Semester A, 2024-25 MA2001 Multi-variable Calculus and Linear Algebra Chapter 4

Chapter 4
Vector Differential Calculus

Dr. Emily Chan

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Semester A, 2024-25 MA2001 Multi-variable Calculus and Linear Algebra Chapter 4

Chapter 4: Vector Differential Calculus

1 Differentiation of a Vector Function
2 Vector Fields
3 Gradient of a Scalar Field
4 Divergence of a Vector Field
5 Curl of a Vector Field
6 Vector Identities

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Semester A, 2024-25 MA2001 Multi-variable Calculus and Linear Algebra Chapter 4

1 Differentiation of a Vector Function

Let 𝑟⃗(𝑡) = 𝑥 (𝑡) 𝑖⃗ + 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑗⃗ + 𝑧(𝑡) 𝑘⃗⃗ be a vector function of a scalar variable 𝑡 on an interval
𝐼. Then 𝑟⃗(𝑡) traces a curve in ℝ3 with an orientation.

𝑑𝑟⃗
The derivative of 𝑟⃗(𝑡) with respect to 𝑡, denoted by or 𝑟⃗′(𝑡), is defined as:
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑟⃗ 𝑟⃗(𝑡 + 𝛿𝑡) − 𝑟⃗(𝑡)
= lim [ ]
𝑑𝑡 𝛿𝑡→0 𝛿𝑡
𝑥 (𝑡 + 𝛿𝑡) − 𝑥 (𝑡) 𝑦(𝑡 + 𝛿𝑡) − 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑧(𝑡 + 𝛿𝑡) − 𝑧(𝑡)
= [ lim ] 𝑖⃗ + [ lim ] 𝑗⃗ + [ lim ] 𝑘⃗⃗
⏟𝛿𝑡→0 𝛿𝑡 ⏟𝛿𝑡→0 𝛿𝑡 ⏟𝛿𝑡→0 𝛿𝑡
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
= = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
= 𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑟⃗ 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
∴ = 𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗ or written as 𝑟⃗′(𝑡) = 𝑥 ′ (𝑡) 𝑖⃗ + 𝑦 ′ (𝑡) 𝑗⃗ + 𝑧 ′ (𝑡) 𝑘⃗⃗ .
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

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Semester A, 2024-25 MA2001 Multi-variable Calculus and Linear Algebra Chapter 4

Therefore, the vector function 𝑟⃗(𝑡) is differentiable at 𝑡 = 𝑎 if 𝑥(𝑡), 𝑦(𝑡) and 𝑧(𝑡) are
differentiable at 𝑡 = 𝑎. We say that 𝑟⃗(𝑡) is differentiable if it is differentiable at every point of
its domain.

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Semester A, 2024-25 MA2001 Multi-variable Calculus and Linear Algebra Chapter 4

Position vector, velocity vector and acceleration vector

If 𝑟⃗(𝑡) = 𝑥 (𝑡) 𝑖⃗ + 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑗⃗ + 𝑧(𝑡) 𝑘⃗⃗ is the position vector of a moving point on a smooth curve
at time 𝑡, then

𝑑𝑟⃗ 𝛿𝑟⃗
➢ 𝑟⃗′(𝑡) = = lim represents the velocity 𝑣⃗ (𝑡) of the moving point and is seen to
𝑑𝑡 𝛿𝑡→0 𝛿𝑡

be a vector tangential to the path of the moving point at 𝑟⃗(𝑡), and

′′ 𝑑 2 𝑟⃗ 𝑑 𝑑𝑟⃗ ⃗⃗
𝑑𝑣
➢ 𝑟⃗ (𝑡) = = ( )= represents the acceleration 𝑎⃗(𝑡) of the moving point.
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

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Semester A, 2024-25 MA2001 Multi-variable Calculus and Linear Algebra Chapter 4

Example 1
A particle moves in such a way that its position vector at time 𝑡 is
𝑟⃗(𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑖⃗ + 2 cos 3𝑡 𝑗⃗ + 3 sin 3𝑡 𝑘⃗⃗.
Determine its velocity 𝑣⃗ and acceleration 𝑎⃗ at time 𝑡 = 0 . iind the magnitudes and unit
directions of 𝑣⃗ and 𝑎⃗ at 𝑡 = 0.
Solution:
The velocity of the particle is
𝑑𝑟⃗
𝑣⃗ (𝑡) = = −𝑒 −𝑡 𝑖⃗ − 6 sin 3𝑡 𝑗⃗ + 9 cos 3𝑡 𝑘⃗⃗.
𝑑𝑡
At time 𝑡 = 0, 𝑣⃗(0) = − 𝑖⃗ + 9𝑘⃗⃗.
The magnitude of 𝑣⃗(0) is
|𝑣⃗(0)| = √(−1)2 + 92 = √82
and the unit direction of 𝑣⃗(0) is
𝑣⃗(0) 1
= (− 𝑖⃗ + 9𝑘⃗⃗).
|𝑣⃗(0)| √82

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Semester A, 2024-25 MA2001 Multi-variable Calculus and Linear Algebra Chapter 4

The acceleration of the particle is

𝑑 2 𝑟⃗ 𝑑
𝑎⃗(𝑡) = 2 = (−𝑒 −𝑡 𝑖⃗ − 6 sin 3𝑡 𝑗⃗ + 9 cos 3𝑡 𝑘⃗⃗)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑟
= 𝑒 −𝑡 𝑖⃗ − 18 cos 3𝑡 𝑗⃗ − 27 sin 3𝑡 𝑘⃗⃗.
At time 𝑡 = 0, 𝑎⃗(0) = 𝑖⃗ − 18𝑗⃗.
The magnitude of 𝑎⃗(0) is
|𝑎⃗(0)| = √12 + (−18)2 = √325
and the unit direction of 𝑎⃗(0) is
𝑎⃗(0) 1
= ( 𝑖⃗ − 18𝑗⃗).
|𝑎⃗(0)| √325

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Semester A, 2024-25 MA2001 Multi-variable Calculus and Linear Algebra Chapter 4

Length of curve and Arc length function

Let 𝐶 be a space curve with a parametric representation as
𝐶 ∶ 𝑟⃗(𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑖⃗ + 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑗⃗ + 𝑧(𝑡) 𝑘⃗⃗ (𝑎 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑏),
where the number 𝑡 is called a parameter.

𝐶 is a smooth space curve if 𝑥 (𝑡), 𝑦(𝑡), 𝑧(𝑡) (where 𝑎 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑏) are continuous and 𝑥′(𝑡),
𝑦′(𝑡), 𝑧′(𝑡) (where 𝑎 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑏) exist and are continuous. Here, 𝑥′(𝑎), 𝑦′(𝑎), 𝑧′(𝑎) denote
the right-hand derivatives, and 𝑥′(𝑏), 𝑦′(𝑏), 𝑧′(𝑏) denote the left-hand derivatives.

𝑑𝑟⃗(𝑡)
In addition, ≠ ⃗0⃗ for 𝑎 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑏.
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑟⃗(𝑡)
We call (or 𝑟⃗ ′ (𝑡)) a tangent vector of 𝐶 at point 𝑃 because it has the direction of the
𝑑𝑡

tangent.

