikprabhu temple and the Ramalingeshwara are notable.

Sandur is a taluk headquarters in the Bellary district. It is in a valley surrounded by hills, and
the hills abound in quality iron and manganese ore. Sandur is derived from ‘sandu’ in Kannada,
meaning a ‘pass’. It was formerly under the Maratha rulers called the Ghorpades till 1947 and the
palace surrounded by a fort is an attractive building. The town has a Vithoba temple with impressive
pillars. One of the hill ranges has the attractive Kumaraswamy temple and also the Parvati temple.
The Parvati temple perhaps was the original Kumaraswamy temple of Badami Chalukya times
which now houses a recent Parvati figure and the Shanmukha (Kumaraswamy) temple is a
Rashtrakuta structure with a modern image. The twin temples are excellent pieces of art and are in
a sarene place, and are surrounded by rose gardens. The place is 12 km. from Sandur town. Not far
away from here is the Nandihalli Post-Graduate Centre of the Gulbarga University and 16 km away
from Sandur is Ramanadurga' or Ramgad. There is a Rama temple on this cool hill resort,
commemorating Kumara Rama, a historical figure who difed fighting against Delhi Sultan’s army.
Karnataka, the Tourist Paradise 265

Saundatti in Belgaum district is a taluk headquarters (74 km from Belgaum) and the town
proper has a fort on the hill built during the 18th Century, by the Sirasangi Desai with eight bastions.
It was also the capital of the Rattas who later
shifted their headquarters to Belgaum. There
are two small Jaina bastis o f Ratta times and
the temples of Ankeshwara, Puradeshwara,
Mallikarjuna, Venkateshwara and the
Veerabhadra.. The Puradeshwara is of the
Kalyani Chalukyas, dilapidated now. The
Ankeshwar was built by the Rattas in 1048,
also in Chalukyan style. The Renukasagar
waters (from the Naviluteertha dam across
the Malaprabha) touch the outskirts o f
Saundatti. Yellammanagudda, 12 km away
from Saundatti is on a hill. This original
Rashtrakuta basadi is now used to worship
Yellamma or Renuka and the devotees visit
it in hundreds daily. Two .km away is
Parasgad, a wonderful hill fort, expanded by
Shivaji, now getting dilapidated.

Shimoga, a district headquarters, is 274

km from Bangalore and is on the banks of
the Tunga river. It was a notable centre
under the Keladi Nayakas. Their palace now
houses a museum of State Archaeology
Department. The Kote Seetharamanjaneya
temple is the oldest in the town. Shimoga is
a centre of paddy and areca trade and there
is a Govt, sandal oil factory here. It is a cool
place near the ranges of the Western Ghats.
The place has the Bhimeshwara, Lakshmi-
narayana and Guddekal Siddheshwara
temples and the sacred Heart Church of the
Catholics.

Shivaganga is a prominent pilgrimage

centre in Bangalore Rural dt, about 60 km
from Bangalore. It is a conical shaped hill
and has a Shiva temple of Ganga times
originally in a natural cave, which was
expanded by the Hoysalas and subsequent
rulers including the Kempegowdas of
Bangalore. One o f the caves has Shiva
(Gangadhara) shrine and another cave has
Honnadevi. The place was known as
266 A Handbook of Karnataka

Kakudgiri according to tradition. One can climb further on the hill and there is Kempegowda’s
Hazara with Vijayanagara style pillars, and at the top of the hill is an image of Kumbhi Basava.
Below the hill there is a shiva temple called Shanteshwara, the Shankara matha of Sringeri tradition
and also a huge tank whose steps have relief sculptures narrating epic events. There is a Lingayat
matha called Mahanta Matha on the hill, and once it is said, there were 64 Lingayat Mathas at the
place. O f the many images in the Shiva temple, one of Kempegowda as a devotee is notable.

