Chapter 0:

• Phases of flights
o Visibility larger than 3 miles: (clear)
§ VMC & VFR
o Visibility smaller than 3 miles: (unclear)
§ IMC & IFR
• Avionics System Design trade-offs
o Cost
o Accuracy – navigation system errors
o Autonomy – dependence on external aids
o Time delay
o Geographical coverage
o Automation
o Availability – portion of time system is unable for navigation
o System capacity
o Ambiguity
o Integrity – provide timely warnings

Chapter 1:
• Radio-altimeter: provide information of height above terrain not height above MSL
• Indicated airspeed is basically what is shown on the airspeed indicator; true airspeed is
the actual speed aircraft is travelling through the air determined by taking indicated
airspeed and correcting for temperature and pressure
o As an aircraft climbs, the pressure and temperature reduce (pressure at a rate of
1Hpa/30ft and temperature 2°C/1000ft). For the same indicated air speed, the
true airspeed increases with altitude (due to the lower pressure and lower
temperature). Similarly for the a constant TAS the IAS decreases with altitude
Gyroscopes
• Gyroscopes are inertial sensors that exploit the property of inertia, namely the resistance
to a change in angular momentum
• Used to help us determine aircraft attitude and heading angles (free gyros) and angular
rates (rate gyros)
• Accelerometers use the resistance to a change in linear motion to sense accelerations
• They are the essential elements to Attitude and Heading Reference System (AHRS) and
the Inertial Navigation System (INS)
• Reference frames:
o Earth Centred Inertial (ECI) Fi
§ Origin in Earth COG
§ Z points North along Earth’s spin axis
§ 0,X,Y are along Earth’s equatorial plane
§ X points at convenient star, Y is perpendicular to OXZ
o Earth Centred, Earth Fixed (ECEF), Fe
§ Origin in Earth COG
§ Z points North along Earth’s spin axis
§ 0,X,Y are along Earth’s equatorial plane
§ X points to Greenwich meridian, Y is perpendicular to OXZ
o North East Down (NED)
§ Local tangent plane
§ X north, Y east, Z down towards Earth centre
o Geodetic reference frame
§ Same orientation as NED, but origin attached to aircraft COG
o Body reference plane
§ Origin in aircraft COG
§ X is aircraft longitudinal axis pointing forward, Y to right, Z down
o Attitude is the difference between geodetic and body reference frame
• History and future of gyroscope
o Gyroscope keeps a fixed reference relative to inertial space (ECI)
o Disadvantages:
§ Mechanical complexity
§ Subject to inherent failure modes
§ Power consumption and run-up time
§ High cost, reliability, maintenance
o 1963: Optical gyroscope
§ Ring laser gyros now dominate the INS market
• Higher reliability and lower cost of ownership
• Principles of gyroscopes – rigidity and precession
o Both these properties depend on the principle of conservation of angular
momentum
o Rigidity: Property which resists any force tending to change the direction of spin
axis
o Precession: angular change in direction of rotation under the influence of an
applied force; change in direction always at a point 90 deg away in the direction of
rotation
§ Gyro tends to resist applied force and prevents rotation around Y axis
§ Applied force transmitted to the gyro in the plane of the applied force
§ Total effective force felt lies 90 deg away in the direction of rotation
§ Gyro rotates Z axis due to precession
§ See notes on how to find direction of T, omega, precession vector

• Free gyroscopes
o Have two degrees of freedom and uses rigidity property to remain fixed in inertial
space; to make it useful it must be converted into Earth gyroscope
o Eg Gyro horizon
o Vertical Gyro Unit
§ for detection of aircraft pitch and roll angle changes
o Directional Gyro Unit
§ for detection of aircraft heading angle changes
o Limitations:
§ Gyroscope keeps the plane of rotor fixed relative to an inertial frame
§ It must keep reference wrt Earth surface
§ Need to compensate for Drift
• Apparent drift of earth rotation wrt inertial space
• Gyroscope senses the various components of earth rotation as an
angular input; we must deliberately precess the gyro with these
components of earth rotation
 § Need to compensate for wander
• For carrying gyroscope over earth surface, the gyro must be rotated
with respect to inertial reference frame, we must deliberately
precess it to make sure it follows curvature of earth

• Rate gyroscopes
o Has only one degree of freedom and we use the precession property to sense
angular rates
o Eg turn-and-bank indicator
Compass
• Earth magnetic field
o Isoclinals are lines with same angles of dip (like latitude lines)
o Magnetic variation/ magnetic declination is the angle between magnetic meridian
and geographic meridian
§ Positive when it lies to east of N pole (easterly variation)
o Magnetic dip is the angle of lines of magnetic forces with respect to earth’s surface
§ 0 deg at equator (least dip)
§ 90 deg at N pole (most dip)
o Earth magnetic field is not perfect and is subjected to local, daily and annual
changes