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Semester A, 2024-25 MA2001 Multi-variable Calculus and Linear Algebra Chapter 4

The length 𝑙 of the curve 𝐶 is

𝑏
𝑑𝑟⃗(𝑡)
𝑙 = ∫| | 𝑑𝑡.
𝑑𝑡
𝑎

This is a positive constant. If we replace the dummy variable 𝑡 in the above definite integral by
𝑢 and then replace the upper limit 𝑏 by the variable 𝑡, we obtain the arc length function:
𝑡 𝑡
𝑑𝑟⃗(𝑢) 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑧 2
𝑠(𝑡) = ∫ | | 𝑑𝑢 = ∫ √( ) + ( ) + ( ) 𝑑𝑢, 𝑎 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 𝑏.
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑢
𝑎 𝑎

Note that 𝑠(𝑡) is a function of 𝑡.

It represents the distance travelled by the moving point at time 𝑡.
Geometrically, it also represents the length of the part of 𝐶 represented on 𝑎 ≤ 𝑢 ≤ 𝑡.
Clearly, 𝑠(𝑎) = 0, 𝑠(𝑏) = 𝑙.

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Semester A, 2024-25 MA2001 Multi-variable Calculus and Linear Algebra Chapter 4

Rules of differentiation for vector functions

Let 𝑎⃗(𝑡) and 𝑏⃗⃗(𝑡) be differentiable vector-valued functions of 𝑡, 𝑐 be a constant, and 𝑓(𝑡)
be a differentiable scalar function. Then
𝑑 [𝑐 𝑎⃗(𝑡)] 𝑑 [𝑎⃗(𝑡)]
(i) =𝑐
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑[𝑎⃗(𝑡) ± 𝑏⃗⃗(𝑡)] 𝑑 [𝑎⃗(𝑡)] 𝑑[𝑏⃗⃗(𝑡)]
(ii) = ±
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑[𝑓(𝑡) 𝑎⃗(𝑡)] 𝑑 [𝑓(𝑡)] 𝑑 [𝑎⃗(𝑡)]
(iii) = 𝑎⃗(𝑡) + 𝑓(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑[𝑎⃗(𝑡) ∙ 𝑏⃗⃗(𝑡)] 𝑑 [𝑎⃗(𝑡)] 𝑑[𝑏⃗⃗(𝑡)]
(iv) = ∙ 𝑏⃗⃗(𝑡) + 𝑎⃗(𝑡) ∙
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑[𝑎⃗(𝑡) × 𝑏⃗⃗(𝑡)] 𝑑 [𝑎⃗(𝑡)] 𝑑[𝑏⃗⃗(𝑡)]
(v) = × 𝑏⃗⃗(𝑡) + 𝑎⃗(𝑡) ×
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

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Remarks:
(a) If 𝑎⃗ = 𝑎1 𝑖⃗ + 𝑎2 𝑗⃗ + 𝑎3 𝑘⃗⃗ where 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 are functions of several variables 𝑡1 , 𝑡2 , …,
𝑡𝑛 , then the partial derivatives
𝜕𝑎⃗ 𝜕𝑎1 𝜕𝑎2 𝜕𝑎3
= 𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗, 1≤𝑖≤𝑛
𝜕𝑡𝑖 𝜕𝑡𝑖 𝜕𝑡𝑖 𝜕𝑡𝑖
may be defined in the obvious way.

(b) Also, vector integration may be defined as follows.

Let 𝑟⃗(𝑡) = 𝑥 (𝑡) 𝑖⃗ + 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑗⃗ + 𝑧(𝑡) 𝑘⃗⃗. Then

∫ 𝑟⃗(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑅⃗⃗ (𝑡) + 𝐶⃗ ,

⃗⃗ (𝑡)]
𝑑[𝑅
where = 𝑟⃗(𝑡), and 𝐶⃗ is any constant vector.
𝑑𝑡

Here,

∫ 𝑟⃗(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = [∫ 𝑥 (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡] 𝑖⃗ + [∫ 𝑦(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡] 𝑗⃗ + [∫ 𝑧(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡] 𝑘⃗⃗ + 𝐶⃗.

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Semester A, 2024-25 MA2001 Multi-variable Calculus and Linear Algebra Chapter 4

Example 2
If a particle moves with velocity 𝑣⃗ (𝑡) = 2 sin 𝑡 𝑖⃗ + (cos 𝑡 − 1) 𝑗⃗ + 6𝑡 𝑘⃗⃗ and 𝑟⃗ = ⃗0⃗ at 𝑡 = 0,
determine its position vector 𝑟⃗(𝑡) at time 𝑡.
Solution
𝑑𝑟⃗
𝑟⃗(𝑡) = ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡
= ∫ 𝑣⃗(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡

= ∫[2 sin 𝑡 𝑖⃗ + (cos 𝑡 − 1) 𝑗⃗ + 6𝑡 𝑘⃗⃗] 𝑑𝑡

= [∫ 2 sin 𝑡 𝑑𝑡] 𝑖⃗ + [∫(cos 𝑡 − 1) 𝑑𝑡] 𝑗⃗ + [∫ 6𝑡 𝑑𝑡] 𝑘⃗⃗

= (−2 cos 𝑡)𝑖⃗ + (sin 𝑡 − 𝑡)𝑗⃗ + 3𝑡 2 𝑘⃗⃗ + 𝐶⃗

At 𝑡 = 0, ⃗0⃗ = −2𝑖⃗ + 𝐶⃗ ⇒ 𝐶⃗ = 2𝑖⃗.

 𝑟⃗(𝑡) = (2 − 2 cos 𝑡)𝑖⃗ + (sin 𝑡 − 𝑡)𝑗⃗ + 3𝑡 2 𝑘⃗⃗. 

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2 Vector Fields
A vector field on ℝ3 is a vector function 𝑣⃗ that assigns to each point (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) a vector of ℝ3
given by
𝑣⃗ (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑣1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝑖⃗ + 𝑣2 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝑗⃗ + 𝑣3 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝑘⃗⃗ ,
where 𝑣1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧), 𝑣2 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) and 𝑣3 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) are scalar functions.

Examples of vector fields

(i) ⃗⃗ in a region of space,
A magnetic field 𝐵
⃗⃗ = 𝐵1 𝑖⃗ + 𝐵2 𝑗⃗ + 𝐵3 𝑘⃗⃗ .
𝐵

(ii) The velocity field of water flowing in a pipe, 𝑣⃗ (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧).

(iii) The earth’s gravitational field.

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3 Gradient of a Scalar Field

Recall from Chapter 2 that for any differentiable scalar field 𝑓 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧), its gradient, denoted by
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑓, is a vector defined as
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑓 = 𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗ .
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

This is also an example of a vector field which gives the magnitude and direction of the greatest
rate of change of 𝑓 at a point.

The vector differential operator, denoted by ∇, is defined as

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇ ≡ 𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑑
(analogous to 𝐷 ≡ ), and is read as “del” (or “nabla”).
𝑑𝑥

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𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
In terms of the operator ∇, if we write 𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗ = (𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗ ) 𝑓, then
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑓 = ∇𝑓 .