Shorapur is a taluk centre in Gulbarga district, 520 km from Bangalore. Its real name is Surapur
and it was the headquarters of a feudatory Nayakas in the heart of Sagaranadu. The place has a fine
fort but the parts of palaces inside are being dismantled. Its prince Venkatappa Nayaka had revolted
against the British in 1858. Meadows Taylor was the Resident here and his residence, Taylor Manzil
is used as a guest house now. There is a Gopalaswamy temple in the town.

Shravanabelagola in Hassan District is 157 km away from Bangalore is an important Jaina

centre. There is a pond and two stony hills, called Chandragiri and Indragiri. Chandragiri has the
Chandragupta basadi of the Gangas and the Parashwanatha basadi here is the biggest. The town
below the hill has the Jaina matha whose walls have very old paintings. Indragiri has the Gommata
monolith, 58’ tall, installed by a Ganga general and scholar Chavundaraya, and also Siddhara basadi,
Odegal basadi, Chetinanna basadi and Chauvvisa Tirthankara basadi, and also the finely engraved
pillar called Tyagada Brahma pillar. The floral designs on it are excellent. To the north of town is
Jinanathapura which has the Aregal basadi and the Shantinatha basadi of Hoysala times.
Shravanabelagola has over 500 inscriptions, and some of them are recording death by starving
( ‘sallekhana’) by Jaina ascetics and laymen.

Sira in Tumkur district is taluk headquarters and is 52 km. from Tumkur. The town called
Siriya was founded by Rangappa Nayaka of Ratnagiri, a feudatory of Vijayanagara. It was
conquered by the Mughuls in 1686 and they raised a fine garden called Khan Bag. The Jumma
masjid here is a fine monument built in 1896 and the Malik Rihan’s tomb is another impressive
structure. The fort is still there in parts, which had been expanded by the Mughuls. The
Gopalakrishna temple here has no image, and it is said to be housed in the Narayana temple. The
place was the centre of a Mughul fauzdari and Kasim Khan was the first fauzdar. Haider secured
it as a gift later. Seebi, 24 km to the south of Sira was known earlier as Sibburu and there is a
Narasimhaswamy temple built during the 18th century by Nallappa an officer under Haider Ali.
Nallappa has written ‘Haider-naame ’ in Kannada. The temple is profusely painted with themes of
Ramayana, Mahabharatha and Dashavatara themes. There are many secular themes too.

Somanathpur has the best of the Hoysala temples constructed when the Hoysala art was in full
bloom. The three resara shikharas of the temple are in good condition. Ten km away from
T.Narsipur, the taluk headquarters and 40 km from Mysore, Somanathpur was called Vidhyanidhi
agrahara and Somanath Dandanayaka, the commander of Hoysala Narasimha III built the trikuta
temple. It is the finest monument of the place. The other temples are the Panchalingeshwara,
Lakshminarayana and Narasihmeswara. The Keshava temple is enclosed by a courtyard 215 feet in
length and 177 feet in breadth. It stands oh a platform with triple shrines with three majestic
shikharas on them with a common navaranga and main entrance. It is profusely decorated on the
outer walls and there are rows of figures of Natya Saraswati, Natya Ganapathi, Mahishamardini,
Varaha, Ishwara, Indra etc., and smaller figures narrating Vaishnava epics. The navaranga has 16
ankanas each with a highly decorative floral or geometric design. The Keshava figure in the main
Karnataka, the Tourist Paradise 267

shrine is missing but Janardana and Venugopala are seen in two other garbhagrihas, which are
really charming. The shikharas look like highly decorated rathas. The Panchalinga do not have
much of embellishment, but they are five Shiva shrines in a row. The panels on the walls of the
Keshava have sign-manuals of sculptors like Mallitamma, Baleya, Chaudeya, Chamaya, Bharmaya,
Nanjaya and Yelasamayya. The Keshava temple is a must for every lover of Hoysala art. The place
is named after the builder of the temple Somanatha Dandanayaka.