• Problems with direct reading of compass

1. Compass must be located where it can be directly read by crew
2. Magnetism is unavoidable in aircraft with many electronics avionics system à can
produce errors in indication of compass; there is also no means of obtaining a
simple electrical circuit that indicates magnetic field direction
a. Deviation is the angle between true magnetic direction and direction
indicated by compass
3. Damping action of liquid causes a significant lag during turns
4. Pendulous magnetic suspension is not level during turns and accelerated flight,
causing erroneous indications
• To solve 1 & 2: flux gate magnetometer
o A remote compass that makes use of electro-magnetism principles to convert the
static flux of earth’s magnetic field into a measurable changing flux
o Advantage
§ Magnetometer can be placed far away from cockpit (less magnetic
interference by electronic avionics system)
§ Induced voltage can be used in other systems
§ AC is supplied causing a change in flux
§ AC caused changing flux that magnetize the material inside exciter coil that
magnetises the top and bottom part of spoke
§ Material of spoke legs is an alloy which is easily magnetized, and it loses
almost all of its magnetism once external magnetising source is removed
§ Strength of induced voltage can be used as a measure to determine the
magnitude and direction of earth magnetic field
§ 3 spokes needed for determination of magnetic field direction
 § However, magnetometer is still sensitive to vertical component of earth
magneticf field during turns and accelerations
• Gyrosyn compass
o Combine gyroscopes and magnetic compass to obtain a stable heading reference
as both system compensate for each other deficiencies
o Magnetometer compensates for deficiencies of drift in gyroscope
o The direction gyroscope compensates for deficiencies of errors due to
accelerations and turning in magnetometer
Navigation Equations
• Navigation: determination of position and velocity, aircraft course and the distance to go
according to flight plan
o Navigation: position calculated on-board
o Surveillance: position calculated outside vehicle
• Guidance: steering towards a destination of known positioning from vehicle’s present
position
• Definitions of navigation system categories
o Sole means: A navigation system that, for a given phase of flight, must allow the
aircraft to meet all four navigation system performance requirements – accuracy,
integrity, availability and continuity of service (does not exist yet, but INS comes
close)
o Supplemental means: A navigation system that must be used in conjunction with
a sole means navigation system (e.g., GPS)
o Primary means: navigation system that, for a given phase of flight, must meet the
accuracy and integrity requirements, but need not meet full availability and
continuity of service requirements. Safety is achieved by either limiting flights to
specific time periods or through appropriate procedural restrictions and
operational requirements (e.g., VOR and DME)
o Positioning systems measure the state vector without regard to the path travelled
by the vehicle in the past:
o Dead Reckoning systems derive the state vector from a continuous series of
measurements relative to an initial position.
§ Inertial Navigation Systems: accelerations and angular rates are measured
and integrated (modern DR)
§ Dead Reckoning systems must be re-initialized as errors accumulate in time
• Model of Earth
o Radii curvature
§ Meridian radius of curvature (North South movements)
• Best fitting circle to meridian section of ellipsoid
§ Prime radius of curvature (East West movements)
• Best fitting circle to vertical EW section of ellipsoid

• Navigation Computations
o Dead reckoning (DR) computations
§ Calculates the position from measurements of the velocity
§ Disadvantages:
• Position errors are integrated and accumulated over time; position
fixed is required to re-solve
 o Course computations
§ Calculate range and bearing from an aircraft to one or more desired
wavepoints, radio beacons, airports etc
• 3 types of approximation: Flat earth, Spherical earth, Ellipsoidal
earth
• Navigation errors (Total System Error TSE = NSE + FTE)
o Navigation System Error NSE
§ Navigation sensor errors (measurement errors)
§ Computer errors (eg double to floating point conversion)
§ Data entry errors
§ Display errors (if human is flying, eg display read wrong)
o Flight Technical Error (FTE) (pilot does not follow trajectory)
o Important to know NSE:
§ Width of airway depends on NSE
§ NSE determines minimal distance between 2 parallel runways
§ NSE is used to calculate the risk of airborne collisions
• Geometric Dilution of Precision (GDOP)
o Higher GDOP higher uncertainty; Lowest GDOP when VOR perpendicular
o GDOP2 = PDOP2 + TDOP2
o PDOP = sqrt(HDOP2+VDOP2)
Inertial Navigation
• Advantage:
o Continuous availability of position, velocity and attitude information
o Autonomous, does not depend on other system
o Not “jammable”
• Disadvantage:
o Expensive
o DR system…disadvantage of DR, thus position and velocity information degrades
over time
• Principles of IN:
o If vehicular accelerations components can be derived along a precisely known axes,
successive integration of acceleration components with respect to time yield the
velocities and distances travelled along these axes

Stable platform IN uses mechanical gyroscopes to isolate the inertial sensors from the
angular motions of the vehicle.
• Stable platform IN system (measures in local horizontal plane)
o Measures Fg coordinates directly
o Gimballed platform isolates the inertial sensors from angular motions of vehicle;
thus, accelerometer measurements can be integrated directly in navigation
coordinates in Fg
§ Gimballed platform → big vertical gyroscope
o Stable platform concept:
§ 2 free gyros mounted to sense angular movement around the 3 orthogonal
platform axes
• Stable platform IN: Gyros and Accelerometers
o Accelerometers measures force required to accelerate a proof mass
§ But it cannot distinguish the force acting on the proof mass due to earth
gravitation and force required to accelerate the proof mass so that it has
the same acc as the vehicle
§ Thus, accelerometers measures specific force and not the true vehicle
acceleration
§ Thus, essential to know the magnitude and orientation of the gravity vector
g with respect to the accelerometer input axis in order to compute the
vehicle acceleration components
o Torque balance pendulous accelerometer
§ Sensitive element consists of a pendulum
with a torquer coil and a sensitive pick-off,
supported by torsional spring
§ Pick off measures displacement of
pendulum from null
§ Torquer coil restores pendulum to null
§ Torquer current is a measure of the
restoring torque and thus the acceleration
 o Accelerometer corrections
§ Corrections for centrifugal force, rotation of earth (Coriolis force) and
gravity
• Stable platform IN: Platform alignment
o For INS platform to be useful, must be aligned with Geodetical reference frame
o However, inaccuracies
§ Accelerometer bias
§ Gyro real drift rate
o Thus → Schuler turning
• Stable platform IN: Schuler tuning and error propagation
o Schuler tuning
§ It is a positive side effect of correcting for transport wander and apparent
drift
§ How?
• Feeding back accelerometer vehicle turn rates
• to torque the vertical gyro so that the platform follows the local
vertical as the aircraft moves over the spherical earth
§ Acc bias effect VS Gyro real drift rate effect