Geometric interpretation of 𝒈𝒓𝒂𝒅 𝒇

Let 𝑆 be a surface of ℝ3 defined by the equation 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑐, where 𝑐 is a constant. If
𝑃(𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) is any point on 𝑆, then the gradient vector ∇𝑓 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) is normal to the surface
𝑆 at 𝑃.

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We may also apply the operator ∇ to a vector field

𝑣⃗ (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑣1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝑖⃗ + 𝑣2 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝑗⃗ + 𝑣3 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝑘⃗⃗
through dot product (∇ ∙ 𝑣⃗ = divergence of 𝑣⃗) or cross product (∇ × 𝑣⃗ = curl of 𝑣⃗). These
topics will be discussed in Section 4 and 5, respectively.

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4 Divergence of a Vector Field

Let 𝑣⃗ (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑣1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝑖⃗ + 𝑣2 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝑗⃗ + 𝑣3 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝑘⃗⃗ be a vector field such that 𝑣1 , 𝑣2
and 𝑣3 are all differentiable scalar functions.
The divergence of 𝑣⃗, denoted by 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑣⃗, is defined as
𝜕𝑣1 𝜕𝑣2 𝜕𝑣3
𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑣⃗ ≡ + + .
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

In terms of the operator ∇, we may write

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇ ∙ 𝑣⃗ ≡ (𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ + 𝑘 ) ∙ [𝑣1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝑖⃗ + 𝑣2 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝑗⃗ + 𝑣3 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝑘⃗⃗]
⃗⃗
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝑣1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝜕𝑣2 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝜕𝑣3 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
= + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
= 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑣⃗
 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑣⃗ = ∇ ∙ 𝑣⃗
Note that ∇ ∙ 𝑣⃗ is a scalar function.
Also, ∇ ∙ 𝑣⃗ ≠ 𝑣⃗ ∙ ∇. (Here, ∇ ∙ 𝑣⃗ is a scalar field, while 𝑣⃗ ∙ ∇ is a scalar differential operator.)

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Example 3
Let 𝑣⃗ = 𝑥 2 𝑧 𝑖⃗ − 2𝑦 3 𝑧 𝑗⃗ + 𝑥𝑦𝑧 2 𝑘⃗⃗, find 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑣⃗.
Solution:
𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑣⃗ = ∇ ∙ 𝑣⃗
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
= (𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ + 𝑘 ) ∙ (𝑥 2 𝑧 𝑖⃗ − 2𝑦 3 𝑧 𝑗⃗ + 𝑥𝑦𝑧 2 𝑘⃗⃗)
⃗⃗
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕(𝑥 2 𝑧) 𝜕(−2𝑦 3 𝑧) 𝜕(𝑥𝑦𝑧 2 )
= + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
= 2𝑥𝑧 − 6𝑦 2 𝑧 + 2𝑥𝑦𝑧


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⃗⃗
Physical interpretation of 𝒅𝒊𝒗 𝒗
Roughly speaking, the divergence of a vector field 𝑣⃗ at point 𝑃 is a measure of the rate at
which the field “diverges” or “spreads” away from 𝑃.

The divergence of a vector field 𝑣⃗ = 𝑣1 𝑖⃗ + 𝑣2 𝑗⃗ + 𝑣3 𝑘⃗⃗ can be considered as the net outward
flux (per unit volume) from a small closed surface area containing a point (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) in the flow
of an incompressible fluid (for example water) as volume shrinks to zero, where 𝑣⃗ = 𝑣1 𝑖⃗ +
𝑣2 𝑗⃗ + 𝑣3 𝑘⃗⃗ is the velocity of the fluid.

As a measure of the net outward flux per unit volume at a point (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧), positive divergence
indicates a source of fluid at the point (where the flux is directed outward) whilst negative
divergence indicates a sink (where the flux is directed inward).

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For your reference: (p.20-22)

The idea of divergence is probably most easily illustrated by considering the motion of an
incompressible fluid (for example water) where we take the vector field to be the velocity
𝑣⃗ = 𝑣1 𝑖⃗ + 𝑣2 𝑗⃗ + 𝑣3 𝑘⃗⃗ of the fluid.
Consider a small imaginary rectangular box of dimensions 𝛿𝑥, 𝛿𝑦 and 𝛿𝑧 centered at (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
in the fluid.

We consider the flow of fluid through this box. The

volume of fluid crossing a surface in unit time is an
example of flux. Taking the midpoint of a face as a
representative point, the flux through the face 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷
𝛿𝑥
out of the box is 𝑣1 (𝑥 + , 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧 (𝑣2 and 𝑣3
2
are parallel to 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 and make no contribution).
𝛿𝑥
Similarly, the flux through face 𝐴′𝐵′𝐶′𝐷′ into the box is 𝑣1 (𝑥 − , 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧.
2

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Semester A, 2024-25 MA2001 Multi-variable Calculus and Linear Algebra Chapter 4

The net flux out of the box in the 𝑥-direction is

𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑥
[𝑣1 (𝑥 + , 𝑦, 𝑧) − 𝑣1 (𝑥 − , 𝑦, 𝑧)] 𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧
2 2
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑥 2 𝛿𝑥 3
( 2 ) 𝜕𝑣1 (𝑥,𝑦,𝑧) ( 2 ) 𝜕2 𝑣1 (𝑥,𝑦,𝑧) ( 2 ) 𝜕3 𝑣1 (𝑥,𝑦,𝑧)
= [(𝑣1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) + + + + ⋯)
1! 𝜕𝑥 2! 𝜕𝑥 2 3! 𝜕𝑥 3

𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑥 2 𝛿𝑥 3
(− 2 ) 𝜕𝑣1 (𝑥,𝑦,𝑧) (− 2 ) 𝜕2 𝑣1 (𝑥,𝑦,𝑧) (− 2 ) 𝜕3 𝑣1 (𝑥,𝑦,𝑧)
− (𝑣1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) + + + + ⋯ )] 𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧
1! 𝜕𝑥 2! 𝜕𝑥 2 3! 𝜕𝑥 3

2 𝛿𝑥 𝜕𝑣1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 2 𝛿𝑥 3 𝜕 3 𝑣1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)

=[ ( ) + ( ) + ⋯ ] 𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧
1! 2 𝜕𝑥 3! 2 𝜕𝑥 3
𝜕𝑣1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) (𝛿𝑥 )2 𝜕 3 𝑣1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
=[ + + ⋯ ] 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧
𝜕𝑥 3! 22 𝜕𝑥 3

Similarly, by considering the two other pairs of faces, the total flux out of the box is
𝜕𝑣1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝜕𝑣2 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝜕𝑣3 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
[ + + ] 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
(𝛿𝑥 )2 𝜕 3 𝑣1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) (𝛿𝑦)2 𝜕 3 𝑣2 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) (𝛿𝑧)2 𝜕 3 𝑣3 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
+[ + + + ⋯ ] 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦𝛿𝑧
3! 22 𝜕𝑥 3 3! 22 𝜕𝑦 3 3! 22 𝜕𝑧 3

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Semester A, 2024-25 MA2001 Multi-variable Calculus and Linear Algebra Chapter 4

