Book MATH111 - Basic Mathematics-I
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arshalik176Basic Mathematics-I 1
Module - I: Set Theory and Matrices
Notes
Course Contents:
● Sets
● Types of sets
● Basic operations on sets
● Venn diagram
● Cartesian products on two sets
● Distributive law
● DE Morgan’s laws
● Matrix
● Submatrix
● Types of Matrices
● Addition, subtraction, multiplication of matrices
● Rank of matrix
Key Learning Objectives:
At the end of this block, you will be able to:
1. Define Sets
2. Identify types of Sets
3. Describe types of Sets operations
4. Describe Venn diagram
5. Define DE Morgan’s laws
6. Calculate the Cartesian product of two sets
7. Compare Matrix and Submatrix
8. Classify Matrices
9. Describe algebra of Matrices
10. Define rank of Matrix
Structure:
UNIT 1.1: Sets
1.1.1 Introduction
1.1.2 Definitions of Sets
1.1.3 Method of representation of Sets
1.1.3.1 Tabular method or Roster method
1.1.3.2 Set builder method
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1.1.4. Types of Sets
Notes
1.1.5 Subset and Superset
1.1.6 Proper subset
Unit-1.2: Venn diagram
1.2.1 Introduction
1.2.2 Venn diagram
UNIT 1.3: Basic operations on Sets
1.3.1 Introduction
1.3.2 Types of Sets operations
1.3.2.1 Union of Sets
1.3.2.2 Intersection of Sets
1.3.2.3 Disjoint of Sets
1.3.2.4 Difference of Sets
1.3.2.5 Complement of a Set
1.3.3 Cartesian product of two sets
Unit-1.4: DE Morgan’s laws and Distribution law
1.4.1 Introduction
1.4.2 DE Morgan’s laws
1.4.3 Distributive laws
UNIT 1.5: Matrix
1.5.1 Introduction
1.5.2 Matrix
1.5.3 Types of Matrices
1.5.3.1 Row and Column Matrices
1.5.3.2 Zero or Null Matrix
1.5.3.3 Square Matrix
1.5.3.4 Diagonal Matrix
1.5.3.5 Rectangular Matrix
1.5.3.6 Scaler Matrix
1.5.3.7 Symmetric Matrix
1.5.3.8 Skew-Symmetric Matrix
1.5.3.9 Unit or Identity Matrix
1.5.3.10 Upper Triangular Matrix
1.5.3.1 Lower Triangular Matrix
1.5.3.12 Singular Matrix
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1.5.3.13 Non-singular Matrix
1.5.3.14Equal Matrix Notes
UNIT 1.6: Algebra of a Matrices and Rank of Matrix
1.6.1 Introduction
1.6.2 Algebra of a Matrices
1.6.2.1 Addition of Matrices
1.6.2.2 Difference of two Matrices
1.6.2.3 Multiplication of Matrices
1.6.2.4 Negative Matrix
1.6.3 Properties of Matrix Addition
1.6.4 Properties of Multiplication of Matrices
1.6.5 Transpose of a Matrix
1.6.6 Properties of Transpose of Matrices
1.6.7 Rank of Matrix
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Unit - 1.1: Definition of Sets
Notes
Unit Outcome:
At the end of this unit, you will learn to:
● Define Sets
● Demonstrate the methods of Set representation
● Compare various types of sets
● Define subset, superset and proper subset
1.1.1 Introduction
The set theory was developed by a German Mathematician Georg Cantor
(1845- 1918). Nowadays, set theory is used in almost all branches of
mathematics. We also use sets to define relations and functions. The
knowledge of sets is required in the study of geometry, sequence,
probability, etc. In this unit, we will discuss some basic definitions related to
sets.
1.1.2 Definition of Sets
“A well-defined collection of objects is known as a set”.
Well-defined means in a given set, it must be possible to decide
whether the objects belong to the set, and by distinct, it implies that the
object should not be repeated. Each object of a set is called a member or
element of that set. A set is represented by { }.
Generally, sets are denoted by capital letters X, Y, Z, etc. and its
elements are denoted by small letters x, y, z, etc.
Let X be a non-empty set. If x is an element of X, then we write, and it
can be read as ‘x is an element of X’ or ‘x belongs to X’. If x is not an
element of X, then we write and read as ‘x is not an element of X’ or ‘x does
not belong to X’.
Example 1.1.1 Suppose we have a set X that is defined in
this way X = Set of all days in a week.
In this set, Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday,
Saturday are members of the set.
1.1.3 Method of representation of Sets
Sets can be represented by the following two methods:
1. Tabular method or Roster method
2. Set builder method
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commas.
Example 1.1.2 Suppose we have a set X that is defined in this way Notes
X = {x : x is an even number and x
< 15) X = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12,
14}
1.1.3.2 Set builder method
In this method, instead of listing all elements of a set, we list the
property or properties satisfied by the elements of a set and write it as
X = {x : P (x)}
It is read as “X is the set of all elements x such that x has the property
P(x).” The symbol ‘:’ stands for such that.
Example 1.1.3 Suppose we have a set X that is defined in
this way X = Set of all even number less than 15.
X = {x: x = 2n, n and 1 n 7}
Or
X = {x: x is an even number less than 15}
This method is also known as Rule method.
1.1.4 Types of Sets:
(i) Empty (Void/Null) set: A set which has no element, is called an empty
set. It is denoted by or {}.
Example 1.1.4 Let X = Set of all even prime numbers greater than 3.
Example 1.1.5 Let Y = Set of all prime numbers less than 2.
(ii) Singleton set: A set which has only one elements or members, is
known as singleton set.
Example 1.1.6 Let X = {x: x is an even prime number} and Y = {a}
(iii) Finite set: A set which has a finite number of element or member, is
known as a finite set.
Example 1.1.7 Let X = {x: x is an even number less than 9} and
Y = {1, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 15}
(iv) Infinite set: A set, which has an infinite number of elements or
members, is known as an infinite set.
Example 1.1.8 Let X = {x: x is a natural number}
and
Y = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14…...............}
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(v) Equivalent sets: If two finite sets X and Y have the same number of
Notes elements, then the sets are known as an equivalent set.
Example 1.1.9, Let X = {2, 4, 6, 8} and Y = {1, 3, 5, 7}
(vi) Equal sets: If X and Y are two non-empty sets and each element of X
is an element of set Y, and each element of set Y is an element of set X, then
sets X, and Y are called equal sets.
Example 1.1.10 Let X = {x: x = 2n} and } and Y = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
(vii) Universal Sets: If there are some sets under consideration, then
there happens to be a set which is a superset of each one of the given sets.
Such a set is known as the universal set, and it is denoted by U.
Example 1.1.11 Suppose we have three sets X = {a, b}, Y = {c,d,e} Z =
{f, g, h, i,
j}.
U = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j} is a universal set for all given sets.
(viii) Power sets: If X be a non-empty set, then the collection of all
possible
subsets of set X is known as power set. It is denoted by P(X).
The total number of elements in a power set of X containing n elements is
.
Example 1.1.12
Let X = {a, b, c}
P (X) = {, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {b, c}, {c, a}, {a, b, c}}
1.1.5 Subset and Superset
Let X and Y be two non-empty sets. If each element of set X is an
element of set Y, then set X is known as a subset of set Y. If set X is a subset
of set Y, then set Y is called the superset of X.
Also, if X is a subset of Y, then it is denoted as X Y and read as ‘X is a
subset of
Y.
If x X x Y,
then XY
If x X x Y,
Then X will not be a subset of Y.
Example:1.1.13 If X = {a, b} and Y = {a, b, c, d}
Here, each element of X is an element of Y. Thus X Y , i.e. X is a subset
of Y and
Y is a superset of X.
1.1.6 Proper subset
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If each element of X is in set Y, but set Y has at least one element
which is not in X, then set X is known as a proper subset of set Y. If X is a
proper subset of Y, then it is written as X Y and read as X is a proper
subset of Y.
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Example 1.1.14
If N = {1, 2, 3, 4,....} Notes
and W = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, }
then NW
Summary:
● A set is a well-defined collection of distinguished objects.
● Set can be represented in two ways (i) Tabular form or Roster form (ii)
Set builder method.
● In the tabular form, the elements of a set are actually written down,
separated by commas and enclosed within braces.
● In the set builder method, a set is described by a characterising
property of its element.
● A set that does not contain a single element or member is called a
null or empty set.
● A set which has only one element or member, is known as singleton set.
● A set, which has a finite number of element or member, is known as a
finite set. Otherwise, it is called a non-finite set.
● Two sets X and Y are said to be equal if every element of set X is in
set Y and every element of set Y is in set X.
● The collection of all subsets of a set X is called the Power set of X.
● Two sets X and Y are said to be equivalent, if the number of elements in
both sets is equal.
● All the sets under consideration are likely to be subsets of a sets is
called the universal set.
● A set X is called a subset of a set Y. If every element of a set X is also
an element of Y and also Y is called Superset of X.
● The Powerset of a set X is the collection of all subsets of X.
Activity:
1. List ten states of India that are large in their area.
2. Now write these states in Set builder form and Tabular form.
3. Now identify what kind of set it is?
4. If set X = {a, b, c} , then find the subset of set X.
5. If set X = {a, b, c}, then find the number of element in P(X).
6. If set X = {a, b, c}, then find the number of element in P[P(X)].
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Unit - 1.2: Venn Diagram
Notes
Recall Session:
In the previous unit, you studied about:
1. The definition Sets
2. The methods of Set representation
3. The various types of sets
4. Definition of subset, superset and proper subset
Unit Outcome:
At the end of this unit, you will learn to
1. Construct Venn diagram
1.2.1 Introduction
In the previous unit, we learned what subsets, supersets and proper
subsets are. In this chapter, we will learn about what is a Venn diagram.
With the help of the Venn diagram, we can easily solve some questions
related to our everyday life.
1.2.2. Venn diagram
Most relationships between sets can be represented by diagrams called
Venn diagrams. The Venn diagram is named after the English logician John
Venn.
In these diagrams, rectangles and closed curves are usually circles. A
universal set is usually represented by a rectangle and its subset by a circle.
In a Venn diagram, the elements of a set are written in their particular
set. As shown in Fig.1.1.1.
U X
1
2 4
6 7
3 5
Fig.1.1.1 Venn diagram
In the fig. 1.1.1, U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} is a Universal set and X = {1, 4,
6, 7} is a subset.
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Summary:
● Venn diagrams are diagrams that show all the possible logical Notes
relationships between finite collections of sets.
Activity:
1. Make a set of all those properties of three less than 50 that are
completely divisible by 4.
2. Now draw the Venn diagram of this obtained set.
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Unit - 1.3: Basic Operations on Sets
Notes
Recall Session:
In the previous unit, you studied about:
● Construction of Venn diagram
● Representation of set with the help of Venn diagram
Unit Outcomes:
At the end of this unit, you will learn to
1. Define union of sets
2. Define intersection of sets
3. Define difference of sets
4. Define disjoint sets and complement of a set
5. Define Cartesian product of two sets
1.3.1 Introduction
In the previous unit, we learned what Venn diagrams are and how to
show a set with the help of a Venn diagram. As we know that if we apply an
operation on a number such as a sum, difference, multiplication, and
division, we get a new number. Similarly, if we apply operations on a set
such as union, intersection and complement, etc., we get a new set. In this
unit, we will learn how many operations are in set theory and what their
properties are and how they are applied to different types of sets.
1.3.2. Types of operations on Sets.
There are mainly four types of operations in set theory which are as
follows:
1. Union of sets
2. Intersection of sets
3. Difference of sets
4. Complement of sets
1.3.2.1 Union of Sets:
Suppose X and Y are any two sets. The union of X and Y is the set
containing all the components of X with all the elements of Y, and the
common elements are taken only once. The symbol we use to denote union.
Symbolically, we write it and read it X Union Y.
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The union set of the two sets X and Y is the set that contains all the
elements that are either in X or in Y. Symbolically, we can write.
Notes
Y
X
Fig.1.1.2 Union of two sets.
In the fig. 1.1.2, the total area covered by two circles X and Y are represented by X Y.
Example 1.3.1 If X = {1,3,5,7} and Y = {1,2,4,6,8}, then X Y = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8}.
Here we will write the number 1 only once.
Some characteristics of operator ‘’
1. XY=YX (Commutative law)
2. (X Y) Z = X (Y Z) (Associative law)
3. X ϕ = X (Identity law)
4. X X = X (Idempotent law)
5. U X = U (Law of union)
1.3.2.2 Intersection of Sets:
The intersection of a set X and Y is the set of all elements that are
common in both X and Y. The symbol is used to denote intersection. The set
of X and Y is the common set of all the elements in both X and Y. Symbolically
we can write this is as X Y.
The intersection of the two sets X and Y is the Set of all the elements
that are in both X and Y. Symbolically, we can write it as X Y = {x : x X
Y
X
and x Y}.
Here, the common area of two circles is the intersection of set X and set Y.
Example 1.3.2 If X = {1,3,5,7} and Y = {1,2,3,4,6,8} then X Y = {1,3}.
Some characteristics of operator ‘’
1. X ∩ Y = Y ∩ X (Commutative law)
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2. (X ∩ Y) ∩ Z = X ∩ (Y ∩ Z) (Associative law)
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3. X ∩ ϕ = ϕ (Identity law)
Notes 4. X ∩ X = X (Idempotent law)
5. U ∩ X = X (Law of union)
6. X ∩ (Y Z) = (X Y) (X Z) (Distributive law)
1.3.2.3 Disjoint Sets: Two sets X and Y are known as disjoint sets, if X Y = ϕ,
i.e., if X and Y have no common element.
The Venn diagram of disjoint sets as shown in the figure:
X Y
Example 1.3.3 If X = {2,4,6} and Y = {1,3,5},
then X Y = ϕ. So, X and Y are disjoint sets.
1.3.2.4 Difference of two Sets:
If X and Y two non-empty sets, then difference X and Y is a set of all
those elements which are in X and not in Y. It is denoted as X – Y. If the
difference of two sets is Y – X, then it is a set of those elements which are
in Y but not in X. Symbolically it can be written as
Hence, X – Y = {x : x X and x Y}.
and Y – X = {x : x Y and x X}.
The Venn diagram of X – Y and Y – X are as shown in the figure and
shaded region represents X – Y and Y – X in figure 1.1.5 and figure 1.1.6
respectively.
U U
X Y Y X
Fig. 1.1.5 Difference of two sets Fig. 1.1.6 Difference of two sets
Example 1.3.4 If X = {1,2,3,4,5,6} and Y =
{1,3,5}, then X – Y = {2,4,6}.
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Example 1.3.5 If Y = {a,b,c,d,e,f} and X =
{a,e}, then Y – X = {b,c,d,f} Notes
1.3.2.5 Complement of a Set:
Suppose U is a universal set and X is a subset of U, then the
complementary set of X is the set of complements of U that are not
components of X. Symbolically, we represent the complement of X relative
to U with the symbol X or XC.
The Venn diagram of complement of a set X is as shown in the figure
and shaded portion represents X.
Fig.1.1.7 Complement of set X
Example 1.3.6 If U = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8} and X = {2,4,6,8}, then X = {1,3,5,7}.
Some characteristics of complementary Set
1. X X = U
2. X X = ϕ
3. (X= X
4. ϕ = U
5. U = ϕ
1.3.3 Cartesian product of two sets
Let A and B be two non-empty sets. The cartesian product of A and B is
denoted by and is defined as the set of all ordered pairs (a, b), where a A
and b B.
Symbolically, A × B = {(a,b) : a A and b B}.
Example 1.3.7 Let A = {1,2,3} and B = {x,y}
A × B = {(1,x), (1,y), (2,x), (2,y), (3,x), (3,y)}
B × A = {(x,1), (x,2), (x,3), (y,1), (y,2), (y,3)}
Summary:
● The union of two sets X and Y is the set of all those components which
is either in X or in Y.
● The intersection of two sets X and Y is the set of all the elements
which are common in both X or Y.
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● If the intersection of two sets is, it is called disjoint sets.
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● The difference of two sets X and Y is the set of all the elements that
Notes are in X nut not in Y.
● The difference of two sets Universal Set U and any set X is called the
complement set of X.
● Cartesian product of two sets
A × B = {(a,b) : a A and b B}.
Activity:
1. If X is the set of all months in a year and Y is the set of all month in a year
which name
started with J, then find the followings:
2. Union of set X and set Y
3. Intersection of set X and set Y
4. X–Y
5. Y–X
6. Complement of set X
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Unit - 1.4: DE Morgan’s law
Notes
Recall Session:
In the previous unit, you studied about:
● The union of sets.
● The intersection of sets
● The disjoint sets
● The difference between sets
● The complement of a set
● The cartesian product of two sets
Unit Outcome:
At the end of this unit, you will learn to
1. Define DE Morgan’s law
2. Define Distributive law
1.4.1 Introduction
In the previous unit, we learned about the various types of operations of
a set. In this unit, we will learn about what is DE-Morgan’s law.
1.4.2 DE Morgan’s law
According to this rule, “The complement of the union of the two sets is
the intersection of their complementary sets.” And “The complement of
intersection of the two sets is the union of their complementary sets.”
Symbolically, we represent it as
1. (X Y)= X Y
2. (X Y)= X Y
Example. 1.4.1 Let U = {1,2,3,4,5,6}, A = {2,3} and B = {3,4,5}. Show that
(A B) = A
B
.
Answer:
Given U = {1,2,3,4,5,6}
A = {2,3}
B = {3,4,5}
A B = {2,3,4,5}
(A B) = {1,6}
Also, A = {1,4,5,6}
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B = {1,2,6}
Notes
A B = {1,6}
Hence, (A B)= A B
Example 1.4.2 If A and B are two sets, then find the value of A (A B).
Answer:
A (A B) = A (A B) [by De-Morgan’s Law]
= (A A) B [by associative Law]
= ϕ B A A ϕ]
ϕ
1.4.3 Distributive laws
1. A (BC) = (AB) (AC)
2. A (BC) = (AB) (AC)
Example 1.4.4. If A and B are non-empty sets, then find the value of.
Solution:
(A B) (A – B) = (A B) (A B') A – B A B]
= A (B B') [by distributive Law]
=AU B B' U)
=A
Example 1.4.5 For any two sets A and B, prove the following:
A (A B) = A B
Solution:
From L.H.S.
= A (A B)
= (A A) (A B)
= ϕ (A B) A A ϕ]
=AB
Hence Proved.
Example 1.4.6 If A = {1,2,3,6}, B = {2,4,6,8} and C = {1,3,5,7}, then
find the value
of
a. (A ) (A C)
b. (A B) (A C)
Solution:
(a) (A ) (A C) = (A B) (A C) [by distributive law]
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= {1,2,3,6} [{2,4,6,8} {1,3,5,7}]
= {1,2,3,6} Notes
= {1,2,3,6}
= A
(b)(A ) (A C) = A (B C) [by distributive
law]
= {1,2,3,6} [{2,4,6,8} {1,3,5,7}]
= {1,2,3,6} {1,2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
= {1,2,3,6}
= A
Summary:
● De-Morgan’s law
● (X Y ) = X Y
● (X Y ) = X Y
● Distributive laws
● A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
● A (B C) = (A B) (A C)
Activity:
a. If X and Y are two sets, then find the value of.
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Unit - 1.5: Matrix
Notes
Recall Session:
In the previous unit, you studied about:
● DE Morgan’s law
Unit Outcome:
At the end of this unit, you will learn to
1. Define Matrix
2. Describe various types of Matrices
3. Describe Algebra of Matrices
4. Rank of Matrix
1.5.1 Introduction
In the previous unit, we learned about De Morgan’s law and in the earlier
units we have learned the union, intersection and difference of the two sets.
Knowledge of matrices is required in various branches of
mathematics. Matrix is one of the most powerful tools of mathematics.
Compared to other straightforward methods, this mathematical tool makes
our work much easier. The concept of the matrix evolved as an attempt
to solve the system of linear equations in a short and simple form. Matrix
notation or representation and operations are used to create electronic
spreadsheet programs that are used in various fields of commerce and
science like budgeting, sales projection, cost estimation, analysis of the
result of an experiment, etc. In this unit, we will discuss the matrix, equal
matrix and its various types.
1.5.2 Matrix
An arrangement of mn numbers or functions in the form of m
horizontal lines (called rows) and n vertical lines (called columns), is called a
matrix of the type m by n (or m×n).
Such an array is enclosed by the bracket [ ].
Each number constituting the matrix is called an element of the matrix.
The location of each element in the matrix is fixed. Therefore, the
elements of the matrix are represented by letters which have two
subscripts. The first subscript row and the second subscript column reveal
which row and which column the element is in. Thus, the element in the i th
row and jth column is written with aij. Therefore, the matrix in the m row and n
column is often written as follows
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a11 a1n Notes
Amn
a
m1 a mn
This is called a matrix of m × n .
The first letter of the m × n represents the number of rows in the matrix A,
and the second letter, the number of its columns.
Hence, we have
2 5
2 8 3 8 7
is a 2 × 3 matrix, a 3 × 2 matrix.
5 7 4 and
3 4
1.5.3 Types of
Matrices
1.5.3.1 Row and Column matrix- A matrix having only one row is called
a row matrix while the one having only one column is known as a column
matrix.
2
Example 1.5.1 [2 6 3] is a (1 × 3) row matrix is a (3 × 1) column
4
while matrix.
5
1.5.3.2 Null Matrix- An m × n matrix each of whose elements is 0, is called
a null matrix of the type.
0 0 0
0 0 0
, 0 0 0 an 0 0
0
0 0
Example 1.5.2 are null matrices of
d 0 0
0 0
0
the type 2 × 3, 3 × 3 and 2 × 2 respectively.
1.5.3.3 Square Matrix- An m × n matrix for which m = n, i.e., the number of
rows equals the number of columns is called a square matrix of order n or an
n-rowed square matrix.
The elements aij of a square matrix, A = [aij]n×n for which i = j, are called
the diagonal elements of the matrix and the line along which they lie is
called or simply the diagonal of the matrix.
1 9 25
Example 1.5.3 4 12 30 is a square matrix of order 3.
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8 16 32
1.5.3.4 Diagonal Matrix- A square matrix in which each one of the non-
diagonal matrices is 0, is called a diagonal Matrix.
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1 0 0
Notes 0 2 0
Example 1.5.4 is a diagonal matrix of order 3 × 3.
0 0 3
1.5.3.5 Rectangular Matrix- A m×n matrix in which the number of rows
and columns is not same, is called a rectangular matrix.
1 2 3
Example 1.5.5 is a rectangular matrix of order 2×3 .
2 3 4
1.5.3.6 Scalar Matrix- A diagonal matrix in which all the diagonal
elements are equal is called a scalar matrix.
2 0 , 0
0 2 0
Example 1.5.6 is a scalar matrix of order 3×3.
0 0
2
1.5.3.7 Symmetric matrix- A square matrix is called a symmetric matrix if
for every value of i and j a = a .
ij ji
1 3 4
3 2 5
Example 1.5.7 is a symmetric matrix of order 3×3.
4 5
6
1.5.3.8 Skew – Symmetric Matrix – A square matrix is said to be skew –
symmetric if A' –A i.e., if A = [a ] then A is called skew symmetric matrix.