Sonda in Sirsi taluk of Uttara Kannada is 35 kms away from Sirsi. It is in the middle of thick
forest. It was the headquarters of the Sonde rulers who were feudatories of Vijayanagara. The place
when occupied by Haider Ali in 1763 lost its importance thought it was a major town earlier to that.
Its large number of monuments are spread over a wide area in the forest. It was a Jaina centre, and
has the samadhi of great scholar Bhattakalanka (died in 1604). There is a small Jaina matha here.
The Swarnavalli matha near sonda is of the Smartha tradition. Arasappa Nayaka, a prince, was a
devotee of Vadiraja swamy (1480-1600), a great Madhwa saint, who shifted his matha (one of the
eight of Udupi) to this place and his samadhi (Brindavana) is seen here. There is a Trivikarama
temple raised by him. There is also the Shankaranarayana temple at Sonda and the Gaddige Matha.
The river Shalmala creates a falls of 91 metres height called the Shivaganga falls, at a place five
km from Sonda.

Sringeri is one of four centres in India where Acharya Shankara founded his mathas. The place
in Chikmagalur district is 334 km away from Bangalore and is a taluk headquarter. Sringeri has an
old Parshwanatha basadi. There is the Sharadamba temple ascribed Acharya Shankara and the
magnificent Vidyashankara temple on the banks of the Tunga river, built during the 14th century.
It has 12 pillars inside called rasikambhas and sun’s rays fall on a specific pillar in the morning in
each solar month. There is the Sachchidananda Vilasa Ashrama, the Kalabhairava temple, and
temples built in memory of Narasimha Bharati and Chandrashekara Bharati, the previous pontiffs.
The Sringeri Matha grew to be jagir as Vijayanagara rulers, Mysore rulers and others made
munificient grants. Tipu also made liberal donations to the matha. Sringeri is a quiet scerene place
with many guest houses for visitors.

Srirangapattana in Mandya district is a holy place. It was also the capital of the Mysore rulers.
Under Haider and Tipu, it had a population of 1.50 lakhs. It is 14 km from Mysore, and is an island
in between two branches of the Cauvery. The Ranganath temple here is ascribed to a chieftain of
Nagamangala who raised it during the 9th Century. Later Hoysala prince Vinayaditya expanded the
temple during the 12th Century. The fort here was built in 1454. The Mysore rulers made it their
capital in 1610 in the days of Raja Wodeyar, who took it from the Vijayanagara Governor. The
Ranganatha temple is called Adi Ranga which has Hoysala, Vijayanagara and later features and the
gopura (entrance) is Vijayanagara style. Not far away from the temple is the mosque with twin
impressive polygonal minarets. Its suburb, Ganjam has Dariya Daulat palace of Tipu and Gumbaz,
the mausoleum of Haider and Tipu both impressive structures of Indo-Saracenic style. The palace
has paintings, fine wood work and it houses a museum. Paschima Vahini (the Western flow) of the
river here has many temples and old rest houses and is a very serene place.

Talakadu in Mysore district is a holy place on the banks of the Cauvery, 29 km from
T.Narasipur, its taluk headquarters. It was the second capital of the Gangas. They built the
Pataleshwara and the Maruleshwara temples here. Hoysala Vishnuvardhana when he conquered it
from the Cholas, built the Kirti Narayana temple. The Vaidyanatheshwara is another Shiva temple
here. The Arkeshwara at Vijayapura not far away from Talakadu, three Shiva temples here and the
268 A Handbook of Karnataka

View of the Paschima Vahini at Srirangapattana

Mallikarjuna on hill nearby called Mudukutore together are Pancha Lingas and a Jatra in honour of
these five Shiva temples is held once in 12 years called Pancha Linga Darshana. Talakadu is full
of sands, carried by the wind from the dried bed of the river, which has a bund across it here, built
by Madhava Mantri of Vijayanagara during the 14th century. In summer, the dried bed supplies this
sand. Excavation conducted recently have brought to light remains of the early centuries of the
Christian era which include beads, a gold smelting clin etc, and also the remains of a basadi and
two well-like cylindrical structures made by joining earthen rigs.