If we consider the flux per unit volume, we have

𝜕𝑣1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝜕𝑣2 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝜕𝑣3 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
[ + + ]
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
(𝛿𝑥 )2 𝜕 3 𝑣1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) (𝛿𝑦)2 𝜕 3 𝑣2 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) (𝛿𝑧)2 𝜕 3 𝑣3 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
+[ + + + ⋯]
3! 22 𝜕𝑥 3 3! 22 𝜕𝑦 3 3! 22 𝜕𝑧 3

Taking the limit as the volume of the box shrinks to zero, we obtain
𝜕𝑣1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝜕𝑣2 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝜕𝑣3 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑣⃗ = lim [ + + ]
𝛿𝑥→0 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝛿𝑦→0
𝛿𝑧→0

(𝛿𝑥 )2 𝜕 3 𝑣1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) (𝛿𝑦)2 𝜕 3 𝑣2 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) (𝛿𝑧)2 𝜕 3 𝑣3 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)

+ lim [ + + + ⋯]
𝛿𝑥→0 3! 22 𝜕𝑥 3 3! 22 𝜕𝑦 3 3! 22 𝜕𝑧 3
𝛿𝑦→0
𝛿𝑧→0

𝜕𝑣1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝜕𝑣2 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝜕𝑣3 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)

= + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

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Semester A, 2024-25 MA2001 Multi-variable Calculus and Linear Algebra Chapter 4

Definition
A vector field 𝑣⃗ is said to be solenoidal if
𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑣⃗ = 0 .
That is, no net outflow or inflow of fluid.

Example 4
The electric field 𝐸⃗⃗ at a point due to a point charge 𝑄 at the origin is given by
𝑄 𝑟⃗
𝐸⃗⃗ = 3
,
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
where 𝑟⃗ = 𝑥𝑖⃗ + 𝑦𝑗⃗ + 𝑧𝑘⃗⃗ (𝑟⃗ ≠ ⃗0⃗) is the position vector of the point, 𝑟 = |𝑟⃗| is the length of 𝑟⃗,
and 𝜀0 is a constant. Show that 𝐸⃗⃗ is solenoidal (for 𝑟⃗ ≠ ⃗0⃗).

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Semester A, 2024-25 MA2001 Multi-variable Calculus and Linear Algebra Chapter 4

Solution
𝑄 𝑟⃗ 𝑄 𝑥𝑖⃗ + 𝑦𝑗⃗ + 𝑧𝑘⃗⃗
𝐸⃗⃗ = = 3
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 3 4𝜋𝜀0 2 2 2
(𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 )2
Then
𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐸⃗⃗ = ∇ ∙ 𝐸⃗⃗

𝑄 𝜕 𝑥 𝜕 𝑦 𝜕 𝑧
= [ ( 3 ) + 𝜕𝑦 ( 3 ) + 𝜕𝑧 ( 3 )]
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜕𝑥
(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 )2 (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 )2 (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 )2

𝑄 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 − 2𝑥 2 𝑥 2 + 𝑧 2 − 2𝑦 2 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑧 2
= [ 5+ 5+ 5]
4𝜋𝜀0
(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 )2 (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 )2 (𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 )2
= 0 (except at the origin)

Hence, 𝐸⃗⃗ is solenoidal (for 𝑟⃗ ≠ ⃗0⃗).

(There is no electric charge at any point except the origin.) 

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Semester A, 2024-25 MA2001 Multi-variable Calculus and Linear Algebra Chapter 4

5 Curl of a Vector Field

Let 𝑣⃗ (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑣1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝑖⃗ + 𝑣2 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝑗⃗ + 𝑣3 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝑘⃗⃗ be a vector field in ℝ3 such that
⃗⃗, is defined as
𝑣1 , 𝑣2 and 𝑣3 are all differentiable. The curl of 𝑣⃗, denoted by 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒍 𝒗
𝑖⃗ 𝑗⃗ 𝑘⃗⃗
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑣⃗ = | 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕|
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑣1 𝑣2 𝑣3
𝜕𝑣3 𝜕𝑣2 𝜕𝑣3 𝜕𝑣1 𝜕𝑣2 𝜕𝑣1
= 𝑖⃗ ( − ) − 𝑗⃗ ( − ⃗⃗
)+𝑘( − )
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

In terms of the operator ∇, we have

𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑣⃗ = ∇ × 𝑣⃗ .

Note that ∇ × 𝑣⃗ is a vector function.

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Semester A, 2024-25 MA2001 Multi-variable Calculus and Linear Algebra Chapter 4

Example 5
If 𝑣⃗ = 𝑥 2 𝑧 𝑖⃗ − 2𝑦 3 𝑧 2 𝑗⃗ + 𝑥𝑦𝑧 2 𝑘⃗⃗, find 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑣⃗.
Solution
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑣⃗ = ∇ × 𝑣⃗
𝑖⃗ 𝑗⃗ 𝑘⃗⃗
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 |
= ||
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 |
𝑥 2𝑧−2𝑦 3 𝑧 2 𝑥𝑦𝑧 2
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
= 𝑖⃗ | 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 | − 𝑗⃗ | 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 | + 𝑘⃗⃗ | 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 |
−2𝑦 3 𝑧 2 𝑥𝑦𝑧 2 𝑥 2𝑧 𝑥𝑦𝑧 2 𝑥 2𝑧 −2𝑦 3 𝑧 2
𝜕(𝑥𝑦𝑧 2 ) 𝜕(−2𝑦 3 𝑧 2 ) 𝜕(𝑥𝑦𝑧 2 ) 𝜕(𝑥 2 𝑧) 𝜕(−2𝑦 3 𝑧 2 ) 𝜕(𝑥 2 𝑧)
=[ − ] 𝑖⃗ − [ − ] 𝑗⃗ + [ − ] 𝑘⃗⃗
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

= [𝑥𝑧 2 − (−4𝑦 3 𝑧)]𝑖⃗ − (𝑦𝑧 2 − 𝑥 2 )𝑗⃗ + (0 − 0)𝑘⃗⃗

= (𝑥𝑧 2 + 4𝑦 3 𝑧)𝑖⃗ + (𝑥 2 − 𝑦𝑧 2 )𝑗⃗

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⃗⃗
Physical Interpretation of 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒍 𝒗
Roughly speaking, 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑣⃗ at a point 𝑃 measures the extent to which the vector field 𝑣⃗ “swirls”
around 𝑃.

ior example, the curl of 𝑣⃗ = 𝑣1 (𝑥, 𝑦)𝑖⃗ + 𝑣2 (𝑥, 𝑦)𝑗⃗ at point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) can be considered as the
limit of the total circulation (net flow around a closed path) per unit area around a small
rectangle centered at 𝑃. Here,
𝑖⃗ 𝑗⃗ 𝑘⃗⃗
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕| 𝜕𝑣2 (𝑥, 𝑦) 𝜕𝑣1 (𝑥, 𝑦)
|
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑣⃗ = | | = ( 𝜕𝑥 − ) 𝑘⃗⃗.
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦
𝑣1 (𝑥, 𝑦) 𝑣2 (𝑥, 𝑦) 0
(See next page for proof.)

If this quantity is positive/negative/zero, a small paddle wheel placed in the fluid at the point 𝑃
would rotate anticlockwise/clockwise/remain stationary.