Ü n,
0 x y
x 0 z
Example. 1.1.8 is a skew – symmetric matrix.
y z 0
1.5.3.9 Unit or identity matrix- Scalar matrix each of whose diagonal
element is unity, is called a unit matrix or an identity matrix. It is
represented by ‘I’.
1 0 0
Example 1.5.8 1 0
respectively. 0 1 0 is an Identity matrix of order 2×2 and
0 1 0 0 3×3,
1
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1.5.3.10 Upper Triangular matrix- A square matrix in which each element
below the principal diagonal is 0, is called an upper triangular matrix.
4 2 6
0 5 3 is called an upper triangular matrix of order
Example 1.5.9
3×3.
0 0 6
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1.5.3.11 Lower triangular matrix- A square matrix in which each element
Notes
above the principal diagonal is 0, is called a lower triangular matrix.
40 0
Example 1.5.10 2 5 0 is a lower triangular matrix of order 3×3.
3 4 6
1.5.3.12 Singular Matrix
A square matrix is called singular if │A│= 0.
1 2
Example 1.5.11 Let A
4 8
│A│= 8 – 8
=0
Hence A is a singular matrix.
1.5.3.13 Non-singular Matrix
A square matrix is called a non-singular if │A│ 0 .
1 2
Example 1.5.12 Let A=
3 4
│A│= 4 – 6
= –2
0
Hence, A is a non-singular matrix.
1.5.3.14 Equal Matrices- Two Matrices A and B are said to be, written as A
= B, if they are of the same type and their corresponding elements are
equal.
a b
a c e a c e
Example 1.5.13
a c e b d f an ec fd are not equal b d f and
d but
are equal matrix.
b d f
Summary:
● An arrangement of m×n numbers or functions in the form of m horizontal
lines (called rows) and n vertical lines (called columns), is called a matrix
of the type m by n (or m×n).
● A matrix having only one row is called a row matrix while the one
having only one column is known as a column matrix.
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● A m×n matrix each of whose elements is 0, is called a null matrix of the type m×n.
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● A m×n matrix for which m = n, i.e., the number of rows equals the
Notes number of columns is called a square matrix of order n or an n-rowed
square matrix.
● A square matrix in which each one of the non-diagonal matrices is 0,
is called a diagonal Matrix.
● A matrix in which the number of rows and columns is uneven, is called
a rectangular matrix.
● A diagonal matrix in which all the diagonal elements are equal is
called a scaler matrix.
● A square matrix is called a symmetric matrix if for every value of i and j a
ij
=a.
ji
● Scalar matrix each of whose diagonal element is unity, is called a unit
matrix or an identity matrix. It is represented by ‘I’.
● A square matrix in which each element below the principal diagonal is
0, is called an upper triangular matrix.
● A square matrix in which each element above the principal diagonal is
0, is called a lower triangular matrix.
● A square matrix is called a singular if │A│= 0.
● A square matrix is called a non-singular if │A│ 0.
● Two matrices A and B are said to be, written as A = B , if they are of the
same type and their corresponding elements are equal.
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Unit - 1.6: Algebra of a Matrices and Rank of Matrix
Notes
Recall Session:
In the previous unit, you studied about:
● Define matrix
● Describe the various types of matrices
● Define Equal matrices
Unit Outcome:
At the end of this unit, you will learn to
1. Describe algebra of matrices
2. Describe properties of algebra of matrices
3. Define transpose of a matrix
4. Describe properties of transpose of a matrix
5. Define Rank of Matrix
1.6.1 Introduction
In the previous unit, we studied about matrix, various types of matrices,
and equal matrices. In this unit, we will learn about algebra of matrices,
properties of algebra of matrices, the transpose of a matrix and the
properties of the transpose of a matrix also.
1.6.2 Algebra of a Matrices
1.6.2.1 Addition of Matrices
If two matrices A and B are equal in number of rows and the number
of columns is also equal, then A + B is the matrix whose each element is
equal to the sum of the corresponding elements of matrices A and B. Thus if
1.6.2.2 Difference of two matrices
If two matrices A and B are equal in number of rows and the number
of columns is also equal, then is the matrix whose each element is equal to
the difference of the corresponding components of A and B. Thus if
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Notes
A a1 a2 c2
c1 , B
b b d d
1 2 1 2
a1 c1 a2 c2
then, A B d b d
b
1 1 2 2
1.6.2.3 Multiplication of two Matrices
If A and B are two such matrices that the number of columns of A is
equal to the number of rows of B, then the multiplication of A and B matrix
will be AB.
a1 a2 c 1 c 2
Thus if ,B
A
d d
b b
1 2 1 2
AB a 1c1 a2d1 a1c2 a2d2
then, bc b d b c b d
11 2 1 1 2 2 2
1.6.2.4 Negative Matrix
A negative matrix of A = [a ] denoted by –A where –A = [–a ].
Ü Ü
a1 a2 a1 a2
Thus if A , then A b
b1 b2 b 1 2
1.6.3 Properties of Matrix Addition
Suppose A, B, C three matrices are of the same order .
i. Commutative Law: A + B = B + A
ii. Associative Law: A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C
iii. Additive Identity: A + O = A = O + A
where O is null matrix of order m×n .
iv. Additive Inverse: A + (–A) = O
-A is called the additive inverse of A.
v. Cancellation Law: If A + B = A + C
then B = C
vi. Properties of Scaler Multiplication: k(A + B) =kA + kB and (k1 + k2)A =
k1A + k2A, where k, k1 and k2 are constant or scaler quantity.
1.6.4 Properties of Multiplication of Matrices
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Suppose A, B, C are three matrices.
i. Associative Law: (AB).C = A.(BC)
ii. Distributive Law:
a. A(B +C) = AB + BC
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b. (A + B)C = AC + BC
iii. Identity Law: I A = A I = Notes
A
1.6.5 Transpose of a Matrix
The transpose of a matrix is a matrix formed, from the original where
the rows of the original matrix are the column of the transpose matrix. The
transpose of matrix A is represented by.
a c e b
a
Thus if A then A' c d
b d f
e f
1.6.6 Properties of Transpose of Matrices
a. (A')' = A
b. (kA)' = kA'
c. (A + B)' = A' + B'
d. (AB) = B'A'
1.6.7 Rank of a matrix
It is said that the rank of matrix A is r if
a. Every minor of A of order r + 1 is zero.
b. There is at least one minor of A of order r which does
not vanish. Or
It is said that the rank of matrix A is r if
a. Every square sub-matrix of order r + 1 is singular.
b. There is at least one square sub-matrix of order r which is non-
singular. The rank of a matrix can be represented by the
symbol 'ρ'.
Summary:
● If two matrices A and B are equal in the number of rows and the number
of columns is also equal, then A + B is the matrix whose each element
is equal to the sum of the corresponding elements of matrices A and B.
● If two matrices A and B are equal in the number of rows and the number
of columns is also equal, then A – B is the matrix whose each element is
equal to the difference of the corresponding components of A and B.
● If A and B are two such matrices that the number of columns of A is
equal to the number of rows of B, then the multiplication of A and B
matrix will be AB.
● The negative form of the matrix A = –A.
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● The transpose of a matrix is a matrix formed, from the original where
the rows of the original matrix are columns of the transpose matrix. The
transpose of matrix A is represented by A'.
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● It is said that the rank of matrix A is r if
Notes
a. Every square sub-matrix of order r + 1 is singular.
b. There is at least one square sub-matrix of order r which is non-
singular.
Solved Examples:
Ex-1.1 Check which of the following are sets and why?
a. The collection of all the student in your class.
b. The collection of the world’s biggest animal.
c. The collection of all vowels in the English alphabet.
d. The collection of five best Bollywood actors of India.
e. The collection of all whole number.
Solution:
a. The collection of all the student in your class is a well-defined collection
because you can definitely identify those students who belong to this
collection.
So, this collection is a well-defined set.
b. The collection of the world’s biggest animal is not a well-defined
collection because the criteria for determining the biggest animal can
vary from person to person.
So, this collection is not a well-defined set.
c. The collection of all vowels in the English alphabet is a well-defined
collection because you can definitely identify those alphabets who
belongs to this collection.
So, this collection is a well-defined set.
d. The collection of five best Bollywood actors in India is not a well-defined
collection because the criteria for determining the five best Bollywood
actors can vary from person to person.
So, this collection is not a well-defined set.
e. The collection of all whole number in your class is a well-defined
collection because you can definitely identify those numbers who belong
to this collection.
So, this collection is a well-defined set.
Ex-1.2 Write the following sets in set builder method:
a. X = {4,8,12,16,20}
b. X = {4,8,12,16,20}
c. X = {a,e,i,o,u}
d. X = {1,8,27,64,125}
e. X = {1,3,5,7,9}
Solution:
a. X = {x:x = 4n, nN and 1 n 5}
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b. X =
{x:x
is a
prim
e
num
ber
less
than
12}
c. X =
{x:x
is a
vow
el of
the
Engl
ish
alph
abet
s}
d. X =
{x:x
= n³,
nN
and
1
n
5}
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e. X = {x:x is an odd number less than 10} Solution:
a. Subsets
Ex-1.3 Write the following sets in the roster method: of {b} =
a. X = {x:x is an even number less than 10} ϕ, {b}
b. X = {x:x is an even prime number}
c. X = {x:x is a multiple of 5}
d. X = {x:x is a positive integer}
e. X = The set of all letters in the word AMITY
Solution:
a. X = {2,4,6,8}
b. X = {2}
c. X = {5,10. 15,20,.. .}
d. X = {1,2,3,4,5,. }
e. X = {A,M,I,T,Y}
Ex-1.4 Which of the following sets are finite or infinite or empty:
a. A set of real numbers.
b. The set of whole numbers which are less than 25.
c. The set of numbers multiple of 11.
d. The set of odd numbers which are divisible by 2.
e. The collection of all professors in your college.
f. The set of negative natural numbers.
g. The set of composite numbers.
Solution:
a. A set of real numbers is an infinite set because it has an infinite number of
real numbers.
b. The set of whole numbers which are less than 25 is a finite set because it
has a finite number of whole numbers.
c. The set of numbers multiple of 11 is an infinite set because it has an
infinite number of elements.
d. The set of odd numbers which are divisible by 2 is an empty set because it
has 0 elements.
e. The collection of all professors in your college is a finite set because it
has a finite number of professors.
f. The set of negative natural numbers is an empty set because it has 0
elements.
g. The set of composite numbers is an infinite set because it has an infinite
number of elements.
Ex-1.5 Write all the subsets of the following sets:
a. {b}
b. {2,3,5}
c. {a,1,2}
d. {a,b,c}
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Notes
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b. Subsets of {2,3,5} = ϕ, {2}, {3}, {5}, {2,3}, {3,5}, {2,5}, {2,3,5}
Notes c. Subsets of {a,1,2} = ϕ, {a}, {1}, {2}, {a,1}, {1,2}, {a,2}, {a,1,2}
d. Subsets of {a,b,c} = ϕ, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a,b}, {b,c}, {a,c}, {a,b,c}
Ex-1.6 Write all the proper subsets of the Q 1.4:
Solution:
a. Proper Subsets of {b} = {ϕ, {b}}
b. Proper Subsets of {2,3,5} = {ϕ, {2}, {3}, {5}, {2,3}, {3,5}, {2,5},
{2,3,5}}
c. Proper Subsets of {a,1,2} = {ϕ, {a}, {1}, {2}, {a,1}, {1,2}, {a,2},
{a,1,2}}
d. Proper Subsets of {a,b,c} = {ϕ, {a}, {b}, {c}, {a,b}, {b,c}, {a,c}, {a,b,c}}
Ex-1.7 Write a universal set for the following sets:
a. X = {2,3,5}, Y = {1,4,6} and Z = {1,8,9}
b. X = {a,b}, Y = {c,d,e} and Z = {e, f}
c. X = {1, a},Y = {2,b} and Z = {3,c}
d. X = {Sunday, Monday}, Y = {Friday, Saturday} and Z = {Tuesday}
e. X = {a,i,o}, Y = {e,u} and Z = {a,e}
Solution:
a. U = {1,2,3,4,5,6,8,9}
b. U = {a,b,c,d,e, f}
c. U = {a,b,c,1,2,3}
d. U = {Friday,Saturday,Sunday,Monday,Tuesday}
e. U = {a,e,i,o,u}
Ex-1.8 If A = {2,3,5}, B = {1,4,6},C = {7,8,9} and D = {10,11,12}, find the following
sets:
a. A B
b. A C
c. A D
d. B C
e. B D
f. ABC
g. A B D
h. B C D
Solution:
a. AB = {1,2,3,4,5,6}
b. AC ={2,3,5,7,8,9}
c. AD ={2,3,5,10,11,12}
d. BC ={1,4,6,7,8,9}
e. BD ={1,4,6,10,11,12}
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f.
ABC
={1,2,3
,4,5,6,7
,8,9}
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g. ABD ={1,2,3,4,5,6,10,11,12}
h. BCD ={1,4,6,7,8,9,10,11,12} Notes
Ex-1.9 If A = {3,6,9,12,15}, B = {4,8,12,16,20}, C = {2,4,6,8,10,12} and
D = {5,10,15,20,25}, find the following sets:
a. A – B
b. A – C
c. A – D
d. B – C
e. B – D
f. B–A
g. C – A
h. C – B
i. C–D
j. D–A
k. D – B
l. D–C
Solution:
a. A – B = {3,6,9,15}
b. A – C = {3,9,15}
c. A – D = {3,6,9,12}
d. B – C = {16,20}
e. B – D = {4,8,12,16}
f. B – A = {4,8,16,20}
g. C – A = {2,4,8,10}
h. C – B = {2,6,10}
i. C – D = {2,4,6,8,12}
j. D – A = {5,10,20,25}
k. D – B = {5,10,15,25}
l. D – C = {5,15,20,25}
Ex-1.10 If A = {1,3,5,7}, B = {3,5,7,9}, C = {3,7,9,11}, and D = {1,5,9,11}, find the
following sets:
a. A B
b. A C
c. B C
d. A B C
e. B C D
f. AD
g. A (BD)
h. (A B) (B C)
i. (A D) (B C)
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Solution:
Notes a. A B = {3,5,7}
b. A C = {3,7}
c. B C = {3,7,9}
d. A B C = {3,7}
e. B C D = {11}
f. A D = {1,5}
g. A (B D) = {1,3,5,7}
h. (A B) (B C) = {3,5,7}
i. (A D) (B C) = {3,5,7,9,11}
Ex-1.11 If U = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10} and A = {4,5,6,7}, find the value of AC .
Solution:
AC = U – A
= {1, 2, 3, 8, 9, 10}
Ex-1.12 If U = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10}, A = {4,5,6,7} and B = {1,2,3,9}, find the value of
followings:
a. Bc
b. (A – B)c
c. (B – A)c
d. (Ac)c
e. (A B)c
Solution:
a. The complement of
B is Bc = U – B
= {4,5,6,7,8,10}
b. A – B = {4,5,6,7}
(A – B)c = U – (A – B)
= {1,2,3,8,9,10}
c. B – A = {1,2,3,9}
(B – A)c = U – (B – A)
= {4,5,6,7,8,10}
d. Ac = {1,2,3,8,9,10}
(Ac)c = {4,5,6,7}
e. A B =
{1,2,3,4,5,6,7,9} (A
B)c = {8,10}
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Ex 1.13 In a survey of 400 movie viewers, 150 were listed as liking ‘Veer-Zara’, 100
as liking ‘Aitraaz’ and 75 were listed as both liking ‘Aitraaz’ as well as ‘Veer-Zara’.
Notes
Find how many people were liking neither ‘Aitraaz’ nor ‘Veer-Zara’.
Answer: Let U denote the set of movie viewers. Let V denote the set
of people liking ‘Veer-Zara’ and A denote the set of people liking ‘Aitraaz’.
Then
n (U) =
34 n (V)
= 150 n
(A) = 100
n (V A) = 75
Now,
n (V' A') = n (V A)'
= n (U) – n(V A)
= n (U) – n(V) – n (A) + n (V A)
= 400 – 150 – 100 + 75
= 225
Ex-1.1.4 In a town of 10,000 families, it was found that 40% families buy
newspaper A, 20% families buy newspaper B and 10% families buy newspaper C,
5% buy A and B, 3% buy B and C and 4% buy A and C. If 2% families buy all of
three newspapers, then find the number of families which buy A only.
Solution: Given: -
n A 40% of 10,000
=4000
n B 20% of 10,000
=2000
nC 10% of 10,000
=1000
n A B 5% of 10,000
=500
nB C 3% of 10,000
=300
nC A 4% of 10,000
=400
n A B C 2% of
10,000
=200
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Notes
So
,
n A B' C ' n A B C
'
by De-Morgan's law
n A nA B C
n A n A B n A C n A B C
4000 500 400 200
3300
Ex- 1.15 Out of 100 students; 15 passed in English, 12 passed in
Mathematics, 8 in Science, 6 in English and Mathematics, 7 in Mathematics and
Science, 4 in English and Science and 4 in all the three passed. Find the number
of students who only passed in Mathematics.
Solution: Let E, M and S be denoting the total number of students passed
in English, passed in Mathematics and passed in Science, respectively.
n U 100
nE 15
n M 12
nS
8 nE M
6 nM S
7 nE
S 4
nE M S 4
So,
nM E ' S' n M E S
'
by De-Morgan's law
nM nM E S
nM nM E nM S nM E S
12 6 7 4
3
Ex- 1.16 If U a,b,c,d,e , A a,b,d and B b,d,e . Prove that the
De-
Morgan’s law of intersection.
Solution:
U a,b,c,d,e
A a,b,d
B b,d,e
A B a,b,d b,d,e
A B b,d
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From equation (1) and
(2) Notes
So, A B
'
.......1
a,c,e
A' c,e
B' a,c
So, A' B' c,e a,c
=a,c,e .......2
From equation (1) and (2)
'
A B A' B'
Which is a De-Morgan’s law of
intersection. Hence Proved.
5 4 1 3 2 4
Ex-
If
1.17 A , B , C , then find the
3 2 2 5 1 8
followings:
(a) A B
(b) A B
(c) B C
(d) 2B C
(e) AB
(f) BA
Solution: 1 3
5 4
(a) Given: A and B
3 2 2 5
6 7
So, A B
1 7
5 4 1 3
(b) Given: A and B
3 2
2 5
4 1
So, A B 3
5
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Notes 1 3 2 4
(c) Given: B and C
2 5 1 8
3 7
So, B C
3 13
1 3 2 4
(d) Given: B and C
2 5 1 8
So,
2B C 2 6 2 4
4 10 1
8
0 2
3
5 4
1 3
(e) Given: A and B
3 2 2 5
So,
5 4 1 3
AB
3 2 2 5
5 8 15 20
34
3 35
1 1 3
5 4
(f) Given: A and B
3 2
2 5
So,
1 3 5 4
BA
2 5 3 2
59 46
10 15 8 10
14 10
5 2
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4 2 20 Notes
Ex-1.18 x y , then find the value of x
If
and 6y. 2
Solution:
Given:
4 2 20
x y
6 2
4x 2y 20
6x y 2
4x 2y 20............1
6x 2y 10...........2
On
solving,
10x = 30
x=3
Substitute the value of x into
equation (1) 12 – 2y = 20
– 2y = 3
Hence, the value of x and y are 3 and -4, respectively.
Ex-1.19 Find the transpose of following matrix :
1 1
4
(a) A 2
3 9
1 6
(b) B
3 8
a d e
(c) C b f g
c h i
4 12 20
(d) D
5 15 25
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Solution:
Notes
1 1
(a) Given: A 2 4
3 9
1 2 3
A'
1 4 9
1 6
(b) Given: B
3 8
1 3
B'
6 8
a d e
f g
(c) Given: C b
c h i
a b c
C ' d f h
e g i
4 12 20
(d) Given: D
5 15 25
4 5
D' 12 15
20 25
Ex-1.20 Find the rank of the following matrix :
1 2 3
(a) A 2 3 4
0 2 2
1 2 3
(b) B 2 3 4
3 5 7
Solution:
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1 2 3
Notes
(a) Given: A 2 3 4
0 2
2
The determinant of A for order 3
1 2 3
A2 3 4
0 2 2
16 8 2 0 4 3 4 0
2 8 12
18
0
Hence, rank of matrix A is 3.
1 2 3
B 2 3 4
Give
n:
3 5 7
Determinant of A for order 3
1 2 3
B2 3 4
3 5 7
121 20 214 12 310 9
143
0
B 0
Hence, rank of matrix A cannot be 3.
So, we check the any minor of order 2 is the determinant of order 2, i.e.,
3 4
B
5 7
21 20
1
B 0
Hence, rank of matrix A is 2.
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Further Readings:
Notes
● Class XI & XII N.C.E.R.T Mathematics Book
● Ravita Bharadwaj, “Mathematics for Managers”, University Science
Press, New Delhi
● P.C. Tulsian, Bharat Tulsian, “Tulsian’s Business Mathematics, Logical
Reasoning & Statistics”, McGraw Hill Education Private Limited
● Asim Kumar Manna, “Business Mathematics and Statistics”, McGraw Hill
Education Private Limited
Exercise:
Check your progress:
1. Which of the following is a correct set?
(a)A collection of most dangerous animals of the world.
(b)A team of 5 best footballer of the world.
(c) The collection of ten most interesting books.
(d)The collection of all the days of a week beginning with the letter S.
2. The builder form of the following set is X 5,10,15,20,25
(a) X x :x 5n,n and 1 n 5
(b) X x :x 5n,n and 1 n 5
(c) X x :x 5n,n and 1 n 5
(d) X x :x 5n,n and 1 n 5
3. The Roster form of the following set is
X x :x n2,n and 1 n
6
(a) X 1,8,27,64,125
(b) X 1,4,9,16,25
(c) X 1,2,3,4,5
(d) X 1,4,9,16,25,36
4. The Roster form of the following X x :x 2n,n and 1 n
set is
6
(a) X 2,4,6,8,10
(b) X 1,4,6,8,10,12
(c) X 2,4,6,8,10,12
(d) X 2,4,9,16,25,36
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5. The builder form of the following set is X 1,4,9,16,
........................................................................................,100
Notes
(a) X x :x 2n,n and 1 n 10
(b)
X x :x n2,n and 1 n 10
(c) X x :x 5n,n and 1 n 10
(d)
X x :x n2,n and 1 n 10
6. The set of tallest students in a class is
(a) a null set
(b)a singleton sets
(c) a finite set
(d)not a well-defined set.