Strapdown IN uses optical gyro and accelerators that are directly mounted on the vehicle
As such, all measurements are done in body reference frame and algorithms transform the
measurements to Geodetical frame.
• Strapdown IN system (measures in body frame)
o Inertial sensors rigidly mounted
o Gyroscopes track the rotation rates of vehicle body and
o Algorithms calculates attitude orientation of aircraft
o Accelerometer outputs (in body frame) are transform to Geodetical reference
frame
• Strapdown INS: Optical gyroscopes (Ring laser gyro [RLG], Fibre Optic Gyro [FOG]) and
Mems
o Optical gyros have replaced mechanical due to:
§ No moving parts, no wear and tear
§ High reliability, high lifetime >60000hours
§ High accuracy (0.01degree per hour bias/drift rate)
§ High dynamical range
§ Insensitive to accelerations and vibrations
 § Negligible warm up time
§ Low cost of ownership (not much maintenance)
o RLG principle
§ Photon of light start from P in CW and another in CCW direction

§ Rotating the RLG around its input axis changes the interference pattern,
causing a frequency beat → this beat is a measure for rotation rate
§ Frequency difference can be measured by allowing a small percentage of
two laser beams (CW and CCW) to be transmitted through one of the
mirrors → generating a fringe pattern at the detector
§ At low rates: 2 laser beams show coupling effects
• At lock in rate (below threshold): delta f=0 → dead zone → zero
output
§ Lock-in countered by mechanical dithering of the laser block

o MEMS (Micromechanical systems) gyroscopes make use of Coriolis effect

§ Advantage over optical gyroscopes
• Small size and low weight
• Low power consumption
• Inexpensive to produce
• Low maintenance
 • High reliability
§ Disadvantage: Far less accurate than optical gyros → currently not used in
aircraft → eg currently used in low end UAV applications
• Strapdown INS: Analytic Platform
o Definition of Strapdown INS…
o Correction loops in Strapdown IN systems
§ The true orientation of Geodetical frame is unknown to INS except at
initialisation
§ When moving over Earth surface, the INS must rotate its estimate of Fg,
involving the same corrections as the stable platform INS
§ Because of sensor inaccuracies, the virtual analytic platform will exhibit the
same characteristics
o Advantage:
§ Reduced mechanical complexity
§ Improved reliability
§ Extended bandwith
§ Lower power consumption
§ Lower volume and weight
§ Lower cost of ownership
Terrestrial Radio-navigation System
• Basics
o Radio waves
§ EM waves that are vulnerable to phenomena of reflection, refraction,
diffraction, absorption, polarization and scattering.
§ For sending and receiving radio signals → these phenomena can cause
antenna lobbing patterns (multi-path effects)
o Antennas
§ Law of reciprocity: same gain and directional properties when used for
either transmission or reception → FOR SENDING AND RECEIVING RADIO
WAVES, SIMILAR AND PARALLEL POSITIONED ANTENNAS REQUIRED
§ Isotropic radiator: radiate uniformly in all direction
§ Half wave dipole: length of antenna is equals to one half wavelength of
transmitted/received radio waves
§ Antenna gain
• Radiation/reception gain and lobe patterns are expressed in dB
and represented in polar response graph

§ Cone of silence
• Theta 3 null
 o Modulation
§ Why need modulation?
• Information signals can rarely be transmitted due to antenna size
constraints → information coded in radio waves → called
modulation
§ Pulse Modulation (PM) vs Amplitude Modulation (AM)
• For AM the amount of modulation depends on amplitude ratio of
information and carrier signal → aka depth modulation
• AM affected by noise

• Effects of modulation depth

o Higher depth modulation, higher frequency
§ Frequency modulation (FM)
• Frequency of carrier wave varied as a function of amplitude of
modulating signal
• FM signals immune to random noise

• In free space, all radio waves propagated in straight lines at LOS. Along the surface of the
earth however are two other methods of propagation:
o Ground wave
§ Up to 3MHz (<HF)
§ Follows curvature of earth
§ Received power is a function of 1/D^4
 • At low frequencies difficult to construct a vertical antenna large
enough to be half a wavelength
o Sky wave
§ Up to 30MHz (<VHF)
§ Reflected from ionosphere
§ Skip distance – within skip distance no particular operating frequency
§ Makes long range comms possible but transmission path unpredictable
o Multipath effects
§ For both ground wave and sky wave, fading of signals can occur for addition
of direct signal and reflected signal = reflected signal which is null
o Line of sight waves (>30MHz)
§ Radio waves follow straight line
§ Range depends on
• Height of transmitter
• Height of receiver
• Curvature of earth
§ Vertical reflection paths and lobes
• Receiver can receive direct signal and reflected signal → path
difference can cause multipath effects
• Thus, reduce vertical nulls by:
o Lowering antenna → decrease path length differences at
receiver → bigger lobes and less null area
o Add counterpose → reduce path length differences due to
proximity of reflecting plane → bigger lobes

• Position determination methods

o Line of position – geometric locus regarding the unknown position, intersection of
LOP provides a position FIX
§ LOP of constant direction is radial from the station (theta system)
• 2 theta system required for position fix
• ADF/NDB, VOR

GDOP for theta →

§ LOP of constant distance is circle around the station (rho system)

• 3 rho system are needed to provide position fix
• DME
 GDOP for rho →

§ Rho-theta system → intersection of 2 LOP provides position fix → one

system required for position fix

• THETA SYSTEM Point-Source Systems – ADF / NDB

o Determines the direction of transmitter (theta system)
o NDB – non-directional beacon; omnidirectional transmitters; does not broadcast
information
§ Transmitter on the ground
o ADF – airborne direction finder
§ Receiver airborne
o Radio waves will induce voltage in arms of the ADF loop antenna. When the plane
of the loop is perpendicular to the direction of arrival of signal → currents in AD
BC same in phase and amplitude → null position of loop antenna → rotate here
indicates direction of NDB transmitting waves
o ADF is bi-directional antenna → two nulls are produced → thus add an
omnidirectional sense antenna, yielding a cardioid pattern that allows the
ambiguity to be resolved
o Automatic direction finding of loop → motor rotates the loop to find the loop null
 o ADF usage: ADF yields a relative bearing to an NDB ground station irrespective of
geographical position
o Difficult to use in wind conditions
• THETA SYSTEM Point Source Systems: VOR
o VHF Omnidirectional Range (VOR)
o Operates in VHF with LOS waves
o Carries 3 types of information
§ Voice (eg weather information)
§ Identity of VOR beacon in Morse
§ Radial on which aircraft is positioned
o Working principle
§ VOR principle of operation is bearing measurement by phase comparison
of amplitude modulated (AM) and frequency modulated (FM) signals of the
carrier wave at 30Hz
§ Airborne VOR receiver demodulates the signal, compares the phase
differences and interprets this as the radial from station
§ AM and FM signals are constructed in such a way that they are in phase in
the direction of magnetic north