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Semester A, 2024-25 MA2001 Multi-variable Calculus and Linear Algebra Chapter 4

For your reference: (p.28-31)

We shall illustrate the idea of curl using the motion of an incompressible fluid with velocity
𝑣⃗ = 𝑣1 (𝑥, 𝑦)𝑖⃗ + 𝑣2 (𝑥, 𝑦)𝑗⃗.
Consider just the 𝑥𝑦-plane and a small imaginary rectangle of sides 𝛿𝑥 and 𝛿𝑦 centered at
(𝑥, 𝑦).

𝛿𝑦
ilow along 𝐴𝐵 = (length of 𝐴𝐵) × (velocity component along 𝐴𝐵) = 𝑣1 (𝑥, 𝑦 − ) 𝛿𝑥
2
𝛿𝑦
and flow along 𝐶𝐷 = −𝑣1 (𝑥, 𝑦 + ) 𝛿𝑥.
2

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Semester A, 2024-25 MA2001 Multi-variable Calculus and Linear Algebra Chapter 4

The sum of flows along 𝑨𝑩 + 𝑪𝑫 is

𝛿𝑦 𝛿𝑦
[𝑣1 (𝑥, 𝑦 − ) − 𝑣1 (𝑥, 𝑦 + )] 𝛿𝑥
2 2
𝛿𝑦 2
𝛿𝑦 𝜕𝑣1 (𝑥,𝑦) (− ) 𝜕2 𝑣1 (𝑥,𝑦)
2
= [(𝑣1 (𝑥, 𝑦) + (− ) + +⋯)
2 𝜕𝑦 2! 𝜕𝑦 2

𝛿𝑦 2
𝛿𝑦 𝜕𝑣1 (𝑥,𝑦) ( ) 𝜕2 𝑣1 (𝑥,𝑦)
2
− (𝑣1 (𝑥, 𝑦) + ( ) + + ⋯ )] 𝛿𝑥
2 𝜕𝑦 2! 𝜕𝑦 2

𝜕𝑣1 (𝑥, 𝑦) (𝛿𝑦)3 𝜕 3 𝑣1 (𝑥, 𝑦)

=− 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦 − 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦 − ⋯
𝜕𝑦 3! 22 𝜕𝑦 3
Similarly, the sum of flows along 𝑩𝑪 + 𝑫𝑨 is
𝛿𝑥 𝛿𝑥 𝜕𝑣2 (𝑥, 𝑦) (𝛿𝑥 )3 𝜕 3 𝑣2 (𝑥, 𝑦)
[𝑣2 (𝑥 + , 𝑦) − 𝑣2 (𝑥 − , 𝑦)] 𝛿𝑦 = 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦 + 2 3
𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦 + ⋯
2 2 𝜕𝑥 3! 2 𝜕𝑥
The total circulation (net flow around a closed path) around the rectangle is

𝜕𝑣2 (𝑥, 𝑦) 𝜕𝑣1 (𝑥, 𝑦) (𝛿𝑥 )3 𝜕 3 𝑣2 (𝑥, 𝑦) (𝛿𝑦)3 𝜕 3 𝑣1 (𝑥, 𝑦)

[ − ] 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦 + [ − ] 𝛿𝑥𝛿𝑦 + ⋯
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 3! 22 𝜕𝑥 3 3! 22 𝜕𝑦 3
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Semester A, 2024-25 MA2001 Multi-variable Calculus and Linear Algebra Chapter 4

If we consider circulation per unit area, we have

𝜕𝑣2 (𝑥, 𝑦) 𝜕𝑣1 (𝑥, 𝑦) (𝛿𝑥 )3 𝜕 3 𝑣2 (𝑥, 𝑦) (𝛿𝑦)3 𝜕 3 𝑣1 (𝑥, 𝑦)

[ − ]+[ − ]+⋯
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 3! 22 𝜕𝑥 3 3! 22 𝜕𝑦 3

Taking the limit as the area of the rectangle shrinks to zero, we have

𝜕𝑣2 (𝑥, 𝑦) 𝜕𝑣1 (𝑥, 𝑦) (𝛿𝑥 )3 𝜕 3 𝑣2 (𝑥, 𝑦) (𝛿𝑦)3 𝜕 3 𝑣1 (𝑥, 𝑦)

lim [ − ] + lim [ − ]+⋯
𝛿𝑥→0 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝛿𝑥→0 3! 22 𝜕𝑥 3 3! 22 𝜕𝑦 3
𝛿𝑦→0 𝛿𝑦→0

𝜕𝑣2 (𝑥, 𝑦) 𝜕𝑣1 (𝑥, 𝑦)

= −
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Hence,
𝜕𝑣2 𝜕𝑣1
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑣⃗ = ( − ) 𝑘⃗⃗.
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

If this quantity is positive/negative/zero, a small paddle wheel placed in the fluid at the point 𝑃
would rotate anticlockwise/clockwise/remain stationary.

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Semester A, 2024-25 MA2001 Multi-variable Calculus and Linear Algebra Chapter 4

By analogy with a rigid body rotating about an axis with angular velocity 𝜔 for which the angular
velocity vector is 𝜔𝑛⃗⃗, where 𝑛⃗⃗ is a unit vector along the axis of rotation, we may associate with
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑣1
the rotational effect of the fluid by a vector ( 2 −
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
) 𝑘⃗⃗. This is the third component of 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙

𝑣⃗. Similarly, by considering flow in 3-dimensions we may derive the full expression for 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑣⃗
which gives a measure of the rotational effect of the fluid flow at a point.

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Semester A, 2024-25 MA2001 Multi-variable Calculus and Linear Algebra Chapter 4

Definition
A vector field 𝑣⃗ is said to be irrotational if
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑣⃗ = ⃗0⃗ .

Example 6
Consider a current-carrying conductor with circular cross-section of radius 𝑅. Then the magnetic
⃗⃗ is
field 𝐻
−𝑦𝑖⃗+𝑥𝑗⃗
outside conductor
⃗⃗ = 2𝜋𝑟 2
𝐻 { −𝑦𝑖⃗+𝑥𝑗⃗ ,
inside conductor
2𝜋𝑅 2
1
2 2 )2
where 𝑟 = (𝑥 + 𝑦 .