Talakaveri is the point of origin of the Cauvery river in Kodagu district, 28 km from Madikeri
on the range of the Brahmagiri hill. There is a small square tank from which the Cauvery is believed
to emanate and move for some distance as a subterranean flow. There are two shrines dedicated to
Ishwara and Ganapathi here. On Tula Sankramana day Cauvery is believed to start <Ver flow afresh
from the square tank and a large Jatra takes place here. Brahmagiri has steps from here, and atop
the hill there are some remains of sacrificial pits. This is quiet resort is amidst hilly forest
surroundings.

Tumkur is the district headquarters, 70 km to the north of Bangalore. It is called ‘Tummugere’

in a 10th Century record. The oldest temple here is Lakshmi narayan a built in 1560. It came under
Mysore during the 17th century when a Maruti temple was built. Nearby Kyatsandra has the
Karnataka, the Tourist Paradise 269

Siddhaganga Kshetra on a hill. There is a Veerashaiva Matha at Siddhaganga known for its unique
educational service. It runs a free hostel feeding nearly 5000 students, it also runs many educational
institutions including an engineering college. Siddhaganga has the samadhi of Siddhalingeshwara,
a Veerashaiva saint and there is a natural spring called Siddhaganga.

Udupi is a holy place in Dakshina Kannada, 58 kms away from Mangalore. The Krishna temple
here is founded by Acharya Madhwa during the 14th century. He founded eight mathas to conduct
the services of Lord Krishna in turns. This changing of turn, Paryaya festival, is held once in two
years in January. The place has Kadiyali Durga temple, Ambalapadi Shakti temple, Raghavendra
Matha and the Venkataraman swamy temple. Malpe is the port near here. It has fine beach and the
Vadabhandeshwara temple of Balarama. Manipal near Udupi is a great educational centre with a
modern well equipped hospital.

Ulvi in Uttara Kannada, 32 km from Yellapur can be reached from Haliyal also. It is amidst
thick forests, where there is the Samadhi of Chennabasavanna (the nephew of Saint Basaveshwara)
who soughl shelter here after leaving Kalyana in about 1167 where the Kalachuri king had resorted
to a witch hunt against the Sharanas after the death of Bijjala. Gavi Matha is a series of caves here
in which the Sharanas lived. One cave is named after Akka Nagamma, Chennabasavanna’s mother.
The imposing structure here is the samadhi of Chennabasavanna which has Nandi installed in the
sanctum. The Shikhara of this sanctum has stucco figures o f the Sharanas. The temple was expanded
by the Sode ruler. Every month on Pournima, a jatra is held and a major jatra is held on Shivaratri
Day. Hundreds visit the place daily. There are some rest houses for visitors. There is also fort in
ruins called Baburayana Kote.

Yediyur in Tumkur district (Kunigal taluk) has the samadhi matha of Tontada
Siddhalingeshwara Yati, a famous Veerashaiva saint who lived during the 16th century. The place
is 30 km away from Kunigal. Pilgrims who visit the place in hundreds daily are fed free, and there
are rest houses for them. The Matha has a fine wooden chariot (ratha) with some interesting
sculptures. 'Hie place has a Varadaraja temple and two Veerashaiva Mathas. The M atha’s building
has some old paintings on walls. They were recently retouched.

Bibliography

The contents are mostly summarised from the Karnataka State Gazetteer (two
parts, 1982 and 1983) and Decennial supplement to state Gazetteer (1994).
 271
Karnataka
■, , <
At1 A Glance
SI. no. Particulars Unit 1970-71 1980-81 1990-91 1994-95

1 Rainfall mm 1479 1509 1095 1231

2 Geographical
area (as per 1 ‘000 ha 19135 19177 19179 19050*
village papers) J
3 Forest tt
2890 3033 3074 3075*
4 Land not available \ '

for cultivation J M
1776 1911 1987
5 Other uncultivated |
land J II
2545 2190 1861
6 Fallow Land II
1483 2017 1747 -

7 Net area sown M

10248 9899 10381 10790*
8 Net area irrigated
a Canals ‘00 ha 4487 5466 8620
b Tanks H
- 3648 3037 2400 •
it
c Wells 4585 3637 7140 _
II
d Other sources 924 1462 2970 -

It
e Total 13655 13608 21130 - ■:

9 Livestock and Poultry,

a Cattle ‘000 Nos 10018 11300 10175
tl
b Buffaloes 3215 3548 4038 .