o 2 types of VOR transmitters

§ Conventional VOR (CVOR) – obsolete
§ Doppler VOR (DVOR)
o DVOR: a modern implementation of VOR
§ Omnidirectional transmitter in the centre that sends out carrier wave
signal amplitude modulated with a 30Hz signal → An array of
omnidirectional antennas is “electronically rotated” at 30rev per second →
Each antenna transmits in turn to simulate turning effect and generates
the FM signal
§ The movement will create a Doppler shift of carrier frequency at an
observer a distance away → Observer detect increased frequency when
antenna moves towards observer and vice versa → This is the VAR signal
§ However
 • “Movement” of antenna in circular array is simulated by switching
on and off the antennas
• Switching frequency can cause spurious side bands in the spectrum
of VOR signal
• Difficult for VOR receiver to demodulate the VOR signal
§ Solution: “smooth out” power at the switching frequency over the entire
frequency band → antenna adjacent to the broadcasting antenna
broadcast the carrier wave at reduced power
• RHO SYSTEM Point source system: DME Distance Measuring Equipment
o VOR/DME is rhotheta system
o DME is an active two-way navigation system with the “intelligence” equipment in
the aircraft not the ground station
o 1. Aircraft interrogates 2. Ground station replies
o DME is based on the measurement of the time interval between a pulse
transmitted by the aircraft airborne DME interrogator and the reception of that
pulse sent back (after a fixed time delay of 50μs) by a ground-based DME
transponder
o The airborne equipment computes the slant range (LOS distance) between aircraft
and DME station

o DME search mode

§ Interrogator has not yet received an answer from ground station and sends
about 140 pulse-pairs per second. It has to recognise its own replies and
ignore the replies to the DME interrogators of other aircraft
o DME tracking mode
§ Interrogator has recognised its own replies and is converting information
to a slant range. It sends about 5-8 pulse pairs a second
o DME accuracy ± 0.25 NM + 1.25%R (R in NM)
§ Ground station responds to the interrogations of more than one aircraft
where all send their interrogations at same frequency (frequency of DME
beacon) → capacity is limited, transponder is saturated
§ Interrogator has to recognise its own replies → aircraft interrogate with
own rhythm or jitter and then looks to replies with a constant time
difference wrt interrogator transmission
• Future trends
o Satellite navigation systems (GPS, GLONASS) are expected to replace terrestrial
systems; but not soon because:
§ Widespread use of equipment and cost of replacement
§ Lack of availability of air traffic management operational procedures
compatible with satellite-based systems
§ Absence of full sole means of navigation status of GPS
§ Issues involving system accuracy, integrity, availability and continuity of
service of the satellite systems have not yet been resolved
 Landing Systems
• Mechanics of landing
o 5 steps of landing: Approach → Flare and Decrab → Touchdown → Rollout → Taxi
o Approach at 3 degree (limits excessive sink rates)
o Take-off and landing in headwind
o Visual Flight Rules VFR permits day and night landings when ceiling exceeds 1000
ft and horizontal visibility exceeds 3NM
o If not, use Instrument Flight Rules IFR. IFR approaches are:
§ Non-precision
• Only lateral guidance
§ Precision
• Lateral and vertical guidance
• Low visibility
o ICAO defines three categories of visibility for landing for instrument landing
system during approaches

Cat 1 Cat 2 Cat 3 Cat 3a (see to land) Cat 3b (see to taxi) Cat 3c (zero visibility)
DH >200ft >100ft <100ft <100ft <50ft No limits for DH and
RVR ≥2600ft ≥1200ft <1200ft ≥700ft ≥150ft RVR

o Decision height is the height above runway at which landing must be aborted if
runway is not in sight
o RVR is the visibility of runway surface

Category Requirements
1 ILS and marker beacons, 1 pilot
2 Dual ILS receiver, radar altimeter, autopilots coupler or dual
flight director, missed-approach attitude guidance, 2 pilot
3a Fail passive autopilot (dual) and heads-up display (HUD)
3b Fail-operational autopilot (triple)
3c This category has not been approved
• Instrument Landing System
o LOC: 1 dot = 1 degree
o GS: 1 dot = 0.35 degree
o ILS provides a funnel that converges to a single point on the runway
• ILS Localiser and ILS Glide Slope GS
o If too left, a/c receive
more 90Hz than 150Hz,
same if too right
o When 90Hz and 150Hz are
perceived equally in
strength à straight
o 90 and 150Hz are
amplitude modulated
signals → path length
differences cause
frequencies to be perceived
differently
o A/c first intercept ILS LOC
then ILS GS

• ILS: Localizer
o Left antenna: Side Bands Only SBO
o Central antenna: Carrier and Side Bands CSB
o Right antenna: SBO
• ILS: GS

o For dual antenna GS, the 3 degree guide slope accompanied by another slope of
15 degree
o Limitations
§ ILS provide guidance for one approach path, limited in azimuth and
elevation
§ ILS sensitive to environment
• GS antenna require flat terrain along direction of approach (no
mountains)
• Obstacles in terrain result in disturbance of ILS signal (multipath
effects)
• ILS GS and LOC are large, not suitable for small airport
• Future trends
o Pilot support
§ Enhanced vision system
§ Heads-up display
o Satellite landing
o Airport surface navigation
§ Local DGPS
Satellite Navigation:
• Why satellite navigation
o Line of sight coverage over vast areas of the world, even remote areas
o Radio signals penetrate ionosphere rather than being reflected (overcome HF
radio disadvantages)
o Motion of satellite increase chance of a good GDOP anywhere on earth
• Basic of GPS Satellite
o Coordinate system: ECEF – earth centred earth fixed

o There are three unknowns in the equation → at least 3 satellites needed

§ Satellite navigation is about timing an EM radio signal and incorrect timing
can cause significant position errors (error of 1ms around 300km!)
o Satellites broadcasts own position and clock error
o Receiver has clock error → observed range is just the PR (pseudo-range)
o 4th satellite needed to solve for unknown clock error between satellite and
receiver
• GPS System configuration
• Space segment: 24 satellite in 6 orbital planes
• Control segment: ground-based stations that track satellite, predicts their orbital position
data and update clock correction parameters
• User segment: GPS receivers that search for and track satellites and determine their
position relative to the received satellite