7. Which of the following is an equivalent set?
(a) X 2,4,6,8,10 ,Y 3,6,9,12,15
(b) X 5,10,11,13,18 ,Y 6,8,11,12
(c) X a,b,c,d,e
1,2,3,4 ,Y
(d) X a,e,i,o,u
f,j,k,l ,Y
8. Which of the following is null set?
(a) Set of even prime number
(b)Set of odd natural number divisible by 4
(c) Set of odd prime number
(d)Set of whole number
9. Which of the following set are finite?
(a) X x :x 4n
1,n
(b) X x :x is a naturalnum ber
(c) X x :x is a prim e num ber
(d)
X x :x2 4,x
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10. If 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10 and 2,5,7,8,10, then is
U X
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(a) X '
1,3,4,6,9
Notes
(b) X '
2,3,4,7,9
X '
2,3,5,8,10
(c)
X '
2,5,7,8,10
(d)
X X Y
'
11. If X and Y are two given sets, then is equal to
(a) X
(b)Y
(c)
(d)X Y
12. If X and Y are two non-empty sets, then P X P Y
(a) P X Y
(b) P X Y
(c) P X P Y
(d) None of these
13. If X = {6} which of the following statement is correct?
(a) X 6
(b) 6 X
(c) 6 X
(d) 6 X
14. If X = {a, b, c, d} which of the following is not a subset of X?
(a) {a, b}
(b){b, c}
(c) {c, e}
(d){a, d}
15. If
nX Y 13, nX 20 , n Y 44 and nX Y is
(a) 27
(b)13
(c) 75
(d)51
16. If
nX 6 , nY 8 , nX Y 12,then nX Y is
(a) 6
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(b)2
(c) 8 Notes
(d)12
17. The number of all possible subsets of the set {1, 2,
b, c, 5} is
(a) 5
(b)10
(c) 16
(d)32
18. If X = {b, c}, then the power set of X is
(a) b,c
(b) ,b,c
(c) a,c
(d) ,b,c,b,c
19. The total number of elements in a power set of X containing n elements is
(a) 2n
(b)n2
(c) 2n – 1
(d)22n
20. Directions from Q20 to Q26: If X = {1, 2, 3}, Y = {2, 3, 4}, Z = {4, 5, 6, 7} Z Y = ?
(a) {2}
(b) (4)
(c) {2,
4} (d)
{5, 6}
21. X Y = ?
(a) {1, 4}
(b) {2, 3}
(c) {1, 2, 3, 4}
(d) {1, 2}
22. X Y = ?
(a) {1, 2, 3, 4}
(b) {2, 3}
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(c) {1, 4}
Notes
(d) {4, 5}
23. X Y Z ?
(a) {1, 2, 3, 4}
(b) {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7}
(c) {2, 3, 4, 5, 6,7}
(d) {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
24. X Y Z ?
(a) {2, 3}
(b) {4}
(c) {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,7}
(d)
25. (X Y) = ?
(a) {1, 2, 3,
4} (b) {2,
3}
(c) {1, 4, 5, 6,7}
(d) {4, 5, 6, 7}
26. (X Y)' = ?
(a) {1, 2, 3, 4}
(b) {1, 4, 5, 6, 7}
(c) {2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
(d) {5, 6, 7}
X Y
'
27. The set Y
'
Z is equal to
(a) X '
Y Z
(b) X '
Y
(c) X Z'
'
(d) X '
Y
28. If X and Y are two sets,
then
X Y Z equals
(a) X
(b)Y
(c)
(d)X Y
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29. Let X = {x : x is a positive in multiple of 3 less than 100} and Y = {y : y (d) 260
is a a prime number less than 20}. Then n (x) + n (Y) is
(a) 41
(b)31
(c) 33
(d)30
3. In a class of 100 students, 30 students play crickets and 25 students
play football, and 15 students play both the games. Find the number of
students who play neither.
(a) 50
(b)55
(c) 40
(d)60
31. From 50 students taking examinations in Economics, Business
Mathematics and Accountancy, each of the student has passed in at
least one of the subject, 37 passed Economics, 24 passed Business
Mathematics and 43 Accountancy. At most 19 passed Economics and
Business mathematics, at most 29 Economics and Accountancy and 20
Business Mathematics and Accountancy. The largest possible number of
students that could have passed all three examinations is
(a) 14
(b)13
(c) 15
(d)20
32. In a college of 300 students, every student reads 5 different types of
magazines and
every magazine is read by 60 students. The number of magazines is
(a) at least 30
(b)atmost20
(c) exactly 25
(d)None of these
33. In a town of 840 persons,450 persons read Tamil, 300 read English and
290 read neither Tamil nor English. Then, the number of persons who
read both
(a) 210
(b) 290
(c) 180
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Notes
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34. In a committee, 100 people speak Hindi, 40 speak English, and 20 speak
Notes both Hindi and English. The number of people speak at least one of these
two languages is
(a) 150
(b) 60
(c) 120
(d) 135
35. Out of 800 children in a school, 224 played Badminton, 240 played
Hockey, and 336 played Basketball. Out of this, 64 played both
Basketball and Hockey, 80 played Basketball and Badminton and 40
played Badminton and Hockey, 24 played all the three games. The
number of children who did not play any game is
(a) 128
(b) 216
(c) 240
(d) 160
1 0 0
36. If A 0 2 0 , then A is
0 0
3
(a) Diagonal matrix
(b)Scalar matrix
(c) Unit matrix
(d)None of these
37. A column matrix has only
(a) One element
(b) One row with one or more columns
(c) One column with one or more rows
(d) One row with one element
1 2 3 2
0 3
38. If A 0 5 7 and B 3 0 5 then 2A 3B is
6 8 5 7 0
9
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8 4 15 Notes
(a) 9 10 29
27 37
18
4 4 3
(b) 9 10 1
3 5 18
4 4 3
(c) 9 10 1
3 5 18
(d) None of these
a1 a 2 a 3 4 then a = ?
1 2 3
39. If
a
(a) 1
(b)2
(c) -2
(d)-1
1 0 0 0
40. I
f A ,B , then
2 0 1 12
(a) AB = 0, BA = 0
(b) AB = 0, BA 0
(c) AB 0, BA = 0
(d) AB 0, BA 0
41. If x 4 2x 8 8 , then
6 y 1 6 2
(a) x = 8, y =
3 (b) x = 4, y
= –3 (c) x =
4, y = –1
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(d) x = 4, y = 3
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Notes
42. If 0 , then A = ?
i
A 2
0 i
1 0
(a)
0 1
1 0
(b)
1
0
(c)
1 0
(d) 0 1
1 0
0 1 3 0
7 0
43. If
XY and X Y , then X and Y are
2 5 0 3
5 0 2 0
(a) X ,Y
1 4 1 1
5 1 2 1
(b) X ,Y
1 4 1 1
5 1 2 1
(c) X ,Y
0 4 0 1
5 1 2 1
(d) X ,Y
1 4 1 1
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0 1 0 i
44. If
A and B , then
0
1 0
i
(a)A2 = B2 = I
(b)A2 = B2 = –I
(c)A2 = I, B2 = –I
(d)A2 = –I, B2 = I
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45. If A 4 , then A - 2IA - 3I Notes
1 1
?
(a)A
(b)I
(c) O
(d)5
I 1 2 1 10
4 1
46. If A 3 4 2 and B 11 5 0 and, then
1 3 2 5 1
(a)AB = BA 9
(b)AB BA
(c)AB = 2BA
(d)None of these
2 0 1
47. I A 2
1 3 A2 5A 6I ?
, then
f
1 1 0
1 1 5
(a) 1 1 4
3 10 4
1 1 3
(b) 1 1 10
5 4 4
(c) O
(d) I
48. A is a square matrix, then A + A' is
(a) Unit matrix
(b)Null matrix
(c) Symmetric matrix
(d)None of these
1
0 0
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6 Basic
49. If is identity matrix, then I is
–1
0 0
1
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(a) O
Notes
(b)3I
(c) I
(d)Not
exist
1 2
50.
The inverse of A is
2 3
3 2
(a)
1
2
3 2
(b)
2 1
(c)
1 2
2 3
3 2
(d)
2 1
2x 0
1 0
51.
If 1
A , and A , then x ?
x x 1 2
(a) 1
(b) 2
1
(c)
2
(d) None of these
52.
A necessary and sufficient condition for a square matrix A to posses
inverse is that
(a)A = 0
(b)adj A = 0
(c) |A| 0
(d) |A| = 0
53.
The rank of the identity or unit matrix of order n is
(a) n – 1
(b)n
(c) n + 1
(d)n2
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Basic
If A is a non-singular matrix of order n, then the rank of A is
(a) 0
(b)2
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(c) n – 1
(d)n Notes
1 1 1
55.
The rank of the 1 2 3 is
matrix
(a) 0 1 4 9
(b)1
(c) 2
(d)3
1 1 1
56.
I Aa a a, then rank of matrix A is
f
3 3 3
a a a
(a) 1
(b)2
(c) 3
(d)4
57.
2 0
I
f A , then rank of matrix A is
0 8
(a) 0
(b)1
(c) 2
(d)3 1 2 4
58.
The rank of the matrix A 1 2 5 is
(a) 0
1 2 4
(b)1
(c) 2
(d)3
5 0 2
59. If A 0 1 0 and M I3 A , then the rank of M is
(a) 0 4 0 1
(b)1
(c) 2
(d)3
1 2 3
where
60.
Rank of the matrix A,
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(a) 2
A 2 3 4 is
3 5 7
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(b)3
Notes
(c) 1
(d)0
2 3
A 1 5 2
B 1 4 , then rank of matrix AB is
61.
I 3 2 1 and
f
(a) 0 2 1
(b)1
(c) 2
(d)3
62.
Which of the following is rank of matrix AA' ?
(a) rank A
(b)rank A'
(c) 1
(d)None of these
Answer Keys (Exercise):
Question Answer Question Answer Question Answer
1 d 2 a 3 b
4 c 5 b 6 d
7 a 8 b 9 d
10 a 11 d 12 d
13 d 14 c 15 d
16 b 17 d 18 d
19 a 20 b 21 c
22 a 23 b 24 d
25 c 26 d 27 b
28 a 29 a 30 d
31 a 32 c 33 b
34 c 35 d 36 a
37 c 38 c 39 b
40 b 41 d 42 b
43 a 44 b 45 c
46 b 47 b 48 c
49 c 50 a 51 c
52 c 53 b 54 d
55 d 56 a 57 c
58 c 59 b 60 a
61 b 62 a
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Basic
51
Module – 2: Mathematical Logic
Notes
Course Contents:
● Basic concepts
● Propositions or Statements
● Truth Table
● Connectives and Compound Propositions
● Implication
● Bi-conditional of Connectives
● Converse
● Inverse and Contra positives of an Implication
● Tautology
● Logical equivalence
● Switching Circuits
Key Learning Objectives:
At the end of this block, you will be able to:
1. Define Propositions or Statements
2. Define Truth table
3. Define Connectives and Compound Propositions
4. Define Implication
5. Define Bi-conditional of Connectives
6. Define Converse, Inverse and Contra positives of an
Implication
7. Define Tautology
8. Define Logical Equivalence
9. Define Switching Circuits
Structure:
Unit 2.1: Basic Concepts of Mathematical Logic
2.1.1 Introduction
2.1.2 Propositions or Statements
2.1.3 Compound Proposition
2.1.4. Connectives
2.1.4.1 Negation
2.1.4.2 Conjunction
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2.1.4.3 Disjunction
Notes
2.1.4.4 Conditional Proposition or Implication
2.1.4.5 Bi-conditional
2.1.5Truth Table
2.1.6Converse, Contrapositive and Inverse
2.1.7Negation of Compound statement
2.1.7.1 Negation of Conjunction
2.1.7.2 Negation of Disjunction
2.1.7.3 Negation of a Negation
2.1.7.4 Negation of a Conditional
2.1.7.5 Negation of Bi-conditional
2.1.8Algebra of Proposition
2.1.9Logical Equivalence
2.1.10 Tautology
2.1.11 Contradiction
2.1.12 Contingency
Unit 2.2: Switching Circuits
2.2.1Introduction
2.2.2Switching circuits
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Unit - 2.1: Basic Concepts of Mathematical Logic
Notes
Unit Outcome:
At the end of this unit, you will learn to
● Define Proposition or statements
● Construct Truth tables
● Define Connectives and Compound Propositions
● Define Implication, Negation and Bi-conditional of connectives
● Define Converse, Inverse and Contrapositive
● Define Algebra of Propositions
● Define Tautology, Contradiction and Contingency
2.1.1 Introduction
A statement, in practice, is constructed by means of words. We know
that a word has more than one meaning, so there is a possibility of
interpreting a group of words in more than one way and thereby creating
confusion in the meaning of a statement. We use symbolic language to
express mathematical statements and analysis of this symbolic language is
the logic. Study of logic is very important in discrete mathematics as it
provides the theoretical basis for many areas of computer science as
artificial intelligence, digital logic, design, etc. In this unit, we will discuss the
proposition or statements, compound statements, connectives, negation,
conjunction, disjunction, truth table, implication, converse, inverse,
contrapositive, bi-conditional, negation of compound statements, logical
equivalence, tautology, contradiction and contingency also.
2.1.2 Proposition or Statement
A proposition or statement is a declarative (assertive) sentence that is
either true or false, but not both simultaneously.
For example, “One plus two equals five” and “ One plus two equals
three” are both statements, the first because it is false and the second
because it is true.
The truth or falsity of a statement is called its truth value. Since only two
possible truth values are admitted, this logic is sometimes called two-valued
logic.
Since only two possible truth values are admitted, this logic is
sometimes called two-valued logic.
Questions, exclamations and commands are not propositions.
The simple propositions are represented by the letters p, q, r, etc., which
are known as propositions variables. Propositional variables can assume only
two values - ‘true’ denoted by T or 1 and ‘false’ denoted by F or 0.
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2.1.3 Compound Proposition
Notes
A proposition consisting of only a single propositional variable or a single
propositional constant is called an atomic (primary or primitive) proposition
or simply proposition, i.e., they can not be further subdivided.
A proposition obtained from the combinations of two or more
propositions by means of logical operators or connectives of two or more
propositions, or by negating a single proposition, is referred to as composite
or compound proposition.
2.1.4 Connectives
The words and phrases (or symbols) used to form compound
propositions are called connectives. There are five basic connectives called
Negation, Conjunction, Disjunction, Conditional and Biconditional.
The following Symbols are used to represent connectives.
Symbol Connective Nature of the com- Symbolic Negation
used word pound statement form
formed by the con-
nective
~, Not Negation ~p ~(p) = p
N
And Conjunction pq (~p) (~q)
Or Disjunction pq (~p) (~q)
if…....then conditional pq p (~q)
Conditional
if and only Bi- pq [p (~q)] [q ()
if conditional (~p)]
Table 2.1.1 Table for different connective words
2.1.4.1 Negation
If p is any proposition, the negation of p, denoted by ~p and read as not
p, is a proposition which is false when p is true and true when p is false.
Consider the statement
p : Dehradun is in Uttarakhand,
and negation of the above sentence is
~p : Dehradun is not in Uttarakhand,
Here ‘not’ is not a connective. Since it does not join two statements
and is not really a compound statement.
Now, we take another statement
q : No student is intelligent.
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and
neg
atio
n of
the
abo
ve
sen
ten
ce
is
~q
:
So
me
stu
de
nts
are
int
elli
ge
nt.
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2.1.4.2 Conjunction F
If p and q are two statements, then the conjunction of p and q is the Table 2.1.2
compound statement denoted by p q and read as “ p and q”. The Truth table
compound statement pq is true when both p and q are true, otherwise, it is for pq
false.
2.1.4.3 Disjunction
If p and q are two statements, then disjunction of p and q is the
compound statement denoted by p q and read as “ p or q”. The compound
statement p q is true if at least one of p or q is true. If p and q are false,
then it will be false.
2.1.4.4 Conditional Proposition or Implication
If p and q are proposition, the compound proposition “if p the q”
denoted by pq is called a conditional connective. The proposition p is
called antecedent or hypothesis, and the proposition q is called the
consequent or conclusion.
pq is false under the condition that p is true and q is false.
Examples 2.1.1
1. If tomorrow is Wednesday, then today is Tuesday.
2. If it rains, then I will carry an umbrella.
Here p : Tomorrow is Wednesday is
antecedent q : Today is Tuesday is
consequent
and p : It rains is antecedent
q: I will carry an umbrella is
consequent The connective if…….then can also be
read as follows:
1. p is sufficient for q.
2. p only if q.
3. q is necessary for p.
4. q if p.
5. q follows from p.
6. q is consequence of p.
The truth table of pq is given follows:
p q p→q
T T T
T F F
F T T
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Notes
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2.1.4.5 Bi-conditional
Notes
If p and q are statements, then the compound statement p if and only if
and q, denoted by pq is called a biconditional statement and the
connective if and only if is the biconditional connective. The biconditional
statement pq can also be stated as “p is a necessary and sufficient
condition for q.”
Example 2.1.2
i. He swims if and only if the water is warm.
ii. Sales of houses fall if and only if the interest rate rises.
The truth table for pq is given in the following table. The statement
pq will be true only when both p and q are false.
p q p↔q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
Table 2.1.3 Truth table for pq
2.1.5 Truth Tables
A truth tables is a table that shows the truth value of a compound
proposition for all possible cases.
For example, consider the conjunction of any two propositions p and q.
The compound statement pq is true when both p and q are true, otherwise it
is false. There are four possible cases.
1. p is true and q is true.
2. p is true and q is false.
3. p is false and q is true.
4. p is false and q is false.
These four cases are listed in the first two columns and the truth values
of pq are shown in the third column of table.2.1.4 The truth tables for the
other two connectives disjunction and negation of p are shown in table 2.1.5
and 2.1.6.
p q pq
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Table 2.1.4 The truth table for pq
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p q pq Notes
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
Table 2.1.5 The truth table for pq
p ~p
T F
F T
Table 2.1.6 Truth table for ~p
2.1.6 Converse, Contrapositive and Inverse
If p and q are two propositions, then some other conditional propositions
related to p q are
a. Converse: The converse of p q is q p .
b. Contrapositive : The contrapositive of p q is ~q ~p .
c. Inverse: The inverse of p q is ~p ~q .
The truth table of the four propositions follow:
p q Conditional Converse Inverse Contrapositive
p→q q→p ~p → ~q ~q → ~p
T T T T T T
T F F T T F
F T T F F T
F F T T T T
Table 2.1.7 Truth table for Conditional, Converse, Inverse and
Contrapositive Consider the statement
p: It rains
q: the crops will grow
The conditional proposition p q states
that, p q : If it rains then the crops will
grow.
The converse of p q namely q p states
that, q p : If the crops grow, then there
has been rain.
The contrapositive of p q, namely ~q ~p states that,
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~q ~p : If the crops do not grow then there has been
Notes
no rain. The inverse of p q, namely ~p ~q states
that,
~p ~q : If it does not rain then the crops will not grow.
2.1.7 Negation of Compound Statements
2.1.7.1 Negation of Conjunction
The negation of a conjunction pq is the disjunction of the negation of p
and the negation of q. Symbolically we can write
~(pq) ~pv q
Truth table of negation of a conjunction is shown in the following table:
p q ~p ~q pq ~(p q) ~p v ~ q
T T F F T F F
T F F T F T T
F T T F F T T
F F T T F T T
Table 2.1.8 Truth table for negation of conjunction
2.7.1.2 Negation of Disjunction
The negation of a disjunction p q is the conjunction of the negation of p
and the negation of q. Symbolically, we can write
~(pq) ~pv q
Truth table of negation of a disjunction is shown in the following table:
p q ~p ~q pq ~(p q) ~p ~ q
T T F F T F F
T F F T T F F
F T T F T F F
F F T T F T T
Table 2.1.9 Truth table for negation of disjunction
2.1.7.3 Negation of a Negation
A negation of negation of a statement is the statement
itself. Symbolically, we can write
~ (~p) p
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2.1.7.4 Negation of a Conditional b. p q
q
If p and q are two statements, then p
~(p q) p q
The negation of a conditional statement is shown in the following truth
table:
p q ~q p→q ~(p → q) p~q
T T F T F F
T F T F T T
F T F T F F
F F T T F F
Table 2.1.10 Truth table for negation of
conditional
2.1.7.5 Negation of a Bi-conditional
If p and q are two statements, then
~ (pq) p ~q ~p q
The negation of a bi-conditional statement is shown in the following truth
table:
p q ~p ~q p↔q ~(p ↔ q) ~p ↔ q p ↔ ~q
T T F F T F F F
T F F T F T T T
F T T F F T T T
F F T T T F F F
Table 2.1.11 Truth table for negation of bi-
conditional
2.1.8 Algebra of Proposition
Proposition satisfy various laws. These laws are useful to simplify
expression. All the laws except involution law in pairs are called dual pairs.
For each expression, one finds the dual by replacing all T by F and all F by T
and Replacing all by and all by. These laws are given in the followings:
1. Idempotent law
b. p q p
c. p q p
2. Associative law
c. (p q) r p (q r)
d. (p q) r p (q r)
5. Commutative law
a. p q q p
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Notes
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4. Distributive law
Notes e. p (q r) (p q) (p r)
f. p (q r) (p q) (p r)
5. Identity law
f. pTT
g. p F p
h. p T p
i. pFF
6. Complement law
g. p ~p T
h. p ~p F
i. ~T F
j. ~F T
7. Involution law
h. ~(~p) p
9. De Morgan’s law
j. ~(p q) ~p ~q
k. ~(p q) ~p ~q
2.1.9 Logical Equivalence
If two propositions P(p, q,…..) and Q(p, q,…..) where p, q,…... are
propositional variables have the same truth values in every possible case or
is a tautology, then the propositions are called tautology, then the
propositions are called logically equivalent or simply equivalent and denoted
by
P p,q,...... Q p,q,.....
or
P p,q,...... Q p,q,......
It is always permissible, and sometimes desirable to replace a given
proposition by an equivalent one.
To test whether two propositions P and Q are logically equivalent the
following steps are followed.
1. Construct the truth table for P.
2. Construct the truth for Q using the same propositional variables.
3. Check each possible combinations of truth values of the propositional
variables to see whether the value of P is the same as the truth value of
Q. If the truth value of P in each row is equal to the truth value of Q, then
P and Q are logically equivalent.
2.1.10 Tautology
A statement pattern whose truth value is true for all possible
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combi
nation
s of
the
truth
values
of its
prime
compo
nents
is
called
a
tautol
ogy.
We
denot
ed
tautol
ogy by
t.
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Statement pattern P ~ p is a tautology.
Notes
2.1.11 Contradiction
A statement pattern whose truth value is false for all possible
combinations of the truth values of its prime components is called a
contradiction. We denoted contradiction by c.
Statement pattern P ~ p is a contradiction.
2.1.12 Contingency
A statement pattern which is neither a tautology nor a contradiction is
called a contingency.
p q is a contingency.
Solved Examples:
Ex-2.1 Form the conjunction of p and q for each of the following.
a. p : Ram is healthy. q : He has blue eyes.
b. p : It is cold. q : It is raining.
c. p : 5x + 6 = 26 q:x>3
Solution :
(a) p q: Ram is healthy and he has blue eyes.
(b)p q: It is cold and raining.
(c) p q: 5x + 6 = 26 and x > 3
Ex-2.2 Assign a truth value to each of the following
statements. (a) 5 < 5 5 < 6
(b) 5 × 4 = 21 9 + 7 = 17
(c) 6 + 4 = 10 0 > 2
Solution:
a. True, since one of its components, i.e., 5 < 6 is true.
b. False, since both of its components are false.
c. True, since one of its components, i.e., 6 + 4 = 10 is true.
Ex-2.3 If p : It is cold and q : It is raining.
Write simple verbal sentence which describes each of the following
statements.
(a) ~p
(b)p q
(c) p q
(d)p ~ q
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Solution:
Notes
(a) ~p : It is not cold.