It
c Sheep 4662 4792 4727 .

d Goats N
3726 .... 4547* - 3889 .

e Poultry 11
10163 125097 15694 -

f Vety. hospitals Nos 31 33 187 243

it
g Vety. dispensaries 236 479 452 697
il
h Primary Vety. centres 488 725 942 1652
tl
i Mobile Vety. clinics - - 164 171
10 Length of Railways
a Broad guage Km 484 685 1195*
H
b Metre guage - 2243 2257 1735*
tl
c Narrow guage - 148 148 148*
11 Motor Vehicles
a Motor cycles ‘00 Nos 455 2234 9317 12302**
it
b Cars 285 619 1241 1599**
- it
c Cabs 16 28 78 113**
n
d Stage carriers 55 98 159 -

e Goods vehicles 182 310 575 748**

12 Post offices ‘00 Nos 8208 9337 9607 9762**
13 Telephone Exchanges Nos 288 674 1551 1799**
14 Telephones ‘000 Nos 538 1430 2993 -
15 Area under Important crops :
1 Paddy Lakh ha 11.70 11.14 11.83 13.79
2 Ragi 10.65 10.57 10.55 9.32
for the year 1993-94 not available
for the year 1992-93
272

SI. No. Particulars Unit 1970-71 1980-81 1990-91 1994-95

3 Jowar Lakh ha 22.25 19.91 21.55 21.33

ii
4 Bajra 5.62 5.64 4.25 3.13
it
5 Wheat 3.44 3.22 1.98 3.78
6 Total n 59.72 55.73 54.15 54.18
cereals >
7 Redgram it
3.04 3.36 4.63 3.04
ii
8 Total i 14.44 15.31 16.21 15.68
pulses I
n
9 Groundnut 10.27 7.90 12.12 12.11
H
10 Total . 13.98 12.51 22.51 26.45
oilseeds j
It
11 Sugarcane 1.04 1.54 2.72 2.38
12 Cotton " 11.42 10.12 5.96 5.96
13 Coconut II 1.33 1.72 -
2.32
14 Arecanut « 0.43 0.54 0.64 -
II
15 Dry Chillies 1.11 1.54 1.29 •
16 Tobacco n 0.38 0.52 0.46 0.58
17 4 Pepper 0.02 0.03 0.03 -
18 Cardamum
ii
0.26 0.28 0.26 0.18
19 Coffee M 0.81 1.13 - -
16 Production under Important crops :
1 Paddy Lakh tonnes 20.00 22.58 24.28 31.27
2 Ragi
ii
8.92 10.64 9.76 13.36
3 Jowar it
15.65 15.06 12.82 16.65
4 Bajra
ti
2.11 1.92 2.03 1.98
5 Wheat *i
1.30 1.74 1.23 1.62
6 Total l 52.35 57.14 57.05 75.10
cereals '
7 Redgram ii
1.53 1.25 1.75 1.57
8 Total pulses M
5.11 4.88 5.39 6.43
9 Groundnut
H
7.80 4.75 8.16 10.96
10 Total l
tl
8.75 6.50 13.39 16.92
oilseeds •
11 Sugar cane
II
81.06 121.27 207.50 195.5
12 Cotton (1) - 5.70 5.97 6.48 8.59
13 Coconut(2) - 64.11 88.70 119.93 -
14 Arecanut II
0.54 0.78 0.93 -
15 Dry chillies
II
0.34 0.48 0.37 - .
16 Tobacco
II
0.18 0.34 0.33 0.48
17 Pepper (3) - 0.11 0.08 0.02 0.48
18 Cardamum " 0.01 0.02 0.02 -
not available
 273