• GPS signals
o Two carrier frequencies: transmit two high frequency carrier signals L1 and L2
§ Satellite moves at high velocity wrt receiver → receiver measures doppler
shift carrier waves → satellite can broadcast on same carrier wave without
fading to occur at the receiver
o Course Acquisition code (C/A code) & Precision code (P code): Pseudo Random
Noise
§ L1 and L2 modulated with PRN code through binary phase shift keying
(BPSK) modulation
§ Each satellite PRN code adds discrete features to carrier waves which
makes it easier for receiver to:
• Identify from which satellite it is receiving the signal
• Determine at which cycle of carrier wave it has turned to
• These are useful to determine transit time Dti
§ Take note PRN code holds no information
§ Appears to have random character, but can be identified
§ Unique design to be uncorrelated with other PRN code, allowing multiple
satellites to transmit at the same carrier frequency
§ Uncorrelated with itself at different time delays (random with time)
§ Advantage: limits interference and makes jamming and spoofing difficult
o Navigation message
§ Holds the real message
• GPS Signal Processing
o Satellite send signal → receiver receive a copy of signal → receiver aligns
generated copy with received one
o C/A code alignment: resolution
§ 1023 bit chip sequence transmitted at 1.023Mbits/s repeated every 1ms
§ Full chip sequence resolution: 1ms = 300km
§ Full bit resolution: (1/1023) = 1 microsecond = 300m
§ Continuous ‘inter-bit’ resolution: (0.01/1023) = 10 nanoseconds = 3m
o However, PRN synchronization alone impossible to get full transit time → as the
maximum resolution is 1 ms
o Thus → Hand Over Word (HOW)
§ Repeated every 6s (6000ms)
§ Gives the time the data has been sent by the satellite with a resolution of
6000ms
• GPS errors
o Type of errors
§ Satellite clock error
• General relativity
o Satellites are located further away thus clock runs faster
• Special relativity
o Satellite moves at higher speed wrt slower moving ground
observer thus satellite clock runs slower
§ Atmospheric delays
• Charged particles in ionosphere can reflect signals thus signal travel
longer distance
• Delay dependent on total electron content (TEC) and frequency of
signal
§ Multipath effects
• Signals delay as they travel longer distance
o Geometric Dilution of Precision (GDOP)
§ GDOP = PDOP + TDOP (position and time)
§ PDOP = HDOP + VDOP
§ GDOP proportional to 1/Volume → spread out and a lot of satellites
§ Good GDOP vs Bad GDOP
 § Good GDOP but poor visibility

o To account for atmospheric delays

§ Mathematical modelling
• Much of the delays can be predicted by the receiver
• Satellite also constant transmit updates to the basic ionospheric
model
§ Dual frequency measurements
• Low frequency signals get refracted or “slowed” more than high
frequency
• Comparing delays between the signals
• Can deduce what the medium is and correct for it
• Differential GPS: a technique to make GPS more accurate and to add integrity
o Requires a ground-based receiver of precisely known location, ie reference station,
that uses GPS measurements and its own known position to determine correction
factors for receiver and local and regional system
§ Can compensate atmospheric delays
§ CANNOT get rid of multipath and satellite clock errors
o Differential GPS – DGPS
§ Ground-based augmentation system GBAS
• Local area augmentation system LAAS
o An aircraft landing system based on real-time DGPS
o Currently supports a Cat 1 precision approach accuracy of
16m laterally and 4m vertically
• Regional Area Augmentation System (RAAS): NT IMPRT
§ Space-based augmentation system
• Wide area augmentation system (WAAS)
o Use Geostationary satellite to broadcast the integrity and
correction data to users for all of the GPS satellites visible to
WAAS network
• Global navigation satellite system: GNSS
o Standard generic term for satellite navigation system that provides geospatial
positioning and timing with global coverage
o Eg GLONASS, BeiDou, GALILEO
o Each have many satellites in space supporting the system
• Future trends: to add accuracy, integrity, diversity, and redundancy with the goal to make
it a sole means of navigation
Communication, Navigation, Surveillance
• CNS is the building block of air traffic management
o C: exchange information between aircraft, ground stations, satellites
o N: determine position and velocity of moving vehicle
o S: determine position and velocity of moving vehicle, but done outside the vehicle
• Communication Means
o Use radio-transceivers (R/T) for air-ground communication (voice)
§ VHF: But use of VHF limited to line-of-sight operations
§ HF: ‘over-the-horizon’ communications but affected by atmospheric
disturbances (sky wave)
o Communication between Air Traffic Services (ATS) units
§ AFTN – aeronautical fixed telecommunications network
o ACARS – aircraft communications addressing and reporting system
o CPDLC – controller pilot data link communications (VHF datalink – VDL)
§ Digital messages used between ATC and pilots
§ Thus avoid the vulnerable HF radio
o Problems with current system: Low bandwidth, expensive and local
• Navigation means done by
o Ground based beacons like
§ VOR/DME (VHF omnidirectional range/ distance measuring equipment)
§ NDB (non-directional beacon)
o Long range navigation
§ INS – inertial navigation system
§ GPS
o Main trend: Area/Random Navigation (RNAV)
§ Allows flight to be conducted along any tracks without the need to fly
directly over ground-based navigation facilities
§ Permits flight within prescribed accuracies: (i) within coverage of station-
referenced navigation aids, (ii) within the limits of the capabilities of the
self-contained aids, (iii) a combination of these
• Surveillance (for others to keep track)
o Surveillance means
§ Continental and coastal areas
• Primary and secondary radar
§ Oceanic and remote areas
• Procedural voice reporting, report their position to ATC every
500km
o Use of RADAR (Radio Detection And Ranging)
§ Primary Radar (PSR)
• Pulses of RF (radio frequency) energy transmitted and signals
scattered back by aircraft
• RF at different frequencies → because aircraft reflection
characteristics depend on frequencies and each frequency results
in different radar lobbing pattern
• For range and azimuth
• Basic working principles of RADAR
 o Transmitter: produce high energy radio wave pulses of
short duration
o RF switch: switch antenna between transmitting and
receiving
o Rotary device: rotate antenna to detect objects in all
direction
o Receiver processor: calculate slant angle and report target
range and azimuth
• PR Pulses
o Non rotating