⃗⃗ (i) outside and (ii) inside the conductor.

iind the curl of 𝐻

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Semester A, 2024-25 MA2001 Multi-variable Calculus and Linear Algebra Chapter 4

Solution
(i) Outside the conductor,
⃗⃗ = ∇ × 𝐻
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐻 ⃗⃗

𝑖⃗ 𝑗⃗ 𝑘⃗⃗
| 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕|
= 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
| −𝑦 𝑥 |
2 2 2 2
0
(
2𝜋 𝑥 + 𝑦 ) (
2𝜋 𝑥 + 𝑦 )
𝜕 𝑥 𝜕 −𝑦
= 0𝑖⃗ + 0𝑗⃗ + [ ( 2 2
)− ( 2 2
)] 𝑘⃗⃗
𝜕𝑥 2𝜋(𝑥 + 𝑦 ) 𝜕𝑦 2𝜋(𝑥 + 𝑦 )
1 2𝑥 2 −1 −2𝑦 2
= [( 2 2
− 2 2 2
)−( 2 2
− 2 2 2
)] 𝑘⃗⃗
2𝜋(𝑥 + 𝑦 ) 2𝜋(𝑥 + 𝑦 ) 2𝜋(𝑥 + 𝑦 ) 2𝜋(𝑥 + 𝑦 )

2 2(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 )
=( 2 2
− 2 2 2
) 𝑘⃗⃗
2𝜋(𝑥 + 𝑦 ) 2𝜋(𝑥 + 𝑦 )

= ⃗0⃗
⃗⃗, outside the conductor, is irrotational.
Hence, the magnetic field 𝐻
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Semester A, 2024-25 MA2001 Multi-variable Calculus and Linear Algebra Chapter 4

(ii) Inside the conductor,

⃗⃗ = ∇ × 𝐻
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐻 ⃗⃗

𝑖⃗ 𝑗⃗ 𝑘⃗⃗
| 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕|
= 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧|
|
−𝑦 𝑥
0
2𝜋𝑅2 2𝜋𝑅2
𝜕 𝑥 𝜕 −𝑦
= 0𝑖⃗ + 0𝑗⃗ + [ ( 2
)− ( 2
)] 𝑘⃗⃗
𝜕𝑥 2𝜋𝑅 𝜕𝑦 2𝜋𝑅
1 −1
=[ 2
− ( 2
)] 𝑘⃗⃗
2𝜋𝑅 2𝜋𝑅
1
= 2
𝑘⃗⃗ (the current density in the conductor)
𝜋𝑅

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Semester A, 2024-25 MA2001 Multi-variable Calculus and Linear Algebra Chapter 4

Example 7
The electric field 𝐸⃗⃗ at a point due to a point charge 𝑄 at the origin is given by
𝑄 𝑟⃗
𝐸⃗⃗ = 3
,
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
where 𝑟⃗ = 𝑥𝑖⃗ + 𝑦𝑗⃗ + 𝑧𝑘⃗⃗ (𝑟⃗ ≠ ⃗0⃗) is the position vector of the point, 𝑟 = |𝑟⃗| is the length of 𝑟⃗,
and 𝜀0 is a constant. Show that 𝐸⃗⃗ is irrotational.
Solution
𝑄 𝑟⃗ 𝑄 𝑥𝑖⃗ + 𝑦𝑗⃗ + 𝑧𝑘⃗⃗
𝐸⃗⃗ = 3
= 3
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 4𝜋𝜀0 2 2 2
(𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 )2
Then
𝑖⃗ 𝑗⃗ 𝑘⃗⃗
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝑄 | |
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐸⃗⃗ = ∇ × 𝐸⃗⃗ = 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
4𝜋𝜀0 | 𝑥 𝑦 𝑧 |
3 3 3
(𝑥 2 + 𝑦2 + 2
𝑧 )2 (𝑥 2 + 𝑦2 2
+ 𝑧 )2 (𝑥 2 + 𝑦2 + 2
𝑧 )2

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Semester A, 2024-25 MA2001 Multi-variable Calculus and Linear Algebra Chapter 4

𝑄 𝜕 𝑧 𝜕 𝑦
= {[ ( 3) − ( 3 )] 𝑖⃗
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
(𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2 )2 2 2 2
(𝑥 +𝑦 +𝑧 )2

𝜕 𝑧 𝜕 𝑥
−[ ( 3) − ( 3 )] 𝑗⃗
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧
(𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2 )2 2 2 2
(𝑥 +𝑦 +𝑧 )2

𝜕 𝑦 𝜕 𝑥
+[ ( 3) − ( 3 )] 𝑘⃗⃗}
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
(𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2 )2 2 2 2
(𝑥 +𝑦 +𝑧 )2

𝑄 3𝑦𝑧 3𝑦𝑧
= {[− 5 − (− 5 )] 𝑖⃗
4𝜋𝜀0
(𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2 )2 2 2 2
(𝑥 +𝑦 +𝑧 )2

3𝑥𝑧 3𝑥𝑧
− [− 5 − (− 5 )] 𝑗⃗
(𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2 )2 2 2 2
(𝑥 +𝑦 +𝑧 )2

3𝑥𝑦 3𝑥𝑦
+ [− 5 − (− 5 )] 𝑘⃗⃗}
(𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +𝑧 2 )2 2 2 2
(𝑥 +𝑦 +𝑧 )2

= ⃗0⃗
 𝐸⃗⃗ is irrotational.

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Semester A, 2024-25 MA2001 Multi-variable Calculus and Linear Algebra Chapter 4

Summary of gradient, divergence and curl

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
 The vector differential operator ∇: ∇ ≡ 𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

 Gradient of a scalar field 𝑓: 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑓 = ∇𝑓 (the outcome is vector-valued)

Divergence of a vector field 𝐹⃗ : 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐹⃗ = ∇ ∙ 𝐹⃗ (the outcome is scalar-valued)

Curl of a vector field 𝐹⃗ : 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐹⃗ = ∇ × 𝐹⃗ (the outcome is vector-valued)

 A vector field 𝑣⃗ is said to be solenoidal if 𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝑣⃗ = 0 .

A vector field 𝑣⃗ is said to be irrotational if 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑣⃗ = ⃗0⃗ .

 Although divergence and gradient are defined in all dimensions, curl is defined only in three
dimensions.

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Semester A, 2024-25 MA2001 Multi-variable Calculus and Linear Algebra Chapter 4

6 Vector Identities
Let 𝑓 and 𝑔 be scalar fields, 𝑣⃗ and 𝑤
⃗⃗⃗ be vector fields, all are twice continuously differentiable.
Some useful results involving the operator ∇ are shown below:
(i) ∇(𝑓 + 𝑔) = ∇𝑓 + ∇𝑔
(ii) ∇(𝑓𝑔) = 𝑓∇𝑔 + 𝑔∇𝑓
(iii) ∇ ∙ (𝑣⃗ + 𝑤
⃗⃗⃗) = ∇ ∙ 𝑣⃗ + ∇ ∙ 𝑤
⃗⃗⃗
(iv) ∇ ∙ (𝑓𝑣⃗ ) = (∇𝑓 ) ∙ 𝑣⃗ + 𝑓(∇ ∙ 𝑣⃗ )
(v) ∇ × (𝑣⃗ + 𝑤
⃗⃗⃗) = ∇ × 𝑣⃗ + ∇ × 𝑤
⃗⃗⃗
(vi) ∇ × (𝑓𝑣⃗ ) = (∇𝑓 ) × 𝑣⃗ + 𝑓 (∇ × 𝑣⃗ )
(vii) ∇ ∙ (𝑣⃗ × 𝑤
⃗⃗⃗) = 𝑤
⃗⃗⃗ ∙ (∇ × 𝑣⃗ ) − 𝑣⃗ ∙ (∇ × 𝑤
⃗⃗⃗)
(viii) ∇ × (𝑣⃗ × 𝑤
⃗⃗⃗) = (𝑤
⃗⃗⃗ ∙ ∇)𝑣⃗ − (𝑣⃗ ∙ ∇)𝑤
⃗⃗⃗ + (∇ ∙ 𝑤
⃗⃗⃗)𝑣⃗ − (∇ ∙ 𝑣⃗ )𝑤
⃗⃗⃗
(ix) ∇ × (∇𝑓 ) = ⃗0⃗ (i.e. 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 (𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑓 ) = ⃗0⃗)
(x) ∇ ∙ (∇ × 𝑣⃗ ) = 0 (i.e. 𝑑𝑖𝑣(𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑣⃗ ) = 0)
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕 2𝑓 𝜕2 𝑓 𝜕2 𝑓
(xi) ∇ ∙ (∇𝑓 ) = ∇ ∙ ( 𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗) = + +
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2
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Semester A, 2024-25 MA2001 Multi-variable Calculus and Linear Algebra Chapter 4