SI. No. Particulars Unit 1970-71 1980-81 1990-91 1994-95

19 Coffee Lakh tonnes 0.82 0.82

(1) Cotton yield in 170 kg bales
(2) Coconut yield in 100 lakh nuts
(3) Pepper yield in lakh quintals.
17 Fertilizer use
a) Nitrogen (N) Lakh tonnes 0.93 1.93 4.12 4.86 (A)
b) Potassium (P) " 0.37 0.81 2.56 2.23 (A)
c) Potash (K) 0.26 0.70 1.65 1.24(A)
18 Area under high i lakh ha 5.29 24.00 31.56 30.93
yielding varieties /
19 Fish production
a) Marine Lakh tonnes 1.27 1.61 1.86 1.80(A)
b) Inland 0.61 0.47 0.53 0.75 (A)
c) Total 1.88 2.08 2.39 2.55 (A)
20 Production of selected Industries
a) Aluminium Lakh tonnes 0.37 0.38 0.45 .
b) Paper 0.68 0.91 1.88 -
c) Sugar " 2.05 3.12 8.83 -
d) Vanaspathi ’’ 0.06 0.04 0.12 .
e) Cement 11.72 , 15.37 32.83 -
f) Sandal wood oil Lakh Kg 1.11 0.42 0.07 -
g) Cigarettes Million Nos 102.92 77.73 26622 -
h) Motor Cycles 1000 Nos 15.69 32.00 5.80 -
i) Wrist Watches Lakh Nos 3.45 6.69 15.00 -
j) Silk Fabrics ‘000 Mtrs 86.40 119.50 671.30 -
k) No. of Registred l ‘000 Nos 3.81 11.18 7.77 -
Factories *
...... 1) Employment in lakhs Nos 2.76 5.31 7.78 -
21 Development of Irrigation
a) Major and Med i Lakh ha
projects J 6.99 9.91 13.36 15.76 (A)
b) Minor Irrig Lakh ha 6.12 8.76 9.06 9.19(A)
c) Total 13.11 18.67 22.42 24.95 (A)
22 Power
a) Power generation i
Installed Capacity/ M.W 877.5 1739.8 2984.6 3509.5 (A)
b) Electricity generated Million l 4833 7720 12041 14748 (A)
U nits *

c) Electricity Imported " 2 1010 3061 3502

d) Power consumption " 2947 6032 12182 14016
e) Pumpsets energised \Lakhs 1.31 3.32 7.43 9.74
(Cumulative) *
23 Registrants in Employment
Exchanges in Karnataka
a) Post graduates ‘000 Nos 5.51 10.35 14.11*
b) Graduates 69.10 112.71 156.07*
c) Diploma holders 5.52 24.31 33.13*
d) ITI 8.40 36.66 45.92*
e) Matric 290.78 699.74 1007.87*
0 Below Matric 228.48 371.05 323.56*
A - Anticipated * for the year 1993-94 not available
274

St No. Particulars Unit 1970-71 1980-81 1990-91 1994-95

24 Road Length
a) National 1 ‘000 km 1.27 1.97 1.99 1.99*
Highways *
b) State l
Highways * it
6.72 7.81 11.28 11.39*
c) Major Dist Roads If
14.22 12.90 18.04 28.06*
d) Other Dist Roads if
9.52 9.05 3.18 2.15*
e) Municipal Roads ii
4.49 6.25 7.37 8.06*
0 Other Roads »i
47.52 71.57 89.06 82.93*
25 Accessibility of Villages
a) All Weather Roads Nos 7448 12592 13138**
b) Fair Weather it
- 5932 6775 6555**
c) Katcha & non-motorabler - 11451 7461 7164**
Roads i