§Minimum range affected by PW

§Max range affected by PRT → aka higher pulse
repeated FREQUENCY, lower max radar range
§ Pulse staggered to prevent “false echo”
o Rotating
§ Faster, can see more object
§ Rotation velocity determine max radar range
§ But, it will not affect max range if omega ≤ BW/PRT
o Radar resolution
§ Objects should be spaced more than half the pulse
width (further apart) for better range resolution

o Bearing resolution
§ Minimum angular separation two objects can be
separated at same range

§ Secondary surveillance radar (SSR)

• Signal transmitted by radar → reply signal from a/c transponder
• For Aircraft ID (ACID) and pressure altitude
• SSR interrogation signals
o SSR Mode A:
§ Interrogation interval P1 and P3 equals 8μs
§ Replies with ACID
o SSR Mode C:
§ Interrogation interval P1 and P3 equals 21μs
§ Replies with pressure altitude in steps of 100 ft
(QNE), ie flight level (FL)
• What is the purpose of P2?
o Every antenna has a main love and several side lobes → a/c
transponder cannot determine if received pulse is from
main or side lobe when signal received is around the same
o Causes side-lobe interrogations
o P2 is sent with an omni-diretional antenna with a magnitude
larger than side lobes
o Transponder only replied to main lobes when P1 and P3 are
9dB larger than P2

• Other problems:
o Over-interrogation (interrogated by more than one SSR),
o Fruiting (when a SSR considers the answers of an aircraft
transponder to another SSR as answers to its own
interrogation)
o Garbling (aircraft at same position and reply to same
interrogation → answers merged)
• SSR transponder reply signals
o Consists of 12 data pulses → 212 combinations
o SSR special codes
§ 7500 hijack
§ 7600 radio failure
§ 7700 emergency
• Future trends
o SSR Mode S: private line communication as it allows discrete addressing of aircraft
with unique 24 bits Mode S address → 224
o ADS-B (Automatic Dependent Surveillance Broadcast)
§ An onboard avionics function that automatically transmits via digital data
link, aircraft position data from the onboard navigation system
§ Real time surveillance
§ Allows surveillance in oceanic and other areas which are beyond line of
sight coverage of radar
Aircraft Instruments and integrated systems
• Previously: flight info displayed on electro-mechanical dials and gauges, abundance of
indicators as difficult to integrate multiple source of info
o Basic 6 then basic T arrangement panels → allow efficient SCANNING of info
o Info:
§ Primary flight status info
§ Navigation data
§ Engine data
§ Airframe data
§ Airborne system data
§ Warning system data
• Now:
o Additive displays
o Accumulative displays (ILS indicator, RMI radio magnetic indicator) – scan
information faster than additive displays
o Integrative displays (FD flight director, ADI attitude director indicator, HIS
horizontal situation indicator)
• Flight director
o Provides command signals to pilot on how he should steer to accomplish certain
goals such as intercepting localizer

o FD Modes
§ In MCP (mode control panel), autopilot can do the same as the FD, but the
automated flight control system directly controls the aircraft
§ Example is VOR mode (VHF Omnidirectional Range mode), aircraft
automatically steer to the correct heading
• Modern flight deck
o Electronic displays: CRT (cathode ray tubes) and LCD (liquid crystal displays)
o ADI→PFD; HSI→ND
 o Modern cockpit (HUD so pilot can always look forward)

o EFIS Primary flight display (PFD) with degree of path, altimeter, and vertical speed
indicator, EFIS ND (navigation display) with bird eye view of flight plan
o Flight warning systems primary 4 functions: hazard detection, attention-getting,
display of resolution status and commands, and resolution guidance
o HUD: computer generated image at windshield
o Comments on EFIS
§ Displays of copies of old instruments
§ ND in map mode is the only real improvement
§ EFIS display still present only status information and command information
(FD) and pilots still need to mentally integrate large amount of information
from different instrument
§ 3D flight situation is presented with two 2D displays → incompatible with
way human perceive their environment (usually 3D)
§ EFIS displays lead to high workload and low situation awareness, especially
in take off and landing
• Future trends
o Synthetic Vision Systems (SVS): provide integrated preview information
o Enhanced Vision (EV): provide penetrating infrared image onto display
Flight Management System FMS
• Reasons for FMS
o Non-technical drivers
§ Economic benefit: optimize flight performance to minimize cost
§ Pilot workload
§ Growth of air traffic
o Technical driver:
§ Availability of accurate navigation sources
§ Availability and affordability of very powerful and reliable computer
systems
§ Ability to connect various subsystems
• FMS