(b)p q : It is cold and raining.
(c) p q : It is cold or raining.
(d)p ~q : It is cold or it is not raining.
Ex-2.4 Construct a truth table for ~(p q) (~p
~q) .
Solution: The truth table for ~(p q) (~p ~q) .
p q ~p ~q pq ~(p ~q) ~p ~q ~(p q) ~(p ~q)
T T F F T F F F
T F F T T F F F
F T T F T F F F
F F T T F T T T
Ex-2.5 Construct a truth table for p q p.
Solution: The truth table for p q p
p q ~q p ~q p ~q → p
T T F T T
T F T T T
F T F F T
F F T T F
Ex-2.6 Prove that if x2 is divisible by 4, then x is even.
Solution: Let p and q be the propositions
such that p : x2 is divisible by 4
and q : x is even
the conditional is of the form p q. The contrapositive is ~q ~p, which
states in words:
If x is odd, then x2 is not divisible by
4. The proof of contrapositive is
easy.
Since x is odd, one ca write x = 2k + 1, for some integer k. Hence
2
x 2 2k 1
4k2 4k 1
4 k2 1
k
4
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Since k2 + k is an integer,
and
k2 k is not an integer, x is not
2
1 divisible by
4.
4
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Ex-2.7 Write the negation of each of the following conjunctions: ~(p
q) p
(a) Paris is in France and London is in ~q
England. (b) 2 + 4 = 6 and 7 < 12
Solution:
(a) Let p : Paris is in France and q : London is in
England Then the conjunction is given by p q .
Now
~ p : Paris is not in France.
~ q : London is not in England.
Therefore, negation of p q is
given by
~ (p q) : Paris in not in France or London is not in England.
Let p : 2 + 4 = 6 and q : 7 <12
Then, the conjunction is given by p
q . Now,
~p : 2 + 4 and ~q : 7 12
The negation of p q is given by
~ (p q) : 2 + 4 = 6 and ~q : 7 12
Ex-2.8 Verify negation of a negation for the
statement p : Roses are red
Solution: The negation of p is given by
~ p : Roses are not red.
Hence, the negation of negation of p is ~(~p) :
It is not the case that roses are
not red. or
It is false that roses are not
red. or
Roses are red.
Ex-2.9 Write the negation of the statements “If it is raining, then the game is
cancelled”.
Solution: Let p : It is raining, and q : The game is cancelled.
The given statement can be written as pq. The negation of pq is
written as
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Notes
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Hence, the negation of the given statement is it is raining and the
Notes game is not cancelled.
Ex-2.10 Using the truth table prove the following logical
equivalence p q p) ~p (p q)
Solution: The truth table for p q p) ~p (p q)
p q q→p p → (q → q) ~p p→q ~ p → (p → q)
T T T T F T T
T F T T F F T
F T F T T T T
F F T T T T T
So, from the column 4
and 7, p q p) ~p
(p q)
Ex-2.11 Using the truth table prove the following logical
equivalence p (q r) (p q) (p r)
Solution: The truth table for p (q r) (p q) (p r)
p q R qr p → (q r) (p q) (p → r) p → (q r) ≡ (p q) (p → r)
T T T T T T T T
T T F F F T F F
T F T F F F T F
T F F F F F F F
F T T T T T T T
F T F F T T T T
F F T F T T T T
F F F F T T T T
So, from the column 5
and 8, p (q r) (p q)
(p r)
Ex-2.12 Examine whether the following statement pattern is a tautology or
a contradiction or a contingency.
(p q) (q p)
Solution: The truth table for (p q) (q p)
P Q pq qp (p q)→ (q p)
T T T T T
T F F T T
T T F T T
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T F F F T
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All the values in the last column of the above truth table
are T. So, (p q) (q p) is a tautology. Notes
Ex- 2.13 Examine whether the following statement pattern is a
tautology or a contradiction or a contingency.
Solution: The truth table for (p q p q)
p q ~p q→p ~q p (p → q) ↔ (~ p q)
T T F T T T
T F F F F T
F T T T T T
F F T T T T
All the values in the last column of the above truth table
are T. So, (p q p q) is a tautology.
Ex- 2.14 Examine whether the following statement pattern is a
tautology or a contradiction or a contingency.
Solution: The truth table for [(p q) q] p
p q p→q (p → q) q [(p → q) q] → p
T T T T T
T F F F T
F T T T F
F F T F T
The entries in the last column of the above truth table are neither all T
nor all F. Hence [(p q) q] p is a contingency.
Ex-2.15 Examine whether the following statement pattern is a tautology
or a contradiction or a contingency.
Solution: The truth table for (p q) (p ~q)
p q ~q p↔q p → q ~q
T T F T F F
T F T F T F
F T F F T F
F F T T T T
The entries in the last column of the above truth table are neither all T
nor all F. Hence (p q) (p ~q) is a contingency.
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Ex-2.16 Examine whether the following statement pattern is a tautology or
Notes a contradiction or a contingency. [p (~qvr)] ~[p (qr)]
Solution: The truth table for [p (~qvr)] ~[p (qr)]
p q r ~q ~qvr p → (~qvr) q → r p→ [p→ (~qvr)] ↔
(~qvr) ~[p → (q→r)]
T T T F T T T T F
T T F F F F F F T
T F T T T T T T F
T F F T T T T T F
F T T F T T T T F
F T F F F T F T F
F F T T T T T T F
F F F T T T T T F
All the values in the last column of the above truth
table are F. So, [p (~qvr)] ~[p (qr)] is a
contradiction.
Summary:
● A proposition or statement is a declarative (assertive) sentence that is
either true or false, but not both simultaneously.
● A proposition obtained from the combinations of two or more
propositions by means of logical operators or connectives of two or
more propositions or by negating a single proposition is referred to
composite or compound proposition.
● The words and phrases (or symbols) used to form compound
propositions are called connectives. There are five basic connectives
called Negation, Conjunction, Disjunction, Conditional and Biconditional.
● If p is any proposition, the negation of p, denoted by ~p and read as not
p, is a proposition which is false when p is true and true when p is false.
● If p and q are two statements, then conjunction of p and q is the
compound statement denoted by p q and read as “p and q”.
● If p and q are proposition, the compound proposition “if p the q”
denoted by is called a conditional connective.
● If p and q are two statements, then disjunction of p and q is the
compound statement denoted by p q and read as “p or q”.
● If p and q are proposition, the compound proposition “if p then q”
denoted by p
q is called a conditional connective.
● A truth table is a table that shows the truth value of a compound
proposition for all possible cases.
● If p and q are two propositions, then some other conditional propositions
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re
la
te
d
to
p
q
ar
e
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● Converse: The converse of p q is q p .
● Contrapositive: The contrapositive of p q is ~q ~p . Notes
● Inverse: The inverse of p q is ~p ~q .
● If two propositions P(p, q,…..) and Q(p, q,…..) where p, q,…... are
propositional variables have the same truth values in every possible
case or PQ is a tautology, then the propositions are called tautology,
then the propositions are called logically equivalent.
● A statement pattern whose truth value is true for all possible
combinations of the truth values of its prime components is called a
tautology.
● A statement pattern whose truth value is false for all possible
combinations of the truth values of its prime components is called a
contradiction.
● A statement pattern which is neither a tautology nor a contradiction is
called a contingency.
Activity:
1. Construct a truth table for the statement pattern .
2. Use the truth table to prove the distributive law p(qr) (pq) (pr).
3. What will be the negation of the statement “If he studies, he will pass the
examination”.
4. What will be the negation of the statement “The computer program is
correct if and only if, it produces the correct answer for all possible sets
of input data”.
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Unit - 2.2: Switching Circuits
Notes
Recall Session:
In the previous unit, you studied about:
● Proposition or statements
● Truth tables
● Connectives and Compound Propositions
● Implication, Negation and Bi-conditional of connectives
● Converse, Inverse and Contrapositive
● Algebra of Propositions
● Tautology, Contradiction and Contingency
Unit Outcome:
At the end of this unit you will learn to
1. Define Switch circuits
2.2.1 Introduction
In the previous unit, we learned about the proposition or statements,
compound statements, connectives, negation, conjunction, disjunction, truth
table, implication, converse, inverse, contrapositive, bi-conditional, negation
of compound statements, logical equivalence, tautology, contradiction and
contingency also. In this unit, we will learn about switch circuits.
2.2.2 Switching circuit
A switch is a two state devices used to control the flow of current in
a circuit. We shall denote the switches by letters S, S1, S2,…… etc.
Fig. 2.1.1 Pictorial representation of Switch circuit
Battery Lamp
Fig. 2.1.2 Switch circuit
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Here, we consider a circuit containing an lamp, controlled by a switch S.
When switch is closed (on or 1), then current flows in the circuit and Notes
hence the lamp glows. When the switch S is open ( off or 0), then current
does not flow in the circuit and subsequently the lamp does not glow.
The theory of symbolic logic can be used to represent a circuit by a
statement pattern. Conversely, for given statement patterns we can
construct a circuit.
Switches having the same state can be represented by the same letter
and called equivalent switches and the switches having opposite states are
represented by S and and these switches are called complementary
switches.
In the figure, switch S1 corresponds to statement letter p in the
corresponding statement pattern.
We can write it as p: switch S1 and ~p : switch S'1 .
The correspondence between switch S 2 corresponds to statement letter
q in the corresponding statement pattern.
We can write it as q: switch S2 and ~q : switch S'2 .
We consider all possible combinations of states of all switches in the
circuit and prepare a table, called “Input Output table”, which is similar to
truth table of the corresponding statement pattern.
Two switches in series
Two switches S1 and S2 connected in series and electric lamp ‘L’ as
shown in fig.
2.2.3
S1 S2
Battery Lamp
Fig. 2.2.3 Two switches in series
Let p: The switch
S1 q: The switch
S2
L: The lamp L
Input output table (switching table) for p q.
p q pq
1 1 1
1 0 0
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0 1 0
0 0 0
Table 2.2.1 Input output table for two switches in series
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Two switches in parallel
Notes
Two switches S1 and S2 connected in parallel and electric lamp ‘L’ as
shown in fig.
2.2.4
S1
S2
Battery Lamp
Fig. 2.2.4 Input output table for two switches in
parallel
Let p: The switch
S1 q: The switch
S2
L: The lamp L
Input output table (switching table) for p q.
p q pq
1 1 1
1 0 1
0 1 1
0 0 0
Table. 2.2.2 Truth table for two switches in parallel
Ex- 2.17 Express the following circuit in the symbolic form of logic and
write the input-output table.
S1
S2 S3
Battery Lamp
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Solution: Let p : the switch S1 is
closed q : the switch S2 is closed Notes
r: the switch S3 is closed
~p : the switch S1 is open
~q : the switch S2 is open
~r : the switch S3 is
open I : the lamp L is
on
The symbolic form of the given circuit is : p (q
r) I Ex-2.18 Construct the switching circuit of
the following: (~ p q) (p ~ r)
Solution: Let p : the switch S1 is
closed q : the switch S2 is closed
r: the switch S3 is closed
~p : the switch S'1 is closed or the switch S1 is open
~q : the switch S'2 is closed or the switch S2 is open
~r : the switch S'3 is closed or the switch S3 is open
Then the switching circuit corresponding to the given statement
pattern is:
𝑆𝟏𝟏
′ S2
S1 𝑆𝟑𝟑
′
Battery Lamp
Summary:
● A switch is a two state device used to control the flow of current in a circuit.
● Switches having the same state can be represented by the same letter
and called equivalent switches.
● The switches having opposite states are represented by S and S'
and these switches are called complementary switches.
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Further Readings:
Notes
1. Dr. Swapan kumar sarkar, “A Textbook of Discrete Mathematics”, S
Chand And Company Limited, Ramnagar New Delhi.
2. Dr. R. K. Rajput, “Mathematics For BCA”, Discovery Publishing
House PVT. Ltd. , New delhi.
Exercise:
Check your progress:
1. Which of the following is a statement
(a) Open the door
(b) Do your homework
(c) Switch on the fan
(d) Two plus two is four
2. Which of the following is a statement
(a) May you live long!
(b) May God bless you!
(c) The sun is a star
(d) Hurrah! we have won the match
3. Which of the following is not a statement
(a) Every set is a finite set
(b) 8 is less than 6
(c) Where are you going?
(d) The sum of all interior angles of a triangle is 180 degree
4. Which of the following is not a statement
(a) Please do me a favour
(b) 2 is an even
integer (c) 2 + 1 = 3
(d) The number 17 is prime
5. Let P, Q and R be three atomic prepositional declarations. Let X denote
(p Q) R, and Y denote (p R)(Q R). Which of the following is a
tautology?
(a) X Y
(b) X Y
(c) Y X
(d) Y X
6. Consider the following propositional
statements: P1 : [(A B) C] [(A C)
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(
B
C
)
]
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P2 : [(A B) C] [(A C) (B C)]
Which one of the following is true? Notes
(a) P1 is tautology, but not P2
(b) P2 is tautology, but not P1
(c) P1 and P2 are both tautologies
(d) Both P1 and P2 are not tautologies
7. Negation of the conditional statement “If it rains, I shall go to school” is
(a) It rains and I shall go to school
(b) It rains and I shall not go to school
(c) It does not rains and I shall go to school
(d) None of these
8. Which of the following is a contradiction
(a) (pq) ~(pq)
(b) p (~pq)
(c) (p q) p
(d) None of these
9. ~(~p) q is equal to
(a) ~ pq
(b) pq
(c) p q
(d) ~p q
10. If p, q, r are simple propositions, then (p q) (q r) is true then
(a) p, q, r are all false
(b) p, q, r are all true
(c) p, q are all true and r is false
(d) p is true and q and r are false
11. The compound proposition p and q are called logically equivalent if
is
tautology.
(a) p q
(b) p q
(c) (p q)
(d) (p q)
12. p q is logically equivalent to
(a) ~p ~q
(b) p ~q
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(c) ~p q
Notes (d) ~p q
13. p q is logically equivalent to
(a) q p
(b) q () p
(c) p q
(d) p q
(p q) is logically equivalent to
(a) q p
(b) p q
(c) p q
(d) q p
15. p q is logically equivalent to
(a) (p q)
(b) (p q)
(c) (p q)
(d) (p q)
16. Which of the following statement is correct?
(a) p q q p
(b) (p q) p q
(c) (p q) r p (q r)
(d) All of mentioned
17. p q is logically equivalent to
(a) (p q) (q p)
(b) (p q) (q p)
(c) (p q) (q p)
(d) (p q) (q p)
18. (p q) (p r) is logically equivalent to
(a) p (q r)
(b) p (q r)
(c) p (q r)
(d) p (q r)
19. (p r) (q r) is logically equivalent to
(a) (q q) r
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(b) (p q) r
(c) (p q) r Notes
(d) (p q) r
20. (p ↔ q) is logically
equivalent to
(a) p ↔ q
(b) p ↔ q
(c) p ↔ q
(d) q ↔ p
Answer Keys (Exercise):
Question Answer Question Answer Question Answer
1 d 2 c 3 c
4 a 5 b 6 b
7 b 8 a 9 b
10 b 11 a 12 c
13 d 14 b 15 a
16 d 17 c 18 a
19 c 20 a
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Module – 3: Group and Subgroup
Notes
Course Contents:
● Binary operations
● Properties of Binary Operations
● Semi-group
● Monoid
● Group
● Subgroups and other groups
Key Learning Objectives:
At the end of this block, you will be able to:
1. Define Binary Operations
2. Describe various types of Binary Operations
3. Define Group
4. Define Semi group and Monoid
5. Define Subgroups
6. Define Order of an element of a Group
7. Define Cyclic Group
Structure:
UNIT 3.1: Group
3.1.1Introduction
3.1.2Binary operations
3.1.3Types of Binary Operations
3.1.4Algebraic Structure
3.1.5Group
3.1.6Groupoid
3.1.7Semi-group
3.1.8Monoid
3.1.9Quaternian Group
3.1.10 Abelian Group or Commutative Group
3.1.11 Finite and Infinite Groups
3.1.12 Order of a Group
3.1.13 General properties of a Group
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Unit-3.2: Sub Group and Other Groups
3.2.1 Introduction Notes
3.2.2 Subgroups
3.2.2.1 Properties of Subgroups
3.2.3 Order of an element of a
Group
3.2.4 Cyclic Group
3.2.4.1 Properties of Cyclic
groups
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Unit - 3.1: Group
Notes
Unit Outcome:
At the end of this unit, you will learn to
● Define Binary operations
● Describe various types of Binary operations
● Define Group, Groupoid, Semi-group, Monoid and Quaternian Group
● Define Abelian group, Finite and Infinite Groups and order of a group
● Define General properties of a group
3.1.1 Introduction
The theory of groups, an important part in the present mathematical
scope, started early in the 19th century in connection with the solution of
algebraic equations. This idea was later generalised to the concept of an
abstract group. An abstract group is essentially a study of the set with an
operation defined on it. Group theory has many applications in the internal
and external fields of mathematics. The group originates in a number of
apparently unrelated subjects. In fact, they also appear in crystallography
and quantum mechanics, in geometry and topology, analysis and algebra,
and even in biology. In this unit, before we start talking about a group, it
would be fruitful to discuss binary operations on a set because there are
elements on which a break operation can be built on its elements. We can
get the third element of the set by combining the two elements of the set. It
is not true always. That is why this concept needs more attention.
3.1.2 Binary Operations
A binary operation ‘o’ on G is a mapping from G × G to G, i.e., o : G × G
G where the image of (a, b) of G × G under ‘o’, i.e., o(a, b), is denoted by
a o b.
3.1.3 Types of Binary Operations
1. Commutative Operation: A binary operation over a set G is said to be
commutative, if, for every pair of the element a, b G,
aob=boa
So, addition and multiplication are commutative binary operations for
natural numbers whereas subtraction and division are not commutative
because, for a, b a, and a – b b – a and a b b a can not be true for
every pair of natural number a and b.
Example 3.1.1 3 – 2 2 – 3
Example 3.1.2 3 2 2 – 3
2. Associative operation: A binary operation o on set G is called
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as
so
cia
tiv
e
if,
a
o
(b
oc
)
=
(a
o
b)
o
c
for
all
a,
b,
c
G.
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3. Distributive operation: Let o and o' be two binary operations defined on a
set G.
Then operation o' is said to be left distributive with respect to
Notes
operation o if a o' (boc) = (a o' b) o (a o' c) for all a, b, c G
and is said to be right distributive with respect
to o if, (b o c) o' a = (b o' a) o (c o' a) for all
a,b,c G
4. Identity: A composition o in a set G is said to admit of an identity if there
exists an element for all e G such that
a o e = a = e o a a G.
Where e is called an identity element and the algebraic structure (G, o)
is said to have an identity element with respect to o.
Example 3.1.3 If a R, the set of real numbers then 0 is an additive
identity of R because
a + 0 = a = 0 + a aR
N, the set of natural numbers, has no identity element with respect
to addition because 0N .
Example 3.1.4 1 is the multiplicative identity of N as
a.1 = a = 1.a aN
1 is the identity of multiplication for I (set of integers), Q (set of rational
numbers), R (set of real numbers).
5. Inverse: An element a G is said to have its inverse with respect to
certain operation o if there b G such that
aob=e=boa
e being the identity in G with respect to o.
Such an element b, usually denoted by a–1 is called the inverse of
a. Thus a–1 o a = e = a o a–1 for aG
In the set of integers, the inverse of an integer a with respect to
ordinary addition operation is -a and in the set of non-zero rational numbers,
the inverse of a with respect
to multiplication which belongs to the set.
is 1
a
3.1.4 Algebraic Structure
A non-empty set G together with at least one binary operation defined
on it is called an algebraic structure. Thus, if G is a non-empty set and ‘o’ is a
binary operation on G, then (G, o) is an algebraic structure.
(N,+), (1,+), (1,–), (R,+,.)
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are all algebraic structures. Thus addition and multiplication are both
binary operations on the set R of real numbers, (R,+,.) is an algebraic
structure equipped with two operations.
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Example 3.1.5 If the binary operation o on Q the set of rational numbers is
Notes defined by a o b = a + b – ab, for a,b Q.
Show that o is commutative and associative.
Solution (i) ‘o’ is commutative in Q because if a,b Q, then
a o b a b ab
b a ba
boa
(ii) ‘o’ is associative in Q because if , then
a o b o c a o b c bc
a b c bc a b c bc
a b ab c a b abc
a o b o c
Example 3.1.6 Given that S = {A, B, C, D} where A=, B={a}, C={a,b}
& D={a,b,c} show that S is closed under the binary operations (union
of sets) and
(intersection of sets) on S.
Solution (i) A B = {a} = {a} = B
Similarly, A C = C, A D = D and A A = A
Also,
B B B, B C aa,b a,b
C B D aa,b,c a,b,c D
C C C , C D a,ba,b,c a,b,c D
Hence is a binary operation on S.
(ii) Again,
A A A, A B a A
Similarly, A C = A, A D = A
Also,
B B B, B C aa,b a
B B D aa,b,c a B
C C C , C D a,ba,b,c a,b C
Hence is a binary operation on S.
3.1.5 Group
An algebraic structure (G, o) where g is a non-empty set with an
operation ‘o’ defined on it is said to be a group if the operation satisfies the
following axiom (called group axiom)
(G1) Closure axiom G is closed under the operation o, i.e., a o bG, for all
a,bG . (G2) Associative axiom the binary operation o is associative, i.e.,
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(a o b)o c = a o(b o c) a,b,c G
(G3) Identity axiom There exists an element e G such Notes
that e o a = a o e = a a G
The element e is called the identity of ‘o’ in G.
(G4) Inverse axiom Each element of G posses inverse, i.e., for each
element aG, there exists an element bG such that
aob=e=boa
e being the identity in G with respect to o.
The element b is then called the inverse of a with respect to ‘o’ and we
write b=a–1.
Thus a–1 is an element of G such
that a o a–1 = e = a–1 o a
3.1.6 Groupoid
If an algebraic system (G, o) satisfies only G 1 axiom, it is called a
groupoid or a quasi-group.
The groupoid is a set G with a binary operation o defined on G such
that G is closed under the operation o, that is, if a, b G, then a o b G .
Example: If I0 is the set of odd integers, then the system (I 0, +) is not a
groupoid, because the set I0 is not closed under addition
3 + 7 = 10 I0
3.1.7 Semi group
If an algebraic system (G, o) satisfies only G 1 and G2 axiom, it is called a
semi group or a demi-group.
Example 3.1.7 If I is the set of integers then the system (I, +) and (I,.) are
semi groups, since I is closed under addition as well as multiplication and for
a,b,c I it follows associative law, i.e.,
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c) and (a.b).c = a.(b.c)
On the other hand, the system (I, -) is not a semi group, because
subtraction does not satisfy the associative law, i.e.,
(a – b) – c a –(b –c), for a,b,c I
Similarly (N,.) and (R, +) are also semi-group.
3.1.8 Monoid
A semi-group which also satisfies G3 is called a monoid. Monoid is
usually denoted by M.
Monoid is an associative groupoid with an identity element.
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3.1.9 Quaternian Group
Notes
If the set A is given
by A = {1, i, j,
k}
and multiplication binary operation is defined as
i2 = j2 = k2 = –1 and ij = –ji = k, jk = –kj = i, ki = –
ik = j, then A is called quaternian group.