H
d) Village not connected! 2040 200 171**
by any Roads *
26 Primary Education
1) No* of Students Enrolled Lakhs ■ -

a) 1-4 Boys ii
21.64 25.73 28.78
b) 1-4 Girls tl
- 16.93 22.59 28.40
c) 5-7 Boys 11
- 7.68 12.17 13.02
d) 5-7 Girls 11
- 4.73 9.02 12.95
2) No of Teachers lakhs - 1.18 1.36 1.63
3) No of Schools ‘000 Nos - 35.55 40.21 41.68
27 Health Institutions
a) Hospitals Nos 195 233 288
b) Dispensaries Nos 791 215 208 -

c) Primary Health Centres Nos 266 300 1198 1457

d) Sub centres l Nos - - 7793 8093
(Cumulative)'
28 Higher Education
a) High Schools Nos 2002 2381 4793
b) Students ‘000 Nos 483 714 1251 -
c) Degree colleges Nos 195 251 406 -
d) Students ‘000 Nos 146 242 326 -
e) Engineering Colleges Nos 16 42 50 -

f) ■Students ‘000 Nos 10.22 26.73 54.63 -

g) Medical colleges Nos 18 19 19 -

h) Students ‘000 Nos 10.89 10.75 14.48 -

i) Polytechnics Nos 29 43 165 -

j) Students ‘000 Nos 4.7 13.23 44.34 -

k) Literacy rate - 31 38 ■ - -
Not Available._________ * for the year 1993-94 ** for the year 1992-93
Source :1) d5»Tk3d, Qf3<aai* *0s3t 72/1990, 1991 •£>*, too
ddFttisxxiis, dortojHfc.
2) es®ni 1994-95, oi£>?£s;J, too^ aofsowb, tom06iJ six*.
'SOSaJ, &ZZ3*F 1995.
3) Economic Survey, 1993-94, Planning Department March 1994.
 ERRATA 275

Page No. Line No. For Read as

1 2 3 4

25 9 (Total) 98 and 28
29 05 have have been
33 26 Arikepsarin Arikesarin
48 17 three two
23 1863 1864
29 1906 1905
49 20 Shanthinikethan Calcutta
35 Panje Mageha Rao Panje MangeshaRao
50 06 everthing everything
53 12 Presidences presidencies
55 20 constitues constitutes
2 from below 930.as 930, as
56 32 Kodagu(19) Kodagu (9)

41 20,000-49000 20000-49,999

57 1 villages such as villages and areas

such as

33 54,45,186 56,45,186

58 44 Brahmins Brahma Samajists

3 from below Brahmins Brahmos

Bhuta worshop Bhuta worship, etc.

90 28 penemangalur Panemangalur

112 Table - Bangalore-

Branches 1975
306 386

118 After table Act of 1993 Act of 1933

10th line.

After table Coffee Act of Coffee

12th line Act of 1942 of
123 31 Increased from increased from 32, 177
32, 177 km in 1956 in 1956 to 64,628 km.
to 31,348 in 1992 in 1981
276

1 2 3 4

124 41 The Birur-Shimoga- The Birur- Shimoga-

Bidar line. Bidare line

133 16 The radio stations The radio stations are

are converting covering

134 25 It was due to This was due to

34 intiated intiated

136 14 Rs.7.1 7.1

15 Rs.6.0 6

139 22 Per rate Per annum

146 20 In the column ‘To’ read as 31-12-1995

21

Cecil Noronha IAS From 31-12-95 To upto date

153 2 ST and SC SC/ST

Sub-heading Panchayat Raj Panchayati Raj

154 41 Panchayat at the taluk

42 a taluk level Panchayat at the
taluka level.

157 3 curriculam curriculum

160 23 (to be added) the Gulbarga

University (1980)

161 26 another Mysore another at Mysore

45 were champions held championship

163 20 favourable favourite

3rd from last Capitan Captain

2rd from last were Champions held Championship

164 2 athletics athletes

36 world in world record in

166 25 of a female of female

34 The district like In the districts like .

167 4 1897 and the 1897,the

8 state-wise state wide
31 spread over in spread over different
different.
16 other Kollegal other at Kollegal
19 along the almost along with almost
32 cnverted converted
 277