Let 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) be a scalar field. Define the Laplacian ∇2 𝑓 of 𝑓 by

2 2 2
𝜕 𝑓 𝜕 𝑓 𝜕 𝑓
∇2 𝑓 ≡ 2 + 2 + 2 .
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
In ∇ notation,
∇2 𝑓 = ∇ ∙ (∇𝑓 ) .

The operator
2 2 2
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
∇2 ≡ 2 + 2 + 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
can be applied to a vector field
𝑣⃗ = 𝑣1 𝑖⃗ + 𝑣2 𝑗⃗ + 𝑣3 𝑘⃗⃗
and we get
2 2 2
𝜕 𝑣
⃗ 𝜕 𝑣
⃗ 𝜕 𝑣⃗
∇2 𝑣⃗ ≡ 2 + 2 + 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕 2 𝑣1 𝜕 2 𝑣2 𝜕 2 𝑣3 𝜕 2 𝑣1 𝜕 2 𝑣2 𝜕 2 𝑣3 𝜕 2 𝑣1 𝜕 2 𝑣2 𝜕 2 𝑣3
= ( 2 𝑖⃗ + 2
𝑗⃗ + 2
𝑘⃗⃗ ) + ( 2 𝑖⃗ + 2
𝑗⃗ + 2
𝑘⃗⃗ ) + ( 2 𝑖⃗ + 2
𝑗⃗ + 2
𝑘⃗⃗ )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧

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Semester A, 2024-25 MA2001 Multi-variable Calculus and Linear Algebra Chapter 4

Example 8
𝜕2 𝑓 𝜕2 𝑓 𝜕2 𝑓
Prove (xi): ∇ ∙ (∇𝑓 ) = + + .
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2

Proof

Let 𝑓 be a scalar field.

𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
∇ ∙ (∇𝑓 ) = ∇ ∙ ( 𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
⃗⃗
= (𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ + 𝑘 ) ∙ ( 𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗)
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕 𝜕𝑓 𝜕 𝜕𝑓 𝜕 𝜕𝑓
= ( )+ ( )+ ( )
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧
𝜕2𝑓 𝜕2𝑓 𝜕2𝑓
= 2+ 2+ 2
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧


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Semester A, 2024-25 MA2001 Multi-variable Calculus and Linear Algebra Chapter 4

Example 9
Prove (ix): ∇ × (∇𝑓 ) = ⃗0⃗.
Proof
Let 𝑓 be a twice continuously differentiable scalar field.
𝑖⃗ 𝑗⃗ 𝑘⃗⃗
|𝜕 𝜕 𝜕|
∇ × (∇𝑓 ) = 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
|𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓 |
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕 𝜕𝑓 𝜕 𝜕𝑓 𝜕 𝜕𝑓 𝜕 𝜕𝑓 𝜕 𝜕𝑓 𝜕 𝜕𝑓
⃗⃗
= 𝑖⃗ [ ( ) − ( )] − 𝑗⃗ [ ( ) − ( )] + 𝑘 [ ( ) − ( )]
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
𝜕2𝑓 𝜕2𝑓 𝜕2𝑓 𝜕2𝑓 𝜕2𝑓 𝜕2𝑓
= 𝑖⃗ ( − ) − 𝑗⃗ ( − ) + 𝑘⃗⃗ ( − )
𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑧𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦𝜕𝑥

= ⃗0⃗


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Semester A, 2024-25 MA2001 Multi-variable Calculus and Linear Algebra Chapter 4

Now, let’s consider result (ix) again:

𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 (𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝜑) = ∇ × (∇𝜑) = ⃗0⃗.

Therefore, gradient fields are irrotational. That is,

𝐹⃗ = ∇𝜑 ⇒ 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐹⃗ = ⃗0⃗.

The converse of this result is also true, that is, every irrotational vector field is the gradient of
some scalar field.

That is, we have the result:

If ⃗𝑭⃗ is irrotational (i.e. 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒍 ⃗𝑭⃗ = ⃗𝟎⃗),

then there exists a scalar field 𝝋 such that ⃗𝑭⃗ = 𝛁𝝋.

This has important applications in electromagnetism and fluid dynamics.

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Semester A, 2024-25 MA2001 Multi-variable Calculus and Linear Algebra Chapter 4

Similarly, result (x) says that

𝑑𝑖𝑣(𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝑣⃗ ) = ∇ ∙ (∇ × 𝑣⃗ ) = 0.

That is, the curl of any vector field is solenoidal.

The converse of result (x), which says that every solenoidal vector field is the curl of some
vector field, arises in applications.

That is, we have the result:

If ⃗𝑭⃗ is solenoidal (i.e. 𝒅𝒊𝒗 ⃗𝑭⃗ = 𝟎),

⃗⃗ such that ⃗𝑭⃗ = 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒍 𝒗

then there exists some vector field 𝒗 ⃗⃗.

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Semester A, 2024-25 MA2001 Multi-variable Calculus and Linear Algebra Chapter 4

Example 10
Show that the vector field
𝐹⃗ (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑦 𝑖⃗ + (𝑥 + 𝑧 cos 𝑦) 𝑗⃗ + (sin 𝑦 + 2𝑧) 𝑘⃗⃗
is irrotational. Then find a potential function 𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) such that ∇𝜑 = 𝐹⃗ .
Solution
𝑖⃗ 𝑗⃗ 𝑘⃗⃗
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑙 𝐹⃗ = || ||
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝑦 𝑥 + 𝑧 cos 𝑦 sin 𝑦 + 2𝑧
𝜕(sin 𝑦 + 2𝑧) 𝜕(𝑥 + 𝑧 cos 𝑦) 𝜕(sin 𝑦 + 2𝑧) 𝜕(𝑦)
= 𝑖⃗ [ − ] − 𝑗⃗ [ − ]
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑧
𝜕(𝑥 + 𝑧 cos 𝑦) 𝜕(𝑦)
+𝑘[⃗⃗ − ]
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
= 𝑖⃗(cos 𝑦 − cos 𝑦) − 𝑗⃗(0 − 0) + 𝑘⃗⃗(1 − 1)
= ⃗0⃗
 𝐹⃗ is irrotational.
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Semester A, 2024-25 MA2001 Multi-variable Calculus and Linear Algebra Chapter 4

Then there exists a scalar function 𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) such that ∇𝜑 = 𝐹⃗ , i.e.

𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗ = 𝑦 𝑖⃗ + (𝑥 + 𝑧 cos 𝑦) 𝑗⃗ + (sin 𝑦 + 2𝑧) 𝑘⃗⃗
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕𝜑
=𝑦 ⋯ ⋯ (1)
𝜕𝑥
𝜕𝜑
⇒ = 𝑥 + 𝑧 cos 𝑦 ⋯ ⋯ (2)
𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝜑
{ 𝜕𝑧 = sin 𝑦 + 2𝑧 ⋯ ⋯ (3)
Integrating (1) w.r.t. 𝑥:
𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑔(𝑦, 𝑧) ⋯ ⋯ (∗)
where 𝑔(𝑦, 𝑧) is a function of 𝑦 and 𝑧.
Partially differentiate both sides of (∗) w.r.t. 𝑦:
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝑔
=𝑥+ .
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
Comparing with (2):

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Semester A, 2024-25 MA2001 Multi-variable Calculus and Linear Algebra Chapter 4

𝜕𝑔 𝜕𝑔
𝑥 + 𝑧 cos 𝑦 = 𝑥 + ⇒ = 𝑧 cos 𝑦.
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦
Integrate w.r.t. 𝑦:
𝑔(𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑧 sin 𝑦 + ℎ(𝑧)
where ℎ(𝑧) is a function of 𝑧.
 𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑧 sin 𝑦 + ℎ(𝑧).
Partially differentiate w.r.t. 𝑧:
𝜕𝜑
= sin 𝑦 + ℎ′(𝑧)
𝜕𝑧
Comparing with (3):
sin 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = sin 𝑦 + ℎ′(𝑧)
⇒ ℎ′ (𝑧) = 2𝑧
⇒ ℎ(𝑧) = 𝑧 2 + 𝐶, where 𝐶 is a constant.
Hence,
𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑧 sin 𝑦 + 𝑧 2 + 𝐶, where 𝐶 is a constant.

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Semester A, 2024-25 MA2001 Multi-variable Calculus and Linear Algebra Chapter 4

Check:
𝜑(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = 𝑥𝑦 + 𝑧 sin 𝑦 + 𝑧 2 + 𝐶
Then
𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑 𝜕𝜑
∇𝜑 = 𝑖⃗ + 𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
= (𝑦 + 0 + 0 + 0)𝑖⃗ + (𝑥 + 𝑧 cos 𝑦 + 0 + 0)𝑗⃗ + (0 + sin 𝑦 + 2𝑧 + 0)𝑘⃗⃗
= 𝑦 𝑖⃗ + (𝑥 + 𝑧 cos 𝑦) 𝑗⃗ + (sin 𝑦 + 2𝑧) 𝑘⃗⃗
= 𝐹⃗ ✓

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Semester A, 2024-25 MA2001 Multi-variable Calculus and Linear Algebra Chapter 4

Example 11
Let 𝐹⃗ = (𝑦 − 𝑧)𝑖⃗ + (𝑧 − 𝑥 )𝑗⃗ + (𝑥 − 𝑦)𝑘⃗⃗. Show that 𝐹⃗ is solenoidal. Then find a vector field
⃗⃗ = ℎ1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑖⃗ + ℎ2 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑗⃗ + ℎ3 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑘⃗⃗ with ℎ1 ≡ 0 such that 𝐹⃗ = ∇ × 𝐻
𝐻 ⃗⃗ .
Solution
𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝑑𝑖𝑣 𝐹⃗ = (𝑦 − 𝑧) + (𝑧 − 𝑥 ) + (𝑥 − 𝑦) = 0 + 0 + 0 = 0.
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Hence, 𝐹⃗ is solenoidal.
⃗⃗ = ℎ1 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑖⃗ + ℎ2 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑗⃗ + ℎ3 (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)𝑘⃗⃗
Then there exists a vector field 𝐻 such that
𝐹⃗ = ∇ × 𝐻
⃗⃗. We try to find the vector 𝐻
⃗⃗ with ℎ1 ≡ 0. Then

𝑖⃗ 𝑗⃗ 𝑘⃗⃗
𝜕ℎ3 𝜕ℎ2 𝜕ℎ3 𝜕ℎ2
⃗⃗ = det 𝜕
∇×𝐻
𝜕 𝜕
=( − ) 𝑖⃗ − 𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
(0 ℎ2 ℎ3 )
𝜕ℎ3 𝜕ℎ2 𝜕ℎ3 𝜕ℎ2
⃗⃗ ⇒ (𝑦 − 𝑧)𝑖⃗ + (𝑧 − 𝑥 )𝑗⃗ + (𝑥 − 𝑦)𝑘⃗⃗ = (
𝐹⃗ = ∇ × 𝐻 − ) 𝑖⃗ − 𝑗⃗ + 𝑘⃗⃗
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥
That is,
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Semester A, 2024-25 MA2001 Multi-variable Calculus and Linear Algebra Chapter 4

𝜕ℎ3 𝜕ℎ2
𝑦−𝑧= − ⋯ (1)
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
𝜕ℎ3
𝑧−𝑥 =− ⋯ (2)
𝜕𝑥
𝜕ℎ2
{ 𝑥 − 𝑦 = 𝜕𝑥 ⋯ (3)

irom (3):
𝜕ℎ2 𝑥2
= 𝑥 − 𝑦 ⇒ ℎ2 = ∫(𝑥 − 𝑦) 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑥𝑦 + 𝐴(𝑦, 𝑧),
𝜕𝑥 2
where 𝐴(𝑦, 𝑧) is a function of 𝑦 and 𝑧.
Set 𝐴(𝑦, 𝑧) = 0. Then
𝑥2
ℎ2 = − 𝑥𝑦.
2
irom (2):
𝜕ℎ3 𝑥2
= 𝑥 − 𝑧 ⇒ ℎ3 = ∫(𝑥 − 𝑧) 𝑑𝑥 = − 𝑥𝑧 + 𝐵(𝑦, 𝑧),
𝜕𝑥 2
where 𝐵(𝑦, 𝑧) is a function of 𝑦 and 𝑧.

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Semester A, 2024-25 MA2001 Multi-variable Calculus and Linear Algebra Chapter 4

irom (1):
𝜕ℎ3 𝜕ℎ2 𝜕 𝑥2 𝜕 𝑥2 𝜕𝐵(𝑦, 𝑧)
𝑦−𝑧 = − = [ − 𝑥𝑧 + 𝐵(𝑦, 𝑧)] − [ − 𝑥𝑦] =
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑧 2 𝜕𝑦
Integrating both sides w.r.t. 𝑦 gives
𝑦2
𝐵(𝑦, 𝑧) = ∫(𝑦 − 𝑧) 𝑑𝑦 = − 𝑦𝑧 + 𝐶 (𝑧).
2
𝑦2
Set 𝐶 (𝑧) = 0, then 𝐵(𝑦, 𝑧) = − 𝑦𝑧.
2

Thus,
𝑥2 𝑥2 𝑦2
ℎ3 = − 𝑥𝑧 + 𝐵(𝑦, 𝑧) = + − 𝑥𝑧 − 𝑦𝑧.
2 2 2
Hence,
𝑥2 𝑥2 𝑦2
⃗⃗ = ( − 