1 0 i 0 , 0 i , 1 1
Example 3.1.8 A , i 0 0 1 0
01
0
is a quaternian
group.
3.1.10 Abelian group
A group (G, o) is said to be abelian or commutative if the composition ‘o’
is commutative. i.e.,
a o b = b o a a,b G
A group which is not abelian is called non-abelian.
Example 3.1.8 (Z, +), (Q, +), (R, +), (C, +), (Q0, +), (Q+, ×) and (R+, ×)
are the
example of abelian group.
Example 3.1.9 Show that the set of all even integers (including zero) with
additive property is an abelian group.
Solution The set of all even integers (including
zero) is I = {0, 2, 4, 6,. }
Now we will discuss the group axioms one by one:
(G1) The sum of two even integers is always an even integer, therefore
closure axiom is satisfied.
(G2) The addition is associative for even integers; hence associative
axiom is satisfied.
(G3) 0 I, which is an additive identity in I, hence identity axiom is
satisfied.
(G4) Inverse of an even integers a is the even integer –a in the set, so
axiom of inverse is satisfied.
(G5) Commutative law is also satisfied for addition of even integers. Hence
the set forms an abelian group.
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Example 3.1.10 Show that the set of all non-zero rational numbers with
respect to binary operation of multiplication is a group.
Solution Let the given set be denoted by Q0. Then by group axioms, we
have
(G1) The product of two non-zero rational numbers are also a non-zero
rational
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number. Therefore, Q0 is closed with respect to multiplication. Hence,
closure axiom is satisfied.
Notes
(G2) For rational numbers
(a.b).c = a. (b.c) for all a, b, c Q0
Hence, associative axiom is
satisfied.
(G3) Since 1, a multiplicative identity is a rational number, identity axiom
is satisfied.
1
(G ) If a Q , then obviously, Q . Also
0
1 1 a
4 0
.a 1 a.
a a
So that
is the multiplicative inverse of a. Thus, inverse axiom is also satisfied.
1
a
Hence Q0 is a group with respect to multiplication.
3.1.11 Finite and Infinite Groups
If a group has a finite number of distinct elements, it is called the
finite group; otherwise, an infinite group.
3.1.12 Order of a Group
The number of elements or members in a finite group is called the
order of the group. The order of an infinite group is always infinite.
3.1.13 General properties of Groups
Theorem 1 The identity element of a group is a unique element.
Proof: Let us suppose e and e' are two identity elements of a group
G, with respect to operation o.
Then e o e' = e if e' is
identity. and e o e' = e if
e is identity.
But e o e' = e is unique element of G,
therefore, e o e' = e and e o e' = e e =
e'
Hence the identity element in a group is unique.
Theorem 2 The inverse of each element of a group is unique, i.e., in a
group G with operation o' for every a G , there is only one element a–1 such
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that
a–1 o a = e = a o a–1, e being the identity.
Proof: Let a be any element of a group G and let e be the identity element.
Suppose there exists a–1 and a' two inverses of a in G
then a–1 o a = e = a o a–1 and a' o a = e = a o a'
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Now, we have
Notes 1 1
a o a o a' a o a o a' e
e e is identity
a1
Also,a1o a o a' e o a o a e
1
a' e is identity
a'
But a1oa o a' a1o as in a group composition is associative.
a oa'
a–1 = a'
Theorem 3 If the inverse of a is a-1, then the inverse of a–1 is a, i.e., (a–1)–1 =
a
Proof: If e is an identity element, we have a–1o a = e.
1 1 1
a 1 o a 1 o a a 1 o e a 1 G a 1 G
1 1
a o a o a a
1 1 1
Composition in G is associative and e is identity element
e o a a 1
a G
1
1
1
a a
1
1
a
1
a
Theorem 4 The inverse of the product of two elements of a group G is
the product of the inverse taken in the reverse order i.e.,
1
a o b b1o a1 a,bG
Proof: Let us suppose a and b are any two elements of G. If and are
inverses of a and b respectively, then
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a 1 o a e a o e being the identity element Notes
1 1
and a b obeb
o b 1
Now by associativity
,
aob o b1oa1 aob ob1 oa 1
a o b o b1 o
by associativity
b o b1 e
a1 a o e a
a o e o a1 a o a1 e
a o a 1
e by associativity
Also, by associativity
b o a o a o b b o a o a o
1 1 1 1
a1 o a e
b e o b b
b1o b e
b1o a 1o a o b
b1oe o b
b1o b
e
Hence, we have
b o a oa o b e a o bob o a
1 1 1 1
Therefore, by definition of inverse, we have
1
a o b b1o a1
Theorem 5 Cancellation laws hold good in a group i.e., if a, b, c, are any
element of G, then
aobaocb Left cacellation law
c
and
Right cacellation law
boacoab
c
Proof: Let
. Then
aG
aG G such that a o a1 e a1 o a ,
where e is the identity
element Now, let us
assume that
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Notes aobaoc
then a o b a o c a1oa o b a1oa o c
a1o a o b a1o a o c by associative law
eobeoc
a o a e
1
bc
boacoa
b o a o a1 c o a o
a1
b o a o a1 c o a o a1 by associative law
boec oe
a o a e
1
bc
Theorem 6 If G is a group with binary operation o and if a and b are any
elements of G, then the linear equations
a o x b and y o a b
have unique solutions in G.
Proof:
aG a1 G,
and a1 G,bG a1o bG
Substituting
a1o b for x in the equation a o x b , we obtain
a o a o a1 b
a o a1 o b b
eobb
bb
Thus, x a1o b is a solution of the equation a o x b.
Let us suppose that the equation a ox has two solutions given by
b
x x1 and x x2
Then a o x1 b and a o x2 b
a o x1 a o x2 b
x1 x2 by left cancellation law
In a similar manner, we can prove that the equation
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y oab
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Has the unique solution
y b o a 1 Notes
Theorem 7 If corresponding to any element aG ; there is an element
which satisfies one of the conditions
a 0a a or 0a a a
Then it is necessary that 0a a , where 0 is the identity element of the group.
Proof: Since 0 is the identity element,
We
a0 .......i
have
a a 0a .......ii
given
a
Hence from (i) and (ii)
a 0a a 0
0a by left cancellation law
Again, we a
have
0aa .......iii
given 0a a a .......iv
Hence from iii and iv
0a a 0 a
0a a by right cancellation law
Activity:
1. Show that multiplication is a binary operation on A but not on
the set
B 1,3. 1,1
2. Show that the set of all integers..., –2, –1, 0,1, 2, 3,... is an infinite
abelian group with respect to the operation of addition of integers.
3. Show that C, the set of all non-zero complex numbers is a multiplicative group.
4. Prove that the set of cube roots of unity is an abelian finite group with
respect to the multiplication.
5. Prove that if every element of a group G is its own inverse, then G is abelian group.
Summary:
● A binary operation ‘o’ on G is a mapping from G × G to G, i.e., o : G
× G G where the image of (a, b) of G × G under ‘o’ i.e., o (a, b), is
denoted by a o b .
● A binary operation over a set G is said to be commutative, if for
every pair of elements a, b G, a o b = b o a
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● A binary operation o on set G is called associative if a o(b o c) = (a o
b)oc for all a, b, c G .
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● Let o and o' be two binary operations defined on a set G. Then
Notes operation o' is said to be left distributive with respect to operation o if
a o'b o c a o'boa o'c for all a,b,c G
and is said to be right distributive with respect to o if,
b o c o' a b o' aoc o' a for all a,b,c G
● A composition o in a set G is said to admit of an identity if there exists
an element for all eG such that
a o e a e o a aG
● An element aG is said to have its inverse with respect to certain
operation o if
therebG such that
a ob e b oa
● An algebraic structure (G, o) where g is a non-empty set with an
operation ‘o’ defined on it is said to be a group, if the operation satisfies
the following axiom (called group axiom)
(a) Closure axiom (G1)
(b)Associative axiom (G2)
(c) Identity axiom (G3)
(d)Inverse axiom (G4)
● If an algebraic system (G, o) satisfies only G1 axiom, it is called a
groupoid or a quasi-group.
● If an algebraic system (G, o) satisfies only G1 and G2 axiom, it is called a
semigroup or a demi-group.
● A semi-group which also satisfies G3 is called a monoid. Monoid is
usually denoted by M.
● A group (G, o) is said to be abelian or commutative if the composition
‘o’ is commutative, i.e.,
a o b = b o a a,b G
● A group which is not abelian is called non-abelian.
● If a group has a finite number of distinct elements, it is called the
finite group otherwise an infinite group.
● The number of elements or members in a finite group is called the
order of the group. The order of an infinite group is always infinite.
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Unit - 3.2: Subgroups and other Groups g
r
Recall Session: o
In the previous unit, you studied about:
u
● The binary operations
p
● Types of binary operations
● Definition of Group, Groupoid, Semi-group, Monoid and Quaternian
Group o
● Definition of Abelian group, non-abelian-group, finite group, non-finite r
group and order of a group
● General properties of groups
n
Unit Outcome: o
At the end of this unit, you will learn to t
1. Define Subgroup .
2. Define Properties of Subgroup
3. Define the order of an element of a group
I
4. Define Cyclic group and Properties of Cyclic group
t
3.2.1 Introduction
In the previous unit, we studied about binary operations, types of binary i
operations, group, semi-group, groupoid, monoid, quaternian group, finite
s
and infinite group, order of a group, abelian and non-abelian group and
general properties of groups also. In this unit, we introduce the idea of
obtaining smaller groups from a given group, and in doing so, we sometimes
e
utilise the services of a single element of the group. These smaller groups
are called subgroups of the given group, and many of them are of great a
importance because they act as true representative of the parent group in
s
the sense that they retain the characteristics properties of the group. In this
unit, we will also discuss about order of an element of group and cyclic y
group.
3.2.2 Subgroup t
A non-empty subset H of a group G is said to be a subgroup of G if the o
composition in G induces a composition in G induces a composition in H and
if H is a group for the induced composition.
p
The sub groups (i) consisting of the identity element alone, and (ii)
the group G itself are always present in a group g. r
These are, however, trivial subgroups. A sub-group other than these two o
is known as proper sub-group.
v
A complex is any subset of a group, whether it is a sub-
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e that
Notes
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a. The identity of a sub-group is the same as that of the group.
Notes b. The inverse of any element of a sub-group is the same as the inverse of
the element regarded as a member of the group.
c. The order of any element of a sub-group is the same as that of the
element regarded as a member of the group.
Example 3.2.1 The additive group of integers is a sub-group of the
additive group of rational numbers.
Example 3.2.2 The multiplicative group of positive rational numbers is a
sub-group of the multiplicative group of non-zero real numbers.
Necessary and sufficient condition
The necessary and sufficient conditions for a subset of a group to be a
sub group are stated in the following two theorems.
Theorem 1 A subset H of a group G is a sub-group iff
i. (a H, b H) a o b H
ii. a H a–1 H
Proof: Suppose H is a group Of G then H must be closed with
respect to composition o in G, i.e., a H, b H a o b H.
Let a H and a–1 be the inverse of a in G. As H itself is a group, each
element of H will posses inverse in it, i.e., a H, a–1 H.
Thus, the condition is necessary. Now let us examine the sufficiency of
the condition.
a. Closure axiom: Since a H, b H a o b H. Hence closure axiom is
satisfied with respect to the operation o.
b. Associativity: Since the elements of H are also the elements of G, the
composition is associative in H also.
c. Existence of identity: The identity of the subgroup is similar to the
identity of the group because,
given a H, a–1 H
Hence a o a–1 H
i.e., eH
d. Existence of inverse: Since a H a–1 H, a
H. Therefore, each element of H possesses
inverse.
Thus, H itself is a group for the composition in G. Hence H is a sub-group.
Theorem 2 A necessary and sufficient condition for a non-empty subset
H of a group g to sub group is that a H, b H a.b–1 H where b–1 is the
inverse of b in G.
Proof: The condition is necessary Suppose H is a sub-group of G and let a
H, b
H.
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Now each element of H must posses inverse because H itself is
a group. b H b–1 H
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Also, H is closed under the composition o in G.
Therefore, a H, b H a.b–1 H Notes
The condition is sufficient. As a H, b H a.b–1 H, we have to prove
that H is
a subgroup.
a. Closure axiom: Let a,b H then b H b–1
H Therefore, by the given condition
a H, b–1 H a(b–1–1 H
aobH
Thus, H is closed with respect to the composition o in G.
b. Associative axiom: Since the elements of H are also the elements of
G the composition is associative in H.
c. Existence of identity:
Since a H, a–1 H aa–1
H
eH
Thus, the identity element belongs to H.
d. Existence of Inverse: Let a H,
then e H, a H ea–1 H
a–1 H
Thus, each element of H possesses an inverse.
Hence H itself is a group for the composition o in a group G.
3.2.2.1 Properties of subgroups
Theorem 1 The intersection of two sub-groups of a group G is a subgroup
of G.
Proof: Let H1 and H2 be any two subgroups of G.
Then, H1 H2 ϕ (because at least the identity element e is common in
both H1 and
H2.)
.
Now, to prove that H1 H2 is a subgroup
of G, it is sufficient to show that
a H H , b H H a.b–1 H H , (because o being composition in G)
1 2 1 2 1
Since a H1 H2 a H1 and a H2
and b H1 H2 b H1 and b H2
H1 and H2 are sub-groups of G, we see
that a H , b H a.b–1 H and
1 1
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s
i
m
i
l
a
r
l
y
a
H,b 2 2
H
a.b–1
H
Thus
, 1 2 1
H,
a.b–1
H ,
a.b–1
H
H
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Hence, a
H H , b H H a.b–1 H H
Notes 1 2 1 2 1 2
which establishes that H1 H2 is a sub-group of G.
Theorem 2 The union of two sub groups is not necessarily a sub group.
Proof: Let G be the additive group of integers,
and let H1 = {0, 2, 4, 6. }
H2 = {0, 3, 6, 9. }
Then, H1 and H2 are subgroups of G,
but H1 H2 = {0, 2, 3, 4, 6,
9..........................................}
which is not a group. It is concluded that the closure property is not
satisfied. For, 2 + 3 = 5, which does not belong to H1 H2.
The set H1 H2 = {0, 6, 12. }, which is certainly a group.
Hence, the union of two subgroups is not necessarily a group.
Theorem 3 The union of two subgroups is a sub-group if and only if
one is contained in the other.
Proof: Let H1 and H2 be two subgroups of a group G.
i. Let H1 H2 or H2
H1 Then H1 H2 =
H2 or H1
But H1, H2 are subgroups, so that H1 H2 is also a sub-group.
ii. Next suppose H1 H2 is a sub-group.
To prove that H1 H2 or H2 H1, assume if
possible that H1 H2 or H2 H1
Now,
H1 H2 s H1 and s H2............................(i)
H2 H1 t H1 and t H1..................................................(ii)
From (i) and (ii), it follows that
s H1 H2, t H1 H2
Since H1 H2 is a sub-group, we see
that St = k (say) is also an element
of H1 H2 But
st = k H1 H2
st = k H1 H2
Suppose, st = k
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H1
Then t = s–1k H1 [ H1 is a sub-group, s–1 H1]
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This contradicts (ii). (G4)
Inverse
Hence either H1 H2 or H2 H1. axiom:
If r – s
Theorem 4 A finite subset H of a group G is a subgroup of G, if a, b H 1,
ab H. then r –
Proof: Let H be a subgroup of s0
G. H is a subgroup H is a
group
H is closed for the given operation,
i.e., a, b H ab H, a, b H.
The condition is necessary. Let H be a non-empty finite subgroup of G
such that, a, b H ab H
To show that H is a subgroup of G, we are to show that H is a
group. (G1) Closure axiom: If a, b H, then
ab H [by the given condition]
(G2) Associative axiom: If a, b, c H then for
all a, b H a, b, c G, as H G
(ab)c = a(bc) [bu associative law
in G] a, b H a, b, c G, as H
G
In H, (ab)c = a(bc), a, b, c H
(G3) Identity axiom: Let e be the identity of G.
Then, a H. Hence, a H a2 = a.a
H a3 = a2.a H
a4 = a3.a H
Hence if a H, then a, a2, a3,..... ar,.... as,. H
But H is a finite set. Hence, out of these elements many will be the same
elements, because if they are distinct, H will not be a finite set.
Hence for some positive integers r and s
(r > s) ar = as ar.a–s
ar–s = a0 = e, where e is the identity of G
ar–s = e, where r–s is the positive integer
e = ar–s H
eH
Hence, identity axiom is satisfied.
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Notes
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a r–s–1
H, where e is the identity of G
Notes
ar–s a–1 H, where r–s is the positive integer
ea–1 H
a–1 H
Hence, a H a–1 H a H
i.e., every element of H is
inversible. So, H is a subset Of
G.
3.2.3 Order of An Element of a Group
If G is a group and a G, the order (or period) of a is the least positive
integer n such that
an = e
If there exists no such integer, we say that a is of infinite order or of
zero order. We shall use the notation o(a) for the order of a.
Example 3.2.3 Find the order of each element of the multiplicative group
G where
.
Solution 1 is the identity element, its order
is 1. Now, (–1)1 = –1, (–1)2 = (–1) (–1) = 1
Hence the order of –1 is 2.
Again i1 = i, i2 = –1, i3 = –i, i4
= 1 Therefore, the order of
i is 4.
Similarly,
(–i)1 = –i, (–i)2 = –
1, (–i3) = i, (–i4)
=1
Hence order of –i is 4.
Example 3.2.4 If the elements A, B and AB of a finite group of order 2,
prove that
AB = BA.
Solution Given A2 = e, B2 = e and (AB)2 = e , where e is the identity
element. Now,
(AB)2 = e (AB) (AB) = e
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A (AB) (AB) = Ae
A2 (BA)B = A
{e(BA)B}B = AB
(BA)B2 = AB
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(BA)e = AB
(BA) = AB Notes
Thus AB = BA
3.2.4 Cyclic Group
A group G is called cyclic if, for some a G, every element x G is of
the form an, where n is some integer. Thus, the element a is called a
generator of G.
Example 3.2.5 The multiplicative group {1,ω, ω2} is cyclic. The generators
are ,ω and ω2.
Example 3.2.6 The multiplicative group of nth roots of unity is cyclic, a
2
generator
being e n
.
3.2.4.1 Properties of Cyclic Groups
Theorem 1 Every cyclic group is abelian.
Proof: Let a be a generator of a cyclic group G and let ar, as G for any r, s I
the
n
ar. as = ar+s = as+r [ r + s = s + r for r, s I]
= as.ar
Thus, the operation is commutative, and hence the cyclic group G is abelian.
Theorem 2 The order of a cyclic group is same as the order of its generator.
Proof: Let the order of a generator of a cyclic group be
n, then ans = e while as e for 0 < s < n
When s > n, s = nq + r, 0 r n (say), we observe that
as = anq+r = (an)q.ar = eq.ar
= e.ar = ar
Thus, there are exactly n elements in the group by ar, where 0 r n.
Therefore, there are n and only n distinct elements in the cyclic group, i.e., the
order of the group is n.
Theorem 3 If a is generator of a cyclic group G, then a-1 is also a generator of G.
G a ak | k
Proof: Using the multiplicative notation for the operation in G, we have
Let
bre an arbitrary element of G, where r . Now, we can write
ar
ar a 1
Where –r is certainly an integer, because r . Therefore, every integral
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power of a is some integral power of a-1 and vice-versa. We, thus, see that
every element of G
can also be generated by a-1, and so a-1 is also a generator of G.
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Example 3.2.7 Find the generators of the cyclic
Notes
group (a, a2, a3, a4, a = e}
Solution Here order of the group is 5. Now,
1,5 1, 2,5 3,5 4,5 1
1, 1,
So that 1, 2, 3, 4 are relatively prime to 5. Hence, the generators of the
given cyclic group are a, a2, a3, a4.
Activity:
Prove the following:
● Show that a non-empty subset H of a group H will be subgroup iff HH–1 =
H.
● Prove that the order of every element of a finite group is finite.
● Prove that the order of an element of a group is the same as that of its
inverse a–1.
● Prove that if the element a of a group G is of order n, then am= e iff n is
divisor of m.
● Prove that the order of a cyclic group is same as the order of its
generator.
● Prove that if G is a finite cyclic group and a is a generator of G,
then G has elements. Also, if o(a) = n, then
G a e,a,a2 ,.,an1
Summary:
● A non-empty subset H of a group G is said to be a subgroup of G if the
composition in G induces a composition in G induces a composition in
H and if H is a group for the induced composition.
● If G is a group and aG, the order (or period) of a is the least positive
integer n such that an = e.
● A group G is called cyclic if, for some aG, every element xG is of the
form an, where n is some integer. Thus, the element a is called a
generator of G.
Further Reading:
1. Dr. P.K. Mittal “Abstract Algebra”, S.J. Publications, Chhipi Tank, Meerut.
Exercise:
Check your progress
1. A binary operation, denoted by ‘o’, on a non-empty set G is the mapping
(a) o: G G
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(b) o:GG GG
(c) o: GG G
(d) o: G GG
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2. Which of the following is a group?
(a) (Z, +) Notes
(b) (Z, -)
(c) (Z, ×)
(d) (Z, ÷)
3. A finite set G with a binary composition, which is associative, and is a
group, if and
only if
(a) Commutative law holds
(b) Cancellation law holds
(c) Reversal law holds
(d) None of these
4.