• FMS Tasks
o 1. Flight planning
§ FMS provides a computerized flight planning aid to the pilot and enables
major revisions of flight plan to be made in flight
§ FMS contains a database in the Flight Data Storage Unit
§ SID and STAR
§ RNAV: random routes instead of fixed routes

o 2. Navigation and Guidance

§ FMS combines data from all navigation sources (INS, GPS, navaids) to
derive the best estimates of aircraft position and velocity
§ FMS selects and automatically tunes the navaids specified in the flight plan
and carry out the navigation computations
 § FMS provides both LNAV and VNAV guidance to FCC (flight control
computer) or FD to control or guide the a/c
§ FMS provides guidance signals to TCC (thrust control computer)
o 3. Optimization and performance prediction
§ FMS selects the speed, altitude and engine power settings during all phases
of flights, taking into account the flight plan, prevailing conditions and
optimization of operation of aircraft → this yields an optimal time-
referenced flight plan
§ For optimization of flight plan, FMS integrates information on
• Aircraft type, weight, fuel weight
• Engine type and performance characteristics
• Wind, air temp
• Aircraft status eg speed, height
§ FMS predicts performance in terms of:
• Time, altitude, fuel, wind, temperature at each waypoint of flight
• “engine out” performance
• Climb and descent computations
• 3D and 4D performance
• Arrival times
• FMS: Crew interface
o CDU is the primary crew interface to interact with FMS and allows crew to plan,
revise and monitor the execution of the flight plan. FMS driven information is also
presented on PFD and ND
o FMS driven information is also presented on the PFD and ND
§ Primary flight display has info derived by FMS
§ ND contains FMS derived info, such as flight plan, navigation database info,
navigation info
Air Traffic Management
• ATM = ATC + ASM (air space management) + ATFCM (air traffic flow and capacity
management)
o ATC: maintain safe distance between aircraft and obstacles within a confined
airspace and also on the airport surface
o ASM: maximize utilization of airspace by dynamic time sharing and segregation of
airspace among a competing category of users
o ATFCM: ensure optimum flow of air traffic through areas during times when
demand exceeds the capacity of ATC service
o ATFCM and ASM assist ATC in meeting its objectives and achieving the most
efficient utilization of available airspace and airport capacity
• ATS = ATM + FIS (flight information service) + AL (alerting service)
o FIS: collect, handle and disseminate flight related information to assist the pilot to
conduct his flight in a safe and efficient manner
§ Eg. ATIS (Automatic Terminal Information Service)
• ATIS is a service of an airport for traffic in its TMA (terminal control
area) or CTR (control zone)
• It is a repeated VHF message containing info about
o Weather
o QNH
o Transition level QNW-QNH, transition altitude QNH-QNE
o Operational issues
• Arrival and departure info
o AL: initiate an early search and rescue activity for aircraft in distress
§ A: uncertainty phase
• Incerfa: 30mins after expected position report or estimated eta
§ B: Alert fase
• Alerfa: if information received that aircraft in trouble or after A and
still no comms
§ C: distress phase
• Detresfa: aftet B and attempts to restore communications have
failed, emergency landing probable etc
• Airspace organization
o Flight Information Region (FIR)
§ Controlled airspace (ATC, FIS, AL) → IFR flights
• IFR flying ATC is responsible for separation
o IFR requirements: pilot has instrument rating, aircraft
properly equipped, flight plan approved by ATC etc
§ Uncontrolled airspace (FIS, AL) → VFR flights
• VFR flying pilot is responsible for separation
§ Special used airspace (eg military zones)
Controlled airspace