1 2 3 4

167 20 class claims

20 disblement disablement

169 6 Opthalomology Opthalmology

Opthamology

13 hospital hospitals
21 hosspital hospital
170 25 Laprosy Leprosy
31 Temporry Temporary
174 26 a at
lastline or of

175 Total column should be read as

Total 3,335 , 10,88 1,019 1,189 1,033 1,236
176 2 (to be added) one Homeopathic and
7 44.5 4.05
19 Controlller Controller
22 Phammacy Pharmacy
30 obstetries obstetrics

183 40 pregancy pregnancy

215 28 Department of Kuvempu University,

Technical Education Shimoga

233 19 Belgarem Belgaum

237 3 Yoganarasimha Y oganandish wara

239 1 Kittur Chamarajanagar

12 Gadag Hubli

241 5 complete incomplete

243 39 it its

244 13 from 1956 (to be omitted)

246 2 St.Andrews St.Andrew’s

3 St.Xaviers St.Xavier’s
4 Nawals Nawabs

247 35 The Then

249 8 Lakshminarayana Lakshminarasimha

20 1626 C.1429

251 21 deified daitified

27

- 278

1 2 3 4

262 ' 6-7 the first College founded A Second Grade College
in Karnataka in 1868-69 was founded by Madras
Government in
Mangalore around 1869.
was the first o f its kind
in Karnataka

267 20 ascribed ascribed to

269 27 recently retouched recently drawn

li

li

1<

l(

1<
River Krishna, Chctya Bhagauathi, Gulbarga d t

Sunflower field, Gundlupet, Chamarqjanagar dt.

Ranganalittu Birds Sanctuary, Srirangapatna tq.
Mahalingeshwara Temple, Itagi, Yeiburga tq.

Rameshwara Temple, Avani, Mulabagal tq.

God Someshwara, Lakshmeshwar, Shirahatti tq. Gqjasurasamhara, Halebidu, Belur tq.

Intricate Carvings a t Halebidu, Belur tq.

 Lakshmi Temple, DoddagaddavaLli, Hassan tq.

Bhoganandishwara, Nandigrama, Chtkballapur tq.

 Keerttnarayana Temple, Talakad, T. Narasipur tq.

Gopalakrishna Temple (Submerged), Krishnarqja Sagar.

Gommateshwara, Shravanabelagola. Jaina Image, Balambeedu
Ilirekerur tq.

Kamala Basadi, Belgaum.

Vidyashankara Temple, Sringeri, Ctukmagalw d t

Rameshwara Temple, Keladi, Sagar tq.

Gateway, Chandalingeshwara Temple, Kushiagi tq.

Stone Chariot, Vittala Temple Complex, Hampl

Omka.resh.wara Temple, Madikeri, Kodagu dt.
Sati stone, Hirekerur, Haveri d t Underground W ater Pool, Kanakagiri
Koppal dt.

Narasimha Temple, Melkote, Pandavapura tq.

Veerabhadra, Bekwaniki, Ron tq. Bhairava, Halavu Taralagatti, Shiggaon tq.
Fort, Chiiradurga.

Fort, Bidar.
 Sharanabasaueshwara Temple , Gulbarga.

Mouneshwara Temple, Th.inth.ini, Swapitr tq.

Soum yakeshava Temple, Temple Cart, UdupL
Nagamangala, M andya d t

Vadtrqja Maiha, Sonda, Strsi tq.

Raja’s Seat, Madikeri, Kodagu d t

Fort, Madikeri.
Aikya Mantapa, Kudalasangama, Hungund tq.

Gurunanak Jhara, Didar.

Mohammed Gawciris Madarasa, Bidar.
Palace, Bangalore.
Illuminated Palace, Mysore.
Maharaja's Palace, Mysore.
Chamundeshwari Temple, Mysore. St. Philomena’s Church, Mysore.

Ibrahim Roza, Bijapur.

Mural, Nippani, Belgaum d t Mural, Raichur.
 Gulbarga University, Gulbarga.

B asaveshw ara Hospital, Gulbarga.

Glass House, Lalbagh, Bangalore.