If G R 1 and 0 is defined by aob = a + b + ab, a, b, G then the identity
element for the group (G, 0) is
(a) –1
(b) 1
(c) 1
(d) 0
5. The inverse of an element a in the group considered in Q4 above is
1
(a)
a
(b) -a
a1
(c)
a
a
(d)
a 1
6. The set of residue classes modulo 5, under the addition of residue
classes modulo 5, is
a) an infinite abelian group
(b) an infinite non-abelian group
(c) a finite abelian group
(d) a finite non-abelian group
7. Set of all odd integer, with respect to addition, forms a
(a) group
(b) abelian group
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(c) not a group
Notes
(d) none of these
8. For the set of all positive rational numbers under the composition
ab 2
defined a o b , the identity element is
(a) 1
(b) 1
(c) 2
(d) 2
9. In Q8, the inverse of the element a is
(a) -a
1
(b)
a
2
(c)
a
4
(d)
a
10. The element of the group, which is the inverse of itself, is
(a) Identity element
(b) Inverse element
(c) Every element
(d) None of these
11. If a, b, c are in G, then ab = ac b = c is the consequence of
(a) Reversal law
(b) Left cancellation law
(c) Right cancellation law
(d) None of these
12. Set G 1,,
2
where is an imaginary cube root of unity, with
respect to the multiplication is
(a) Simple group
(b) Abelian group
(c) Not a group
(d) None of these
13. The multiplication group G 1,i,1,i is
(a) Non-abelian
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(b) Non-cyclic
(c) Imaginary Notes
(d) Cyclic
14. The order of the group S3 (of all permutation on three symbols) with
respect to the product of permutations is
(a) 3
(b) 9
(c) 6
(d) 1
15. The group S3 in Q 14 above is
(a) Finite and abelian
(b) Infinite and abelian
(c) Finite and non-abelian
(d) Infinite and non-abelian
16. The order of every element of a finite group is
(a) 0
(b) 1
(c) Finite
(d) Infinite
17. If an element a of a group is of order n, and p is prime to n, then the
order of ap is
(a) pn
(b) np
(c) np
(d) n
18. The multiplication of a group of residues classes 1,3,5,7 (mod 8) is
(a) Finite and cyclic
(b) Finite but not cyclic
(c) Abelian and cyclic
(d) Non- abelian and cyclic
19. How many generators does a cyclic group of order n have?
(a) As many integers lie between 0 and n
(b) As many even integers lie between 0 and n
(c) As many odd integers lie between 0 and n
(d) As many prime numbers lie between 0 and n
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20. Any group G of order 3 is
Notes
(a) Abelian
(b) Non-abelian
(c) Cyclic
(d) Non-cyclic
21. In any infinite cyclic group, the number of generators is
(a) Infinite
(b) 0
(c) 1
(d) 2
22. Element of the
group generators of
G a,a2 ,a3,a4 ,a5,a6 which can be used
as
the group e
(a) a
(b) a and a5
(c) a, a3 and a5
(d) a2, a4 and a6
23. Every cyclic group is
(a) Cyclic
(b) on-cyclic
(c) Abelian
(d) Non-abelian
24. In the multiplication
group G, the order of a4
G a,a2 ,a3,a4 ,a5,a6 e
is
(a) 1
(b) 2
(c) 3
(d) 4
25. If the elements a, b of a group m
commute and where m,n 1 then
oab is
(a) m n
(b) mn
(c) mn
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oa m, ob n ,
(d)
n
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26. In an additive group of integers, order of every element except 0 is
(a) Finite Notes
(b) Infinite
(c) 0
(d) 1
27. Of element of the group {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} the composition being
addition modulo 6, the order of 2 is
(a) 1
(b) 2
(c) 3
(d) 4
28. The center Z of a group G is
(a) Sub-group
(b) Normal-subgroup
(c) Ring
(d) Field
29. Every sub-group of an abelian group is
(a) Group
(b) Abelian group
(c) Sub group
(d) Normal-subgroup
30. Every quotient group of a cyclic group is
(a) Cyclic group
(b) Normal-subgroup
(c) Quotient group
(d) None of these
31. Every quotient group is
(a) Cyclic group
(b) Quotient group
(c) Abelian group
(d) Normal-subgroup
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Answer Keys (Exercise)
Notes
Question Answer Question Answer Question Answer
1 c 2 a 3 b
4 d 5 d 6 c
7 c 8 c 9 d
10 a 11 b 12 b
13 d 14 c 15 c
16 c 17 d 18 b
19 d 20 c 21 d
22 b 23 a 24 c
25 c 26 a 27 c
28 b 29 d 30 a
31 c
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Basic
103
Module – 4: Graph Theory
Notes
Course Contents:
● Graph
● Multi-graph
● Complete graph
● Bi graph
● Degree
● Isomorphic graph
● Euler graph
● Hamiltonian graph
● Bipartite graph
Key Learning Objectives:
At the end of this block, you will be able to:
1. Define Graph
2. Define Multi-graph
3. Define Complete graph
4. Define Bi-graph
5. Define Degree of Vertex
6. Define Isomorphic graph
7. Define Euler graph
8. Define Hamiltonian graph
9. Define Bipartite graph
Structure:
UNIT 4.1: Graph Theory
4.1.1 Introduction
4.1.2 Definition of Graph
4.1.3 Simple Graph
4.1.4. Multi-graph
4.1.5 Complete graph
4.1.6 Bi-graph
4.1.7 Degree of Vertex
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4.1.8 Isomorphic graph
Notes
4.1.9 Euler graph
4.1.9.1 Euler
Path
4.1.10 Hamiltonian
graph
4.1.11 Bipartite graph
4.1.12 Complete Bipartite graph
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Unit - 4.1: Graph Theory
Notes
Unit Outcome:
At the end of this unit, you will learn
● Define Graph, Simple graph, Multi-graph, Complete graph and Bi graph
● Define degree of Vertex
● Define Isomorphic graph, Euler graph, Hamiltonian graph and Bipartite
graph
4.1.1 Introduction
Graph theory is an applied branch of mathematics. Due to simplicity, it
has a wide range of applications in operations research, genetics, physical,
biological and social sciences, engineering, computer science and in many
other areas. The large portion of Graph theory have been motivated by
recreational mathematics and the study of games. In the present world,
we consider graph a mathematical model, solve the appropriate graph-
theoretic problem, and then interpret the solution in terms of the original
problem. In this unit, we will discuss about graph, multi-graph, complete
graph, Bi graph and degree.
4.1.2 Definition of graph
A graph is a pictorial representation consisting of points called vertices
and lines called edges; each edge joins exactly two vertices.
A
graph G V ,E consists of a finite set denoted by V or V(G) and a collection
E or E(G) of unordered pairs (u, v) of distinct elements from V. Each element
of V is called a vertex or node or point and each element of E is called an
edge or a line or a link.
The cardinality of V, i.e., the number of vertices, is called the order of
graph G and denoted by |V|. The cardinality of E, i.e., the number of edges, is
called the size of the graph and denoted by |E| .
Let V G v1 ,v2 ,....,vn and E G e1 ,e2 , and, be the
,em
set of vertices and edges of a graph G. Each
edge ek E is identified with an
G
unordered pair (vi, vj) of vertices. The vertices vi and vj are called the end
vertices of ek. Fig 4.1.1 represents a graph with six vertices and ten edges.
v2 e3 v5
e9
e1
e5
e10
e2 e4
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v3 v4
e7
10 Basic
Fig. 4.1.1 Graph
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4.1.3 Simple Graph
Notes
A graph without self-loops and parallel edges is called a simple graph.
Fig. 4.1.2 Simple Graph
4.1.4 Multi-graph
A multi-graph M consists of a finite non-empty set V of vertices and a set
E of edges, where two vertices of M are joined by a finite number of edges
(possibly zero). If two or more edges join the same pair of vertices, then
these edges are called parallel edges. In a multigraph, an edge is also
permitted to join a vertex to itself. Such an edge is called a loop. If a loop v
joins a vertex v to itself then, i.e. is said to be a loop at v. There can be any
finite number of loops at the same vertex in a multigraph.
Figure 4.1.3Multigraph
4.1.5 Complete graph
If in a simple graph there exist an edge between each and every pair of
vertices, then the graph is said to be a complete or full graph. A complete
graph of n vertices is represented by Kn.
Figure 4.1.4 Completes graphs of 3 and 4 vertices
4.1.6 Bi-graph
A bi-graph consists of two orthogonal structure: a place graph that
describes the nesting of entities, e.g. a phone inside a room, and link graph
that provides non-local hyperlinks between entities, e.g. allowing phone
entities to communicate regardless of location.
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Bi-graphs are compositional structures, i.e we can build larger bi-graphs.
Composition of bi-graphs consists of placing regions in sites, and connecting
Notes
inner and outer-faces on like-names.
S
S
Fig. 4.1.5 Bi-graph
4.1.7 Degree of Vertex
The degree of any vertex v of G is the number of edges incident with
vertex v. Each self-loop is counted twice. Degree of a vertex is always a
positive number and is denoted by deg (v). The minimum and maximum
degree of vertices in V(G) are denoted by (G) and (G), respectively.
v2 e3 v5
e9
e1
e10
e2 e5 e4
v6
v1
e8
v3 e6 v4
e7
Fig. 4.1.6 Graph with 6 vertices to edges
4.1.8 Isomorphic Graph
Two graphs G1 V1 and G2 V2 and are said to be isomorphic if
,E1 ,E2
there exists a f :V1 V2 such that
function
f is one -to one onto i.e., f is bijective.
{a, b} is an edge in e 1, if and only if {f(a), f(b)} is an edge in e 2 for any
two elements a, b, V1
The condition (b) says that if vertices a and b are adjacent in G1 the
f(a) and f(b) are adjacent in G2. In other words, the function f preserves
adjacency and consequently the corresponding vertices
In G1 and G2 will also have the same degree. Any function f with the
above properties is called an isomorphism between G1 and G2.
Fig. 4.1.7 Graph G1 Figure 4.1.8 Graph G2
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The graph of above pair is an example of isomorphic graph.
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4.1.9 Euler Graph
Notes
In a graph G, if a closed walk contains all the edges of the graph G,
then the walk is called an Euler line or Euler cycle.
A graph G is called as Euler graph if it contains an Euler line in G.
In an Euler line each edge appears exactly once and the Euler graph is
always connected.
4.1.9.1 Euler Path
An open walk in a graph G is called an Euler Path if it contains all the
edges of graph G.
Theorem 1. A given connected graph G contains an Euler line (i.e.,
graph G is Euler graph) if all the vertices of G are of even degree.
Proof: Suppose G is a connected graph with n vertices (v 1,
v2,...vn) and m-edges (e1, e2,...en) also suppose that G is an Euler
graph. Therefore, G must contain an Euler line (which is a closed walk).
Let’s assume that
v1e1 v2e2 v3e3 e4 ... ei ... em1 vm em v1 is the Euler line in the given
vi graph.
It can be seen easily that every time the line traces a new vertex v it
goes through two new edges incident on v. So, every time we trace a vertex,
it’s degree increases by
2. Hence, if G is an Euler graph, the degree of every vertex is even.
Conversely, let us assume that all the vertices of G are of even degree.
To prove that G is an Euler graph, we need to construct an Euler line in G.
Start with an arbitrary vertex v and tracing the edges of G such that no
edges appear more than once. Since G contains all the vertices of even
degree, we can exit from the same vertex we enter. This means that the
walk cannot stop at any vertex but only v.
Now if walk w, say starting and ending at v, traced all the edges of the
graph G, walk is an Euler line and the graph is an Euler graph. But if walk w
does not contain all edges of G, then remove all the edges which are in walk
w from the graph G, we are left with a graph which is a subgraph of G. The
degree of the vertex in v in even because graph G and walk w have all their
vertices of even degree.
v
Closed walk s
Fig. 4.1.9 Graph G
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v
Notes
vi
Fig. 4.1.10
v
s
Fia. 4.1.11 Euler graph
Theorem 2. A connected graph G is an Euler graph if it can be de
decomposed into edge-disjoint circuits.
Proof: Let G be a connected graph and can be decomposed into edge-disjoint
circuits c1,c2,...,cn .
The
n G c1 c2 . . . cn
i.e., G is the union of edge-disjoint circuits. We know that the degree
of every vertex in a circuit is two. Hence the degree of every vertex in G is a
multiple of 2 (i.e., even). Therefore, G is an Euler graph (Theorem 1).
Conversely, let us suppose that G is an Euler graph. Now we need to
show that it can be decomposed into edge-disjoint circuits. Consider an
arbitrary vertex v1 in G. Since the degree of v1 is even, there must be at least
two edges incident on v1. Let us say once the edge is between v1 and v2 .
Similarly, there are at least two edges incident on v2, and one of
the edge is between v2 and v3. In this way we tracing a circuit starting and
ending at v1. Now remove the circuit from the graph G, we are left with a
subgraph of G (need not necessarily connected), whose vertices are of even
degree. Continue this process until no edge is left. Hence prove the theorem.
4.1.10 Hamiltonian Graph
Hamiltonian graphs are named after Sir William Hamilton, an Irish
mathematician who introduced the problems of finding a circuit in which all
vertices of a graph appear exactly once.
A circuit in a graph G that contains each vertex in G exactly once except
for the starting and ending vertex that appears twice is known as the
Hamiltonian cycle.
A graph G is called a Hamiltonian cycle if it contains a Hamiltonian cycle.
A Hamiltonian path is a simple path and contains all vertices of g where
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the endpoints may be distinct.
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Notes v1 e4 v4
e5
e1 e3
v2 e2 v3
Fig. 4.1.12 Hamiltonian Cycle or Graph
4.1.11 Bipartite Graph
A graph G = (V, E) is called a Bipartite graph if its’s vertex set V(G) can
be partitioned into two non-empty disjoint subsets V 1(G) and V2(G) in such a
way that each edge e E(G) has it’s one endpoint in V1(G) and other
endpoint in V2(G). The partition V = V1 V2 is called a bipartition of G.
v1 v2 v3
V1 G
v1,v2,v3 V2 G
e1 e2 e3 e4 v4,v5
V1 V2
v4 v5
Fig. 4.1.13 Bipartite Graph
4.1.12 Complete Bipartite graph
If each vertex of V1(G) is joined with each vertex V2(G) , then the graph G
is called complete bipartite graph and is denoted by Km, n where m and n
are the numbers of vertices in V1(G) and V2(G) respectively.
v7
v6
v2
v1
v5
v3
v4
Fig. 4.1.14 K1, 6 or Star graph
K1, n is called a Star
graph.
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Miscellaneous Exercise:
Ex-4.1 A graph G has 21 edges, 3 vertices of degree 4 and other Notes
vertices are of degree 3. Find the number of vertices in G.
Solution: Let there be n vertices in G. Out of these n vertices 3 are of
degree 4 and (n-3) vertices are degree 3.
So, Degree of graph G= Sum of degree of all
vertices deg = 3 × 4 + 3 × (n – 3) (1)
But we also know
that deg = 2 × No.
of edges 2 × 21 =
42.................(2)
Hence from equation (1) and (2)
12 3n 3 42
42 12
n3
3
n 13
So, the total number of vertices in G are 13.
Ex-4.2 A graph G has 8 edges. Find the number of vertices, if the degree
of each vertex is 2.
Solution: Let there be n vertices in graph G.
So, Degree of graph G = Sum of degree of all
vertices deg = 2 × n (1)
But, we know that
deg = 2 × No. of edges
= 2 × 8 = 16 ...(2)
Hence, from equation (1) and (2)
2 n 16
16
n 2
8
So, the total number of vertices in G are 8.
Ex-4.3 The maximum number of edges in a bipartite graph on 12 vertices is
?
Solution: We know,
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1
Maximum possible number of edges in a bipartite graph on ‘n’ vertices
Notes n2
4
Substituting n = 12, we get
Maximum possible number of edges in a bipartite graph on 12 vertices
1
122
4
144
4
36
Therefore, Maximum possible number of edges in a bipartite graph on 12
vertices =
36
Ex-4.4 A simple graph G has 24 edges and degree of each vertex is 4.
Find the
number of vertices.
Solution: Given
Number of edges =
24
Degree of each vertex = 4
Let number of vertices in the
graph = n We know that
Degree of graph G = Sum of degree of all vertices = 2 × No.
of edges Substituting the value and we get
n 4 224
n 2 6
n 12
Thus, number of vertices in the graph = 12
Ex-4.5 A graph has 24 edges and degree of each vertex is k, then
which of the following is possible number of vertices?
(a) 20
(b)15
(c) 10
(d)8
Solution: Given
Number of edges =
24
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Degree of each vertex = k
Let number of vertices in the
graph = n We know that
Degree of graph G = Sum of degree of all vertices = 2 × No. of edges
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Substituting the value and
we get
Notes
n k
224
k48
n
We know that the degree of any vertex must be a whole number. So,
here only 8 is possible value of ‘n’ which gives the whole value of ‘k’.
Hence option (d) is correct.
Ex-4.6 Which of the following graphs has an Eulerian circuit?
(a)Any k-regular graph where k is an even number.
(b)A complete graph on 90 vertices
(c) The complement of a cycle on 25 vertices
(d)None of these
Solution: We know that , a graph has Eulerian circuit if following conditions are
true.
i. All vertices with non-zero degree are connected. We don’t care about
vertices with zero degree because they don’t belong to Eulerian Cycle or
Path.
ii. All vertices have even degree.
Any k-regular graph where k is an even number, is not Eulerian as a
k regular graph may not be connected.Hence property (ii) is true , (i) may
not.
A complete graph on 90 vertices is not Eulerian because all vertices have
degree as 89.Hence property (ii) is false.
The complement of a cycle on 25 vertices is Eulerian. In a cycle of 25
vertices, all vertices have degree as 2. In complement graph, all vertices
would have degree as 22 and graph would be connected.
Hence option (c) is a correct answer.
Ex-4.7 Determine whether the graphs G and H are isomorphic.
a
b a
e
e
c b
d c d
G H
Solution: No, they are not isomorphic, because they differ in the
degrees of their vertices.
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Vertex d in right graph is of degree one, but there is no such vertex in
the left graph.
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Ex-4.8 Does the following graph have a Hamiltonain Circuit?
Notes
E
B
C
AF
Solution: No the above graphs does not have a Hamiltonian circuit as
there are two vertices with degree one in the graph.
Ex-4.9 Does the following graph is a Hamiltonain graph?
A B
E F
H G
D C
Solution: The graph contains both a Hamiltonian path (ABCDHGFE) and a
Hamiltonian circuit (ABCDHGFEA).
Since graph contains a Hamiltonian circuit, therefore it is a Hamiltonian
Graph.
Ex– 4.10 Is the following graph a bipartite graph?
1 2
5 6
7 8
3 4
Solution: The graph may be redrawn as
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12
Notes
43
65
7 8
This graph consists of two sets of vertices. The two
sets are X = {1, 4, 6, 7} and Y = (2, 3,5, 8).
The vertices of set X are joined only with the vertices of set Y and vice-
versa. Also, any two vertices with in the same set are not joined. This
satisfies the definition of a bipartite graph.
Therefore, given graph is a bipartite
graph. Ex-4.10 Draw a figure of
complete graph K3. Solution:
c b
Ex-4.11 Draw a figure of complete bipartite graph K2,3 and K3,3.
Solution: The graph of K2,3
The graph of K3,3.
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Ex-4.12 Show that the maximum number of edges in a simple graph with
Notes n vertices is n(n – 1)/2.
Solution: We know that the maximum degree of any vertex in a simple
graph of n vertices is (n – 1).
So, the total maximum degree of the graph of n vertices = n(n – 1)
By the theorem, the sum of degree of all vertices in G is twice the number
of edges in G.
n n 1
Hence the maximum number of e
edges 2
Ex-4.13 Draw a figure of Simple
Multigraph. Solution:
c b
Summary:
● A graph is a pictorial representation consisting of points called vertices
and lines called edges; each edge joins exactly two vertices.
● A graph without self-loops and parallel edges is called a simple graph.
● A multi graph M consists of a finite non- empty set V of vertices and a
set E of edges, where two vertices of M are joined by a finite number of
edges (possibly zero).
● If in a simple graph there exist an edge between each and every pair of
vertices, then the graph is said to be a complete or full graph.
● A bi-graph consists of two orthogonal structure: a place graph that
describes the nesting of entities, e.g. a phone inside a room, and link
graph that provides non- local hyperlinks between entities, e.g. allowing
phone entities to communicate regardless of location.
● The degree of any vertex v of G is the number of edges incident with
vertex v. Each self-loop is counted twice.
● Two graphs G1 V1 an G2 V2 are said to be isomorphic
,E1 d ,E2 if
there exists a function
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f :V1 V2 such that
● f is one -to one onto i.e., f is bijective.
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● {a, b} is an edge in E1, if and only if {f (a), f(b)} is an edge in E2 for any two
elements a, b V1 . Notes
● A graph G is called as Euler graph if it contains an Euler line in G.
● An open walk in a graph G is called an Euler Path if it contains all the
edges of graph G.
● A graph G is called a Hamiltonian cycle if it contains a Hamiltonian cycle.
● A
graph G V , is called a Bipartite graph if its’s vertex set V(G) can be
E
partitioned into two non-empty disjoint subsets V 1(G) and V2(G) in such a
way that each edge e E(G) has it’s one end point in V1(G) and other
end point in V2(G).
● If each vertex of V1(G) is joined with each vertex V 2(G) , then the graph
G is called complete bipartite graph and is denoted by Km, n where m
and n are the number of vertices in V1(G) and V2(G) respectively.
Further Reading:
1. Kalika Patrai, “Graph Theory”, S.K. Kataria & Sons, New Delhi
Exercise:
Check your progress
1. Which of the following statements for a simple graph is correct?
(a) Every path is a trail
(b) Every trail is a path
(c) Every trail is a path as well as every path is a trail
(d) Path and trail have no relation
2. Which of the following properties does a simple graph not hold?
(a) Must be connected
(b) Must be unweighted
(c) Must have no loops or multiple edges
(d) Must have no multiple edges
3. What is the maximum number of edges in a bipartite graph having 10 vertices?
(a) 24
(b) 21
(c) 25
(d) 16
4. Which of the following is true?
(a) A graph may contain no edge and many vertices
(b) A graph may contain no edges and no vertices
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(c) A graph may contain no edges and no vertices
(d) A graph may contain no vertices and many edges
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5. For a given graph G having v vertices and e edges which is connected
Notes and has no cycles, which of the following statements is true?
(a) v = e
(b) v = e + 1
(c) v + 1 = e
(d) v = e – 1
6. For which of the following combinations of the degree of vertices would
the connected graph be eulerian?
(a) 1, 2, 3
(b) 2, 3, 4
(c) 2, 4, 5
(d) 1, 3, 5
7. Which of the following ways can be used to represent a graph?
(a) Adjacency List and Adjacency Matrix
(b) Incidence Matrix
(c) Adjacency list, Adjacency Matrix as well as Incidence Matrix
(d) No way to represent
8. A graph is collection of
(a) Rows and Columns
(b) Vertices and edges
(c) Equations
(d) None of these
9. The degree of any vertex of graph is
(a) The number of edges incident with vertex
(b) Number of vertex in a graph
(c) Number of vertices adjacent to that vertex
(d) Number of edges in a graph
10. If the origin and terminus of a walk are same, the walk is known as
(a) Open
(b) Closed
(c) Path
(d) None of these
11. In a graph if means
(a) u is adjacent to v is not adjacent to u
(b) e begins at u and ends at v
(c) u is predecessor and v is successor
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(d) both b and c (b) A
12. A graph with n vertices will definitely have a parallel edge or self loop gra
if the total number of edges are ph
dra
(a) greater than n – 1 wn
in
(b) less than n (n - 1) a
pla
(c) greater than n (n – 1)/2
ne
(d) less than n (n – 1)/2 in
suc
13. A vertex of a graph is called even or odd depending upon ha
(a) Total number of edges in a graph is even or odd wa
y
(b) Total number of vertices in a graph is even or odd tha
t if
(c) Its degree is even or odd the
(d) None of these ver
tex
14. The maximum degree of any vertex in a simple graph with n vertices is set
of
(a) n - 1
gra
(b) n + 1 phs
set
(c) 2n – 1 of
(d) N
15. How many onto (or surjective) functions are there from an n-element (n
2) set to a two-element set?
(a) 2n
(b) 2n – 1
(c) 2n – 2
(d) 2(2n –
2)
16. Circle has
(a) No vertices
(b) Only a vertex
(c) 8 vertices
(d) None of these
17. The complete graph with four vertices has k edges where k is
(a) 3
(b) 4
(c) 5
(d) 6
18. Choose the most appropriate definition of plane graph
(a) A graph drawn in a plane in such a way that any pair of edges meet
only at their end vertices
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Notes
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graphs can be partitioned into two non-empty disjoint subset x and y
Notes in such a way that each edge of g has one end in X and one end in Y.