o CTR: control zone

o TMA: terminal control area
o CTA: control area
§ Contains holding area (stacks)
• 1000ft apart for each plane flying before granted to land; organized
by ATC
o UTA: upper control area
• SID and STAR
o SID: standard instrument Departure
§ Defines route flown between aircraft departure and an ATS route
o STAR: standard terminal arrival route
§ Defines the route flown between an ATS route and an approach fix
o Both controlled by APP (Approach/departure control)
o Both are published IFR procedures for transitioning between terminal and enroute
airspace
o both established for:
§ noise abatement
§ reduction of comms between pilot and controller
§ allowing separation of incoming and outgoing traffic
§ terrain clearance
• ATC priority: Safety, noise abatement, efficiency
o Noise abatement
§ Technical measure: silent engine
§ Political measure: reduce night flying
§ Operational measure: SID or STAR, use of runways, increase ILS glide path
angle, continuous descent approach etc
• Continuous descent approach
o Increase flightpath angle
o Higher altitude trajectory
o No level segments, idle thrust
 o Advantage:
§ Reduced fuel consumption and pollutant emission
§ Reduce noise footprint
§ Fixed and vertically optimized paths
o Disadvantage:
§ aircraft and pilot behaviour make path prediction
uncertain
§ Separation must be increased
§ Reduced runway capacity
• Conventional approach
o Instructions from ATC
o Low-altitude trajectory
o Level-flight segments
• Aerodrome control (TWR)
o Use the ASDE (airport surface detection equipment), on top of tower
• Surveillance starts with flight plan, filed by flight crew and approved by ATC authorities.
One of the task of ATC is to correlate the information obtained from radio comms and
radar with the flight. Flight crew should adhere closely to the flight plan
• Another task of the controller besides efficiency and noise abatement is to maintain safe
separation between aircraft according to different separation criteria. In case ATC fails, an
Airborne Collision Avoidance System ACAS such as TCAS act as a backup of ATC by alerting
flight crews of potential collision
FANS
• Airborne collision avoidance system (ACAS)
o System that autonomously prevents midair collisions
o ‘Backup’ or ‘last resort’ for ATC by alerting flight crews of potential collisions
o System is onboard aircraft; not dependent on ground system
o Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance System (TCAS)
§ Interrogates the SSR (secondary surveillance radar) transponders installed
in other nearby aircraft and receives the responder replies
§ ACAS equipment determines which aircraft represents a potential
collision hazard and provide advisory information for separation:
• TA (traffic advisory)
o Approx. 40s prior to CPA (closest point of approach)
o Shows range, bearing, relative altitude of intruder
• RA (resolution advisory)
o Approx. 25s prior to CPA
o Shows vertical escape maneuver for avoiding collision
§ Problem: Nuisance warnings; azimuth error between 5-30 deg
• Shortcomings of current operational environment: ANS
o En route
§ En route system consists of mixture of direct tracks, fixed airways etc →
most routes are indirect thus greater distance covered
§ Lack of uniformity in en route procedures and separation due to
inconsistency in CNS services
§ Airlines cannot gain max benefit from the advanced capabilities of their
on-board systems eg FMS because ATC cannot support their use
o Terminal area and approach
§ a/c of different performance characteristics operates in the same high
traffic density area with complex traffic flows
§ Current separation requirements prevent full use of available capacity
§ Automation to manage arrival and departure is not available in most
cases; onboard automation underutilized
§ SID/STAR fixed → inflexible and result in indirect routings
§ Stringent and inflexible noise abatement policies often impose
• Shortcomings of current operational environment: CNS
o Communications
§ AFS (aeronautical fixed services)
• Ground to ground communication between ATS units
§ AMS (aeronautical mobile services)
• Air ground communication between a/c and ATS units
• Air-air communication between a/c
§ Shortcomings – The exchange of information between aircraft and ATS
unit is mainly limited to voice → current system not usable for
automated system → no direct communication or data interchange
between FMS and ground-based computers (ATC/ATFCM/ASM)
 § Shortcomings – Radio waves propagation limits → VHF restricted to LOS
coverage → if use HF to extend range but there are propagation
anomalies
o Navigations
§ Navigation over land and in coastal areas
• Ground based point source navigation aids: VOR/DME, NDB
§ Navigation over oceans and in remote areas
• Satellite navigation aids: GPS
• Self-contained navigation aids: INS
§ Shortcomings – propagation limits of LOS systems to cover areas
§ Shortcomings – Air routes design based on location of navigation aids,
reducing the use of available airspace for traffic routes and producing
choke points at intersections
§ Shortcomings – the current terrestrial navigation system unable to
expand to meet future air traffic growth
o Surveillance
§ Surveillance over land and coastal
• Primary and secondary surveillance radar
§ Surveillance over ocean and remote areas
• Position report by HF
§ Shortcomings – no radar surveillance coverage possible over oceanic
areas + economic and accessibility factors make it impractical for
mountainous terrain and desert areas → thus only procedural ATC – with
little or no automation (ATFCM) support is possible
o Summary: Current system incapable of making optimum use of ATC system
capacity, available airspace and aircraft capabilities
• FANS (future air navigation system)
o ICAO established a special committee on FANS
o Objective:
§ Global digital communication
§ Global navigation
§ Global surveillance
o FANS committee USA: NextGen
o FANS committee Europe: SESAR
o Commonalities
§ Communication
• Network centric digital data exchange, distributed over VHF
datalinks (VDL), SSR mode S and satellites
§ Navigation
• GNSS as a sole means for navigation
• Trajectory-based operations (TBO), especially in the en route flight
phase (4D flight plans), with RNP requirements
• Performance-based operations
§ Surveillance
• Broadcasting navigation information over network via ADS-B and
SSR mode S
 • Shift of ATC tasks toward the flight deck (ACAS and ASAS)
• More automated ATC, enabled via digital data exchange
• FANS – Communication
o NextGen
§ Will implement a System Wide Information Management (SWIM)
Messaging Infrastructure
§ Concept of SWIM covers a complete change in paradigm of how
information is managed and shared among all stakeholders
§ What data will be transferred via data links
• Downlink
o Aircraft flight identification (callsign)
o Aircraft navigation state (position velocity, heading)
o Intended flight plan (FMS next waypoint, selected heading)
• Uplink
o ATC messages (altitude clearances, velocity & heading
commands)
o Weather information (eg wind direction)
o Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS)
• Potential issue: Cyber security
• FANS – Navigation
o GNSS navigation (global navigation satellite system)
§ GNSS with RNAV adopting RNP requirements
§ However, for better accuracy, GNSS need augmentation (eg DGPS SatNav
lecture)
• RAIM
o Technique whereby an airborne GNSS receiver processor
autonomously monitors the integrity of navigation signals
from GNSS satellites
• LAAS/RAAS
o Ground-based reference stations monitor ‘health’ of GNSS
satellites and determine the range error at its location
o Information transmitted to a/c to increase the on-board
position determination function and its integrity
o RNP: a specification of navigation system accuracy required to operate in a
specified piece of airspace → obligation on part of ATS provider and airline to
provide necessary equipment to achieve RNP accuracy
§ RNP tunnel concept: a/c must fly within the intended position
 o Trajectory Based Operations (TBO)
§ Accurate global navigation through GNSS and RNAV with RNP standards
enable a/c to follow 4D trajectories → position and time-based
separation → put a/c closer together → increase airspace capacity
§ This require high level of predictability: what should be allowed
tolerance? In TMA might not work due to uncertainties like weather?
What about ad hoc closing of airport eg disaster, volcano?

• FANS: Surveillance
o ADS

o Automatic
§ ADS is an on-board avionics function → auto transmits via digital data link
aircraft position data → allowing real time surveillance information to
ATS
o Dependent
§ Surveillance is dependent in ADS because its operation and quality
depend upon performance of aircraft’s navigation system
o Surveillance
 § Allowed in oceanic and other areas which are beyond the coverage of
radar or line-of-sight communication systems → thus should permit
positive control instead of current procedural control
o ADS-B
§ Broadcasting via datalink its position, altitude, and vector information
available and any user within the range of broadcast can receive
§ Done via VHF data links (VOR or SSR mode S)
§ Over remote mountain and ocean area
§ Facilitates ASAS (airborne separation assistance system)
• ASAS makes use of cockpit displays showing traffic information to
allow aircrew to perform tasks related to separation
• ADS allows shift to near-term conflict identification and resolution
in contrast to short-term alerting system TCAS

§ Conflict avoidance
 § Potential issue: performance vs uncertainty

• Future of ATM
o Changing work environment
§ Now: low air traffic, many controllers, little automation
§ Future: more air traffic, fewer controllers, more automation
o