(c) A simple graph which is isomorphic to Hamiltonian graph
(d) None of these
19. Length of the walk of a graph
(a) The number of vertices in walk w
(b) The number of edges in walk w
(c) Total number of edges in a graph
(d) Total number of vertices in a graph
20. Which type of graph has all the vertex of the first set connected to all the
vertex of the second set?
(a) Bipartite
(b) Complete Bipartite
(c) Cartesian
(d) Pie
Answer Keys (Exercise)
Question Answer Question Answer Question Answer
1 a 2 a 3 c
4 b 5 b 6 a
7 c 8 b 9 a
10 b 11 d 12 a
13 c 14 a 15 c
16 a 17 d 18 a
19 b 20 b
Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education
Basic Mathematics-I 121
Module – 5: Data Analysis
Notes
Course Contents:
● Data and Statistical Data
● Frequency Distribution
● Graphical Representation
● Measure of Central Tendency
● Measure of Dispersion
● Kurtosis
● Skewness
Key Learning Objectives:
At the end of this block, you will be able to:
1. Define Data and Statistical Data
2. Classify Frequency Distribution
3. Construct various types of Graph
4. Describe Measure of the Central tendency
5. Describe Measure of Dispersion
6. Define Skewness
7. Define Kurtosis
Structure:
UNIT 5.1: Data and their Representation
5.1.1 Introduction
5.1.2 Data and Statistical data
5.1.3 Variable
5.1.4. Arrangement of Raw data
5.1.5 Frequency Distribution
5.1.6 Graphical Representation of Data
5.1.7 Types of Graph
Unit-5.2: Measure of the Central Tendency
5.2.1 Introduction
5.2.2 Arithmetic Mean or Average
5.2.3 Properties of Arithmetic Mean
5.2.4 Geometric Mean
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5.2.5 Median
Notes
5.2.6 Positional Measure
5.2.7 Mode
5.2.8 Relationship between Mean, Mode and Median
UNIT 5.3: Measure of Dispersion
5.3.1 Introduction
5.3.2 Measure of Dispersion
5.3.3 Variance
5.3.4 Properties of Standard Deviation
5.3.5 The Coefficient of Variation
Unit-5.4: Skewness and Kurtosis
5.4.1 Introduction
5.4.2 Skewness
5.4.3 Measure of Skewness
5.4.4 Kurtosis
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Unit - 5.1: Data and Their Representation There
are two
kinds of
variabl
Unit Outcome: es:
At the end of this unit, you will learn
1. Discrete
● Define data and statistical data Variable
s: A
● Classify the Frequency Distribution variable
● Construct various types of Graph which
takes
only
5.1.1 Introduction finite or
denum
Statistics is concerned with the scientific method for collecting, erable
organising, summarising, presenting and analysing data (datum) as well as many
with drawing valid conclusions and making reasonable decisions on the basis distinct
of such analysis.
In this unit, we will discuss data, statistical data, the arrangement of raw
data frequency distribution and graphical representation of the data.
5.1.2 Data and Statistical Data
Data is a collection of information, but it is in raw form. When data is
processed, it becomes information. In short, meaningful, logical, and
processed data is called information. Data is numerical, character, symbols,
or any other kind of information. Data is plural and datum is the singular
form.
The term ‘statistics’ is used in plural sense (i.e., as statistical data) and
singular sense (i.e., as statistical method).
Statistics in the plural sense refers to numerical data of any
phenomenon placed in relation to each other.
For example, numerical data relating to population, production, price
level, national income, crimes, literacy, unemployment etc.
According to prof. Horace Secrist “By statistics we mean the
aggregate of all facts affected to a marked extent by multiplicity of causes
numerically expressed, enumerated or estimated according to a reasonable
standard of accuracy, collected in a symmetric manner for a predetermined
purpose and placed in relation to each other”.
5.1.3 Variable
A quantity which can vary or change from one individual to another is
called a variable. The values which a variable takes are called observations
on the variable or simply observations or variate values.
The name ‘variable’ actually comes from a number symbol X, which may
represent some characteristics and can be replaced by a number from real
number.
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Notes
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values is known as discrete variable. For example, the number of student
Notes in your class, the number of males in your family, etc.
2. Continuous Variable: A variable which can theoretically assume all
values within a certain interval or intervals is called a continuous
variable. For example, height, temperature, weight, etc.
5.1.4 Arrangement of Raw data
The data that are given in its original form often called ungrouped data.
It is very difficult for the mind to grasp the significance of the raw data. The
process of arranging the data in a logical or systematic order is called
seriation and data so arranged is called a statistical series or simply series.
If the data in arranged in ascending or descending order of magnitude it
is said to be arranged in array.
For example, Let the height (in cm) of students in your class be 150,
151, 149, 175, 180, 164, 151, 145, 170, 160.
The height of these students in ascending order are 145, 149, 150, 151,
151, 160,
164, 170, 175, 180.
The number of times each value of a variable occurs is known as its
frequency.
Here two students have same height. So, the frequency of 151 is 2.
5.1.5 Frequency Distribution:
Frequency distribution is an arrangement of data according to the
number (called frequency) possessing the individual or grouped values the
variable.
or
A tabular form of the data in which the frequencies of the values of a
variable are given along with them is called a frequency distribution.
1. Univariate Frequency Distribution: A frequency distribution which shows
the frequency of occurrence of different values of a single variable is
called a univariate frequency distribution.
2. Bivariate Frequency Distribution: A frequency distribution based on two
variables is known as bivariate frequency distribution.
3. Discrete Frequency Distribution: A frequency distribution which is formed
by distinct values of a discrete values of a discrete variable or a
continuous variable is called a discrete frequency distribution.
4. Grouped Frequency Distribution: A frequency distribution which is
obtained by dividing the entire range of given observations on a discrete
or continuous variable into groups and distributions the frequencies over
these groups is called a grouped frequency distribution.
The groups are called classes and the boundary ends are called class
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limits.
For
class
10-20,
say 10
is the
lower
limit
and
20 is
the
upper
limit.
The
differe
nce
betwe
en the
upper
and
lower
limits
of a
class
or
class
interv
al is
called
its
magni
tude
or
width
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of the class interval. The number of observations are falling within a
particular class is called its frequency or class frequency. The value of the
Notes
variable which lies mid-way between the upper and lower limits is called
mid- point or mid value that class.
Example 5.1.1 Given below are the marks obtained by 24 students in an
examination:
18, 17, 16, 24, 25, 19, 41, 22, 32, 42, 44, 21, 43, 26, 28, 40, 29, 30, 37,
27,49, 27,
34, 31
Make a frequency table for the above distribution.
Solution: The frequency table for the given data is is:
Marks Frequency
10-20 4
20-30 9
30-40 5
40-50 6
Total =24
Cumulative Frequency and cumulative frequency table
The cumulative frequency of a class interval is the sum of frequencies of
all classes up to that class.
Thus, cumulative frequency table for example 1 is as follows:
Marks Frequency Cumulative Frequency
10-20 4 4
20-30 9 4 + 9 = 13
30-40 5 4 + 9 +5 = 18
40-50 6 4 + 9 +5 +6 = 24
N = 24
This table can also be written in the form of ‘less than’ cumulative frequency table
as:
Marks Cumulative Frequency
Less than 10 0
Less than 20 4
Less than 30 13
Less than 40 18
Less than 50 24
5.1.6 Graphical Representation of a Frequency Distribution
It is often useful to represent frequency distribution by means of a
graph which makes the unwieldy data intelligible and coveys to the eye
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the general run of the
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observations. The graphs have a more lasting effect on the brain. When
Notes data of two items are compared with one another it is always easier to
compare through graphs.
5.1.7 Types of Graphs
Generally, the following types of graphs are used in representing
frequency distributions:
1. Histogram
2. Frequency Polygon
3. Frequency Curve
4. Cumulative Frequency Curve or the Ogive
1. Histogram
In this graph, the rectangles are drawn with class-intervals as bases
and their heights are proportional to the frequencies of respective classes.
Example 5.1.2 A histogram of the following given data is shown below
Daily wages (in rupees) Frequency
0-100 2
100-200 4
200-300 10
300-400 4
400-500 3
500-600 8
600-700 1
700-800 5
800-900 11
900-1000 2
Histogram
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
Freque
4
3
2
Frequency
1
0
Daily wages
Fig. 5.1.1 Histogram
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2. Frequency Polygon
If the various points are obtained by plotting the central values of the Notes
class-intervals as x-coordinates and the respective frequencies as the y-
coordinates, and these points are joined by straight lines and they form a
polygon called frequency polygon.
In a frequency polygon the individuals or variables of each class are
assumed to be concentrated at the mid-point of the class-interval.
Example 5.1.3 A frequency polygon for the given following data
Class Frequency
0-10 2
10-20 4
20-30 10
30-40 4
40-50 3
50-60 8
60-70 1
70-80 5
80-90 11
90-100 2
12
11
10
8
Frequenc
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Classes
Fig. 5.1.2 Frequency polygon
3. Frequency Curve
A frequency curve is drawn by smoothing the frequency polygon. It is
smoothed in such a way that the sharp turns are avoided. A frequency
polygon, if smoothed further so as to minimise sudden changes, results into
a continuous smooth curve known as frequency or smooth frequency curve.
The curve should begin and end at the base line.
Example 5.1.4 A frequency curve for the given following data
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Notes Class Frequency
0-10 2
10-20 4
20-30 10
30-40 4
40-50 3
50-60 8
60-70 1
70-80 5
80-90 11
90-100 2
12
10
Frequenc
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90100
2 Classes
0 Fig. 5.1.3 Frequency curve
4. Cumulative Frequency Curve or the Ogive
If from a cumulative frequency table, the upper limits of the class taken
as x-coordinates and the cumulative frequencies as the y-coordinates and
the points are plotted, then these points when joined by straight lines, we
obtain less than type cumulative frequency polygon.
If more than cumulative frequency is plotted against the corresponding
lower limits of each class and the points plotted are joined by straight lines,
we obtain more than type cumulative frequency polygon.
However, when the points plotted are joined by a free hand smooth
curve, we obtain cumulative frequency curve.
The cumulative frequency polygon is often called an ogive.
Example 5.1.5 A cumulative frequency polygon for the given following data
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Class Frequency Cumulative frequency Notes
0-10 2 2
10-20 4 6
20-30 10 16
30-40 4 20
40-50 3 23
50-60 8 31
60-70 1 32
70-80 5 37
80-90 11 48
90-100 2 50
60
50
40
Cumulative
30
20
10 0102030405060708090100110
Classes
0
Fig. 5.1.4 Cumulative Frequency
Activity:
1. Construct an ogive curve for the following frequency distribution of
Cotton Mils in Bombay according to the quantities of cotton consumed-
Cotton consumed in thousand candles No. of Mils
0-2 5
2-4 13
4-6 12
6-8 11
8-10 8
10-12 4
12-14 1
14-16 3
16-18 1
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Notes 1. The following table shows the frequency distribution for the number of
students per teacher in 750 colleges and professional schools-
Students Frequency
x F
1 7
4 46
7 165
10 195
13 189
16 89
19 28
22 19
2 9
528 3
Summary:
● Data is collection of information, but it is in raw form. When data is
processed it becomes information.
● A quantity which can vary or change from one individual to another is
called a variable.
● A variable which takes only finite or denumerable many distinct values
is known as discrete variable.
● A variable which can theoretically assume all values within a certain
interval or intervals is called a continuous variable.
● A tabular form of the data in which the frequencies of the values of a
variable are given along with them is called a frequency distribution.
● A frequency distribution which shows the frequency of occurrence of
different values of a single variable is called a univariate frequency
distribution.
● A frequency distribution based on two variables is known as bivariate
frequency distribution.
● A frequency distribution which is formed by distinct values of a
discrete values of a discrete variable or a continuous variable is called a
discrete frequency distribution.
● A frequency distribution which is obtained by dividing the entire range
of given observations on a discrete or continuous variable into groups
and distributions the frequencies over these groups is called a grouped
frequency distribution.
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Unit - 5.2: Measure of the Central Tendency
Notes
Recall Session:
In the previous unit, you studied about:
● The Data and Statistical Data
● The Variable and Arrangement of Raw Data
● The Frequency Distribution
● The Graphical Representation of Data
● The types of Graph
Unit Outcome:
At the end of this unit, you will learn to
1. Define Arithmetic Mean or Average
2. Describe Properties of Arithmetic Mean
3. Define Geometric Mean
4. Define Median, Positional Measure and Mode
5. Describe the relationship between Mean, Mode and Median
5.2.1 Introduction
In the previous unit, we studied about data and statistical data, variable,
arrangement of raw data, frequency distribution, graphical representation of
data and the types of graph. When two or more different series of the same
type are compared, it is not enough to classify and to tabulate the
observations. To make the data more comprehensive it is often desirable
to define quantitatively the characteristics of frequency distribution.
There are four fundamental characteristics in which similar frequency
distribution may differ. One of the characteristic is central tendency. In this
unit, we will discuss about arithmetic mean or average, properties of
arithmetic mean, median, positional measure, mode and the relationship
between mean, mode and median.
5.2.2 Arithmetic Mean or Average
Arithmetic mean of a group of observations is the quotient obtained by
dividing the sum of all the observations by their number. Thus, arithmetic
mean denoted by is
Sum of all the
x observations Number of
Observations
Formula:
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Individual Series: If X1, X2, X3,...., Xn are the n values of a variate x,
then the arithmetic mean (A.M.) is given by
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Notes x1 x2 ....... xn
A.M. n
x
n
Discrete Frequency Distribution: if the value x1 occurs f1 times, the
value x2 occurs f2 times, and so on, then
A.M. f1 x1 f2 x2 ........
fnxn
f1 f2 ........ fn
fx
n i i
i1
N
Where N = f1 + f2 +. + fn = Total frequency.
Methods of calculating Arithmetic mean
There are three methods of calculating arithmetic mean
a. Direct method
b. Short-Cut method
c. Step-deviation method
These methods are applicable to any type of series.
a. Direct method:
A.M.
x
n
b. Short -cut Method: In this method, first we assumed any number, say
A, (often called assumed mean). Then
xA
f x A
f
A
f x A
N
c. By Step-Deviation
Method
h = Class size
Where,
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u
n
i
i1
xAh
n
f
i
i
1
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Basic 13
xi A Notes
ui
h
A = Assumed
mean
n
= Sum of the frequencies given, can be denoted by N.
fi
i1
5.2.3 Properties of arithmetic mean
1. The algebraic sum of the deviations of all the variate values from their mean is zero.
2. If every value of the variable is increased by same constant a, then
arithmetic mean is also increased by a.
3. Arithmetic mean is not independent of the change of origin and scale.
4. The sum of the squares of the deviations of all the values taken about
their mean is minimum.
Example 5.2.1 Find the arithmetic mean of first n natural numbers.
Solution: Let the sum of all-natural numbers are denoted by x.
x 1 2 3 ...n
n n 1
2
Hence Mean,
x
n
n n 1
2n
n1
2
Example 5.2.2 Compute arithmetic mean of the following by both direct
and short- cut methods-
Class 20- 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70
30
Frequency 8 26 30 20 16
Solution:
Class Mid-value F fx d=x-A Fd
X
20-30 25 8 200 -20 -160
30-40 35 26 910 -10 -260
40-50 45 30 1350 0 0
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50-60 55 20 1100 10 200
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Notes 60-70 65 16 1040 20 320
f 100 fx fd
i. By direct 4600 100
method
fx
x N
4600
100
46
ii. By short-cut method,
Here, assumed mean
= 45
fd
xA
N
100
45
100
46
5.2.4 Geometric Mean
The nth root of product of the values is called geometric mean.
i. Geometric Mean for Ungrouped Data
If X1, X2, X3,. , Xn be n observations, then geometric mean is given by
G x1 .x2 ........xn n
1
logG log x log x ....... log x
1 2 n
n
1 log x
n
i
n
i1
1 n
G antilog log xi
n i1
ii. Geometric Mean for Grouped Data
If X , X , X ,...., X be n observations whose corresponding frequencies
1 2 3 n
are f1, f , f3,...., fn then geometric mean is given by
G x f1 .x f2 .......x
1 2 n
fn 1N
1 n
G antilog fi log xi
N i 1
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Example 5.2.3 Find the geometric mean of the numbers 3, 32, 33,. , 3n.
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Solution
Notes
GM 3.3 .3 2 3 ...... n
3 n1
12....n
n
3
nn1
3 2n
n1
2
3
5.2.5 Median
When the observations are arranged in ascending or descending order
of magnitude, then the middle value is called the median of these
observations.
Median is that value of the variable which divides a given series into two
parts so that one-half or more of the items are equal to or less than it.
Formula to compute Median of the given data
1. Formula for individual series: Let X1, X2, X3,. , Xn be the n values of a variable written
in ascending order of magnitude. Then median denoted by Me or M or Md is given by
Median = Value of the middle item
a. When n is odd, then
n
Median th term
1
b. When n is even, 2
then n
1 n
Median th term 1 th term
2 2 2
2. Formula for grouped data:
N
C.F.
Median l+ 2 h
f
where,
ʅ = lower limit of the median class
f = the frequency of the median
class h=width of the median
class
C.F.= cumulative frequency
N = total frequency
N
= median class
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2
5.2.6 Positional Measure
These are the values of the variable which divides total frequency into number of
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equal parts e.g., Median divides the total frequency into two equal parts.
Notes
Some of these are as follows
i. Quartiles
Quartile are those values of the variate which divide the total frequency
into four equal parts.
Median is that value of the variable which divides the total frequency
into two equal parts. When the lower half before the median is divided into
two equal parts the value of the dividing variate is called Lower Quartile and
is denoted by Q1.
The value of the variate dividing the upper half is called the Upper
Quartile and is denoted by Q3.
The formula for quartile
N
C.F.
Q l+ 4 h
1
f
And
3
N C.F.
Q l+ 4 h
3
f
ii. Deciles
Those values of variables which divides the total distribution into ten
equal part, are known as deciles.
iii. Percentiles
Those values of variables which divides the total distribution into
hundred parts, are known as percentiles.
Example 5.2.4 Calculate median, lower quartile and upper quartile for the
following data-
Class 0-4 4-6 6-8 8-12 12- 18-
18 20
Frequency
4 6 8 12 7 2
Solution
Class Frequency Cumulative Frequency
f C.F.
0-4 4 4
4-6 6 10
6-8 8 18
8-12 12 30
12-18 7 37
18-20 2 39
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Total 39
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N 39
(i) For Notes
Median, 19.5th item lies in the class 19.5
2 2
8-12. Thus
N
C.F.
Median l+ 2 h
f
19.5 18
8 12 4
1.5 4
8 12
8 0.5
8.5
(ii)For lower
quartile, N 39
9.75
4 4
9.75th item lies in the class 4-6.
Thus
N
C.F.
Q l+ 4 h
1
f
9.75 4
4
2
6
5.75 2
4 6
4 1.93
5.93
(iii)For upper
quartile,
3N 117
29.25
4 4
29.25 item lies in the class 8-12. Thus
th
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Notes 3N
C.F.
Q l+ 4 h
3
f
29.25 18
8
4
12
11.25 4
8
12
8 3.75
11.75
5.2.7 Mode
The mode or modal value of the given distribution is that value of the
variate for which frequency is maximum. It can be denoted by symbol ‘Mo’.
Formula of Mode for grouped data
M l+
f f
o
2 f f 1 f h
1 1
where,
f is the frequency of the modal class
ʅ is the lower limit of the modal class
f–1, f1 are the frequencies of the classes preceding and following the
modal class h is the class interval
Example 5.2.5 Compute the mode of the following data
Mid value 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
Frequency 2 22 19 14 3 4 6 1 1
Solution:
Thus, the given data transforms to the continuous series, as given below-
Mid value Class Frequency
15 12.5-17.5 2
20 17.5-22.5 22
25 22.5-27.5 19
30 27.5-32.5 14
35 32.5-37.5 3
40 37.5-42.5 4
45 42.5-47.5 6
50 47.5-52.5 1
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55 52.5-57.5 1
Here the maximum frequency f = 22 lies in the class 17.5-22.5.
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So, 17.5-22.5 is the modal class.
ʅ = 17.5, f = 22, f–1 = 2, f1 = 19, Notes
h=5
Hence, Mode,
M l+
f f1
o
2ff f h
1 1
22 2
17.5 5
222 2 19
20 5
17.5
23
17.5 4.35
21.85
5.2.8 Relationship between Mean, mode and median
Mean > Median > Mode
Mean – Mode = 3(Mean –
Median)
Activity:
1. Calculate the arithmetic mean of the distribution-
Variate 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Frequency 20 43 75 67 72 45 39 9 8 6
2. How is the arithmetic mean affected if every value of the variable is
a. decreased by same constant a
b. multiplied by same constant k
c. increased by same constant b
d. divided by the same constant h
3. Find the median and quartiles for the following frequency distribution-
Class Frequency
0-6 5
6-12 11
12-18 25
18-22 20
22-24 15
24-30 18
30-36 12
36-42 6
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4. The height of 70 students of a class are given in the following table. Find their mode-
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Notes 5. Find the geometric mean for the following frequency distribution-
Class Frequency
0-10 1
10-20 2
20-30 6
30-40 6
40-50 5
Summary:
● Arithmetic mean of a group of observations is the quotient obtained by
dividing the sum of all the observations by their number.
● Direct method:
A.M.
x
n
● Short -cut
Method
xA
f x A
N
● Step-Deviation
Method
fu
n
i i
i1
xAh
f n
i
i1
● The algebraic sum of the deviations of all the variate values from
their mean is zero.
● If every value of the variable is increased by same constant a, then
arithmetic mean is also increased by a.
● Arithmetic mean is not independent of the change of origin and scale.
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● The sum of the squares of the deviations of all the values taken about
their mean is minimum.
Notes
● The nth root of product of the values is called geometric mean.
● When the observations are arranged in ascending or descending
order of magnitude, then the middle value is called the median of these
observations.
● Quartile are those values of the variate which divide the total
frequency into four equal parts.
● Those values of variables which divides the total distribution into ten
equal part, are known as deciles.
● Those values of variables which divides the total distribution into
hundred parts, are known as percentiles.
● The mode or modal value of the given distribution is that value of the
variate for which frequency is maximum. It can be denoted by symbol
‘Mo’.
● Relationship between Mean, mode and median
Mean > Median > Mode
Mean – Mode = 3(Mean –
Median)
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Unit - 5.3: Measure of Dispersion
Notes
Recall Session:
In the previous unit, you studied about:
● Arithmetic Mean or Average
● Properties of Arithmetic Mean
● Geometric Mean
● Median, Positional Measure and Mode
● The relationship between Mean, Mode and Median
Unit Outcome:
At the end of this unit, you will learn
1. Define Measure of dispersion
2. Define Variance
3. Describe the properties of standard deviation
4. Define the Coefficient of Variation
5.3.1 Introduction
In the previous unit we studied about arithmetic mean or average,
properties of arithmetic mean, geometric mean, median, positional measure
and mode, the relationship between mean, mode and median. The word
dispersion is used in two senses in statistics one is the scatteredness of the
values of a variable due to variation among themselves is called dispersion
and second is the deviations from a measure of central tendency or any
other fixed value are not uniform in their size. The scatteredness of these
deviations is also referred to as dispersion. So, In this unit we will discuss
about measure of dispersion, variance, properties of standard deviation and
the coefficient of variation.
5.3.2 Measure of dispersion
The following are the measures of dispersion which are in common use-
1. Range
2. Quartile deviation or semi-interquartile range
3. Mean deviation
4. Standard Deviation
Range
The simplest possible measure of dispersion is the range which is the
difference between the greatest and the least values of the variable.
If L and S are largest and smallest observations respectively, then
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Range = L – S
5. Quartile deviation or semi-interquartile range Notes
The difference between the upper and lower quartiles i.e., Q3 – Q1 is
known as the interquartile range. Half of the interquartile range is called the
quartile deviation or semi- interquartile range and it is denoted by QD.
1
QD Q Q
3 1
6. Mean deviation
2
Mean deviation of a distribution is the arithmetic mean of the absolute
deviation of the terms of the distribution from its statistical mean (A.M.,
median or mode).
i. For Ungrouped or individual Series
If X1, X2, X3,...., Xn are n observations, then mean deviation from
average, A (usually mean, mode or median) is
n
xx i
MD i 1
n
d n
i
i1
n
where, di xi x
ii. For Grouped data
If X , X , X ,...., X are n observations whose corresponding frequencies
1 2 3 n
are f1, f , f3,. , fn, then mean deviation from average
n
fx x i i
MD i 1
f
n
i
i1
fd n i i
i1
f
n
i
i1
Example 5.3.1 Find the average deviation from mean of the following distribution-
Marks 0- 10- 20- 30- 40-50
10 20 30 40
No. of student 5 8 15 16 6
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Solution
Notes
Class Mid val- f xA fu x-M f xM
uex u M =27
h
0-10 5 5 -2 -10 -22 110
10-20 15 8 -1 -8 -12 96
20-30 25 15 0 0 -2 30
30-40 35 16 1 16 8 128
40-50 45 6 2 12 18 108
Here, assumed mean A
= 25 Arithmetic mean,
M A
hN
1010
25 50
25 2
27
Mean deviation from
Mean
MD
f xM
N
472
50
9.44
4. Standard deviation
The standard deviation of a variate is the square root of the arithmetic
mean of the squares of all deviations of the values of the variate x from the
arithmetic mean of the observations and is denoted by .
i. Standard Deviation for Individual Series
If X1, X2, X3,. , Xn are n observations, then
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x x
i 2
Notes
SD n
n
or i1
n
x 2
i1
n
i
x 2
or
2
di2ni 1 nd
n
1n
i1 i1
where, di = xi – A and A is assumed mean
ii. Standard Deviation for Frequency Distribution
If X , X , X ,...., X are n observations whose corresponding frequencies
1 2 3 n
are f1, f , f3,. , fn, then standard deviation
fx x
n 2
ii
i1
N
Or
1 n 1 n 2
i i
fd2
fdi i
N i 1 N i 1
where, di xi A and N fi
iii. Standard Deviation for Continous Series
fu 2
1 fu2 h
N N
Where h is class interval
5.3.3 Variance
The arithmetic mean of the squares of the deviations from arithmetic
mean, M of series is called variance and is denoted by 2.
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Notes
x M 2
n
i
2
i1
, for individual series
n
f x M
n i i 2
2 i1
, for grouped series
N
5.3.4 Properties of Standard Deviation
1. It is independent on origin.
2. It is dependent of change of scale.
3. It is not less than mean deviation from mean.
4. Let n1 and n2 be the sizes of the two series. Their means and standard
deviations
are x1, and 1, respectively. Let x denote the combined mean of two
x2 2 series,
that is
n1 x1 n2 x2
x
n1 n2
Hence, the combined standard deviation of two series is given by
n11 2 d 1n2
22
2
d 2
2
n1 n2
where,
d1 x1 and d2 x2 x
x
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3Quartile
5.
deviation
6. 2
5Mean deviation
2
5.3.5 The Coefficient of Variation (C.V.)
The coefficient of variation of given data is the ratio of the standard
deviation to the arithmetic mean. The coefficient of variation for given sample
can be defined as
C.V. 100
x
The coefficient of variation is particularly useful when we must compare
the variabilities of data sets that are measured in different units.
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Example 5.3.2 Calculate the standard deviation and variation from the
following data: 14, 22, 9, 15, 20, 17, 12, 11.
Notes
Solution:
2
Value
X
xx x x
14 -1 1
22 7 49
9 -6 36
15 0 0
20 5 25
17 2 4
12 -3 9
11 -4 16
2
x 120 x x
x
n
120
8
15
x x n
2
140
8
17.5
4.18
2 17.47
Hence the standard deviation is 4.18 and variation is 17.47.
Example 5.3.3 Find the standard deviation and variance for the
following frequency distribution-
Marks 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
No. of students 97 90 75 51 25 15 5 2
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Solution
Notes
2 2
Marks
x
Number of
student
fx
xx x x f xx
f
0 97 0 -17 289 28033
10 90 900 -7 49 4410
20 75 1500 3 9 675
30 51 1530 13 169 8619
40 25 1000 23 529 13225
50 15 750 33 1089 16335
60 5 300 43 1849 9245
70 2 140 53 2809 5618
f fx f x x
2
=6120
360 86160
Arithmetic mean,
x
fx
f
6120
360
17
Standard deviation is
given by
f x x 2
f
86160
360
239.3333
15.47
So, the variance is 239.33.
Example 5.3.4 Find the standard deviation and variance for the
following data which represents the wages of 230 workers
Wages (in Rs.) No. of workers
70-80 12
80-90 18
90-100 35
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100-110 42
Notes
110-120 50
120-130 45
130-140 20
140-150 8
Solution:
Class Mid valueX F x 105 Fu fu2
u
10
70-80 75 12 -3 -36 108
80-90 85 18 -2 -36 72
90-100 95 35 -1 -35 35
100-110 105 42 0 0 0
110-120 115 50 1 50 50
120-130 125 45 2 90 180
130-140 135 20 3 60 180
140-150 145 8 4 32 128
Total 230 125 753
Here assumed mean A is 105 and class interval is 10.
Standard deviation fu 2
1
N
fu2 h
N
2
753 125 10
230 230
3.27 0.29 10
2.98 10
1.7310
17.3 Rs
2
Variance 299.29
Example 5.3.4 The mean and standard deviation of marks obtained by 50
students of a class in three subjects, Mathematics, Physics, and Chemistry
are given in the following table
Subject Mathematics Physics Chemistry
Mean 42 32 40.9
Standard 12 15 20
deviation
Which subject shows the highest variability in marks and which shows the lowest?
Solution
Here n = 50
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For Mathematics,
Notes
Coefficient of C.V. 100
x
variation,
12
C.V. 100
42
2
100
7
200
7
28.57
For Physics,
Coefficient of variation, C.V. 100
x
15
C.V. 100
32
1500
32
46.87
For Chemistry,
Coefficient of C.V. 100
variation,
x 20
C.V. 100
40.9
2000
40.9
48.89
C.V. of Chemistry > C.V. of Physics > C.V. of Mathematics
Chemistry shows the highest variability and Mathematics shows the
least variability.
Activity:
1. Calculate the mean deviation from arithmetic mean, median and
mode for the following data-
Class Frequency
14-15 4
15-16 6
16-17 10
17-18 18
18-19 9
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19-20 3
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Find the variance, standard deviation and coefficient of variation for
the following data-
Notes
x 1 2 3 4 5 6
f 31 37 33 30 35 34
During the first 10 weeks of a session the marks of two students, X and
Y, taking the course were-
X 58 59 60 54 65 66 52 75 69 52
Y 56 87 89 78 71 73 84 65 66 46
Which of the two you would consider to be more consistent?
Summary:
● The simplest possible measure of dispersion is the range which is the
difference between the greatest and the least values of the variable.
● The difference between the upper and lower quartiles i.e., Q 3 – Q1 is
known as the interquartile range. Half of the interquartile range is called
the quartile deviation or semi-interquartile range and it is denoted by
QD.
1
QD Q Q
3 1
2
● Mean deviation of a distribution is the arithmetic mean of the
absolute deviation of the terms of the distribution from its statistical
mean (A.M., median or mode).
● For ungrouped or individual data
x x
n
i
MD i 1
n
For Grouped data
n
fxx i i
MD i 1
f n
i
i1
fd n
i i
MD i1
f
n
i
i1
Mean deviation
● Coefficient of Corresponding average
MD =
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● The standard deviation of a variate is the square root of the arithmetic
mean of the squares of all deviations of the values of the variate x from
the arithmetic mean of
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the observations and is denoted by .
Notes ● Standard deviation for individual series
x x
n
i 2
SD i1 n
or
n
x i
2
i1
n
x 2
or
2
di2n 1 ndi
n
1n
i1 i1
where, di = xi – A
● Standard deviation for frequency distribution
fx x
n 2
i i
i1
N
or
2
1 n 1 n
fd 2 fidi
N
i1 i
N i1
where, di = xi – A and N
fi
● The arithmetic mean of the squares of the deviations from arithmetic
mean, M of series is called variance and is denoted by 2.
n
2
x M
i
2
i1
, for individual series
n
f x M
n i i 2
2 i1
, for grouped series
N
● Properties of standard deviation
a. It is independent on origin.
b. It is dependent of change of scale.
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c. It is not less than mean deviation from mean.
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d. Let n1 and n2 be the sizes of the two series. Their means and
x1, x2 and Notes
standard deviations are , respectively. Let x denote
the combined mean of two
1 2 1
series, that is
n1 x1 n2 x2
x
n1 n2
Hence, the combined standard deviation of two series is given by
n11 2 d 1n2
22
2
d 2
2
n1 n2
where,
d1 x1 and d2 x2 x
x
e. 3Quartile
deviation
f. 2
5Mean
deviation
2
● The coefficient of variation of the given data is the ratio of the
standard deviation to the arithmetic mean. The coefficient of variation
for given sample can be defined as
C.V. 100
x
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Unit - 5.4: Skewness and Kurtosis
Notes
Recall Session:
In the previous unit, you studied about:
● The Measure of Dispersion
● The Variance
● Properties of Standard Deviation
● The Coefficient of Variation
Unit Outcome:
At the end of this unit, you will learn
1. Define Skewness
2. Define Measures of Skewness
3. Define Kurtosis
5.4.1 Introduction
In the previous unit we studied about measure of dispersion, variance,
properties of standard deviation and the coefficient of variation. In this unit
we will discuss about skewness, measures of skewness and kurtosis.
5.4.2 Skewness
Skewness denotes the opposite of symmetry. It is lack of symmetry. As
applied to frequency distribution it indicates that the distribution of items on
it is not symmetrical.
In a symmetrical series the mode, the median and the arithmetic mean
are identical. Therefore, skewness or lack of symmetry in a series is shown
when these three averages do not coincide.
Skewness can be positive as well as negative. If the mean is greater
than the mode or the median, the skewness is positive. If it is less skewness
is negative. In other words, if Mode < Median < Mean, then skewness is
positive and if Mean < Median < Mode, the skewness is negative.
5.4.3 Measures of Skewness
The first coefficient of skewness is defined by Bowley as-
Q3 Q1 2Median
Coeff. of Skewness
Q3 Q1
This expression can be
shown as
Coeff. of Skewness
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Q 3Median Median Q 1
Q3 Median Median Q1
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Bowley’s coefficient of skewness is also called quartile coefficient of
skewness. The second coefficient of skewness is defined by Karl Notes
Pearson as:
MeanMode
Coeff. of Skewness
Standard Deviation
M Mo
These coefficients are pure numbers since both numerator and
denominator have the same dimensions. The value of the first coefficient lies
between -1 and +1 and that of the second lies between -3 and +3.
M Md Mo
Fig.5.4.1 Negative skewness
M=Md=Mo
Mo Md .4 M mmetrical
Fi .2
Fig.5.4.3 Positive skewness
5.4.4 Kurtosis
The characteristics related with the nature of the concentration of the
items in the central part of a frequency distribution is called a Kurtosis.
In other words, Kurtosis is the degree of peakedness (or flatness) in a
curve of the frequency distribution. In fact Kurtosis is an indication for the
peakedness of a single humped frequency curve 2 , 2 measures of Kurtosis
indicate the degree to which a curve of the frequency distribution is peaked
or flat topped.
Karl Pearson in 1905 introduced the three terms
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a. Mesokurtic
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b. Leptokurtic
Notes c. Platykurtic
a. A frequency curve which is not very peaked or very flat topped is called
Mesokurtic or
normal curve. For such types of curves, β2 = 3 and = 0.
b. A frequency curve which is more peaked than the mesokurtic is called
Leptokurtic.
For such types of curves, β2 > 3 and > 0.
c. A frequency curve for which flatness of the top is more than the
mesokurtic is called
Platykurtic. For such types of curves, β2 < 3 and < 0.
Leptokurtic
Mesokurtic
Platykurtic
Fig.5.4.4 Comparative picture of three types of Kurtosis
Summary:
● Skewness denotes the opposite of symmetry. It is lack of symmetry.
● Skewness can be positive as well as negative.
● If Mode < Median < Mean, then skewness is positive and if Mean <
Median < Mode, the skewness is negative.
● The first coefficient of skewness is defined by Bowley as-
Q3 Q1 2Median
Coeff. of Skewness
Q3 Q1
or
Coeff. of Skewness Q Median Median Q
3
Median Median Q
Q
3 1
● The second coefficient of skewness is defined by Karl Pearson as:
MeanMode
Coeff. of Skewness
Standard Deviation
M Mo
● The value of the first coefficient lies between -1 and +1 and that of the
second lies between -3 and +3.
● Kurtosis is the degree of peakedness (or flatness) in a curve of the
frequency distribution.
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● A frequency curve which is not very peaked or very flat topped is called
Mesokurtic
or normal curve. For such types of curves, β2 = 3 and = 0.
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● A frequency curve which is more peaked than the mesokurtic is called
Leptokurtic.
For such types of curves, β2 > 3 and > 0 . Notes
● A frequency curve for which flatness of the top is more than the mesokurtic is
called Platykurtic. For such types of curves, β2 < 3 and < 0.
Further Reading:
1. M. Ray & Har Swarup Sharma, “Mathematical Statistics”, Ram
Prasad Publication, Agra-3
Exercise
Check your progress:
1. The arithmetic mean of an AP and the mean of first and last term of an AP
(a) equal
(b) unequal
(c) square of each other
(d) none of the above
2. The mean height of 25 male workers in a factory is 61 cm and the mean
height of 35 female workers in the same factory is 58 cm. the combined
mean height of 60 workers in the factory is
(a) 59.25
(b) 59.5
(c) 59.75
(d) 58.75
3. The average of the square of the numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,……., n is
1
(a) n n 1
2
1
(b) n2n 1
6
1
(c)
6
n 12n 1
1
(d) n n 1
6
4. Mean of 100 items is 49. It was discovered that three items which should
have been 60, 70 and 80 were wrongly read as 40, 20 and 50,
respectively. The correct mean is
(a) 48
(b) 89
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(c) 50
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(d) 80
Notes
5. The AM of n numbers of a series is . If the sum of first (n -1) terms is k,
then the nth
number is
(a) xk
(b) nx k
(c) x nk
(d) nx nk
6. If the average of the numbers 148, 146, 144, 142, ….. in AP, be 125,
then the total numbers in the series will be
(a) 18
(b) 24
(c) 30
(d) 48
7. The mean of the values of 1, 2, 3, ……, n with respectively frequencies x,
2x, 3x, ….., nx is
n
(a)
2
1
(b) 2n
1 3
(c) 12n
1 6
3n
(d)
2
8. The mean of n items is . If the first term is increased by 1, second by 2
and so on,
then the new mean is
(a)
xn
(b)
n
x
2
n1
(c) x
2
(d) None of these
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46n
9. If the mean of n observations 12 ,22 ,32 , then n is equal Notes
,.....,n2 is 11 to
(a) 11
(b) 12
(c) 23
(d) 22
10. The AM of the series 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, ……, 2n
is
2n 1
(a)
n
n1
(b) 2 1
n1
(c) 2n 1
n
(d) 2n 1
n1
11. In a class of 50 students, 10 have failed and their average marks are 28.
The total marks obtained by the entire class are 2800. The average
marks of those who have passed, are
(a) 43
(b) 53
(c) 63
(d) 70
12. The mean of 30 given numbers, when it is given that the mean of 10 of
them is 12 and the mean of the remaining 20 is 9, is equal to
(a) 11
(b) 10
(c) 9
(d) 5
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13. The mean of a set of observations is . If each observation is divided by,
Notes and then is increased by 10, then the mean of the new set is
x
(a)
x 10
(b)
x 10
(c)
(d) x 10
14 If the sum of deviations of a number of observations about 3 is 40. Then,
mean of the observation is
(a) 7
(b) 10
(c) 11
(d) None of these
15 Geometric mean of first group of 5 observations is 8. And that of second
group of 4
observations is 128 2 .
(a) 64
(b) 322
(c) 32
(d) None of these
16 Which of the following is not a measure of central tendency?
(a) Mean
(b) Median
(c) Mean-deviation
(d) Mode
17 For dealing with qualitative data the best average is
(a) AM
(b) GM
(c) Median
(d) Mode
18 Coefficient of skewness for the values
Median = 18.8, Q1 = 14.6, Q3 = 252 is
(a) 0.2
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(b) 0.5
(c) 0.7 Notes
(d) None of these
19. If the sum of 11 consecutive natural numbers is 2761, then the middle
number is
(a) 249
(b) 250
(c) 251
(d) 252
20. If the mode of the data is 18 and the mean is 24, then median is
(a) 18
(b) 24
(c) 22
(d) 21
21. If in a moderately asymmetrical distribution mode and mean of the data
are 6M and 9M respectively, then median is
(a) 8M
(b) 7M
(c) 6M
(d) 5M
22. If the median of 21 observations is 40 and if the observations greater
than the median are increased by 5, then the median of the new data
will be
(a) 40
(b) 45
(c)
50
4 21
(d) 50
45
21
23. In a moderately skewed distribution, the values of mean and median
are 5 and 6, respectively. The value of mode in such a situation is
approximately equal to
(a) 8
(b) 11
(c) 16
(d) None of these
24. Consider the following statements
Amity Directorate of Distance & Online
17 Basic
i. The values of median and mode can be determined graphically.
ii. Mean, median and mode have the same unit.
Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education
Basic 17
iii. Range is the best measure of dispersion.
Notes
iv. Which of these is/are correct?
(a) Only I
(b) Only II
(c) Both II and III
(d) None of these
25. The quartile deviation of daily wages (in rupees) of 7 persons given
below 12, 7, 15, 10, 17, 19 and 25 is
(a) 14.5
(b) 5
(c) 9
(d) 4.5
26. If two variables x and y are such that and quartile deviation(QD) of x is 8,
then QD of y is
(a) 2
(b) 8
(c) 4
(d) None of these
27. For a series the value of mean deviation is 15, the most likely value of
its quartile deviation is
(a) 12.5
(b) 11.6
(c) 13
(d) 9.7
28. When tested, the lives (in hours) of 5 bulbs were noted
as follows 1357, 1090, 1666, 1494, 1623
The mean deviations (in hours) from their mean is
(a) 178
(b) 179
(c) 220
(d) 356
29. The SD of 15 items is 6 and if each item is 6 and if each item is
decreases by 1, then standard deviation will be
(a) 5
(b) 7
(c) 8
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18 Basic
(d) 6
30. If SD of X is S, then SD of the variable Notes
aX b where a, b and c are
, constants,
is c
(a)
c
a
(b)
a
c
(c)
b
c
(d) c2
a2
_
31. If x is the arithmetic mean of n independent variates x1, x2, x3,....xn
each of the standard deviation , then variance is
(a)
2
n
2
n
(b)
2
n 1 2
(c)
3
(d) None of these
32. If the variance of 1,2,3,4,. 99
, then the standard deviation of 3, 6, 9, 12, 30
......................................,10
is
12
is
297
(a)
4
3
(b) 33
2
3
(c) 99
2
99
(d)
12
33. The mean and variance of n values of a variable x are 0 and ,
respectively. If the variable , then mean of y is
(a)
Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education
Basic 18
(b) 2
Notes
(c) 1
(d) None of these
34. Two samples of sizes 100 and 150 have means 45 and 55 and standard
deviation 7 and 12, respectively. Find the mean and standard deviation
of the combined sample
(a) 11, 30
(b) 11, 45
(c) 11, 40
(d) 11, 50
35. If the mean of five observations x, x + 2, x + 4, x + 6 and X + 8 is 11,
then the mean
of last three observations is
(a) 13
(b) 15
(c) 17
(d) None of these
36. If for a distribution the difference of first quartile and median is greater
than difference of median and third quartile then distribution is classified
as
(a) absolute open ended
(b) positively skewed
(c) negatively skewed
(d) not skewed at all
37. if the first quartile and third quartile are as 32 and 35 respectively with
the median of
20 then distribution is skewed to
(a) lower tail
(b) upper tail
(c) close end tail
(d) open end tail
38. the measurement techniques used to measure the extent of skewness
in data set values are called
(a) measure of distribution width
(b) measure of median tail
(c) measure of tail distribution
(d) measure of skewness
39. The statistical measure such as average deviation, standard deviation
Amity Directorate of Distance & Online
18 Basic
and
me
an
are
clas
sifie
d as
part
of
(a) dec
iles
sys
tem
Amity Directorate of Distance & Online Education
Basic 18
(b) moment system
(c) percentile system Notes
(d) quartile system
40. The method of calculating skewness which is based on the positions of
quartiles and median in a distribution is called
(a) Gary’s coefficient of skewness
(b) Sharma’s coefficient of skewness
(c) Bowley’s coefficient of skewness
(d) Jack Karl’s coefficient of skewness
41. The median of a moderately skewed distribution is 8, third quartile is 12,
first quartile is 8 and inter-quartile range is 4 then relative coefficient of
skewness is
(a) 8
(b) 1
(c) 9
(d) 11
42. For the Karl Pearson’s skewness coefficient, the value of skewness must
be in limits
(a) 3
(b) 5
(c) 4
(d) 1
43. The distribution is considered leptokurtic if
(a) β3 is less than three
(b) β2 is greater than two
(c) β3 is greater than three
(d) β3 is greater than three
44. The distribution is considered platykurtic if
(a) β3 is less than three
(b) β2 is greater than two
(c) β3 is greater than three
(d) β3 is greater than three
45. In kurtosis, the frequency curve that has flatten top normal curve of
bell shaped distribution is classified as
(a) Leptokurtic
(b) Platykurtic
(c) Mega curve
Amity Directorate of Distance & Online
18 Basic
(d) Mesokurtic
Notes
Answer Keys (Exercise):
Question Answer Question Answer Question Answer
1 a 2 a 3 b
4 c 5 b 6 b
7 b 8 c 9 a
10 b 11 c 12 b
13 c 14 a 15 c
16 c 17 c 18 a
19 c 20 c 21 a
22 a 23 a 24 a
25 d 26 d 27 a
28 a 29 d 30 b
31 a 32 b 33 b
34 c 35 a 36 b
37 a 38 d 39 b
40 c 41 b 42 a
43 d 44 c 45 b
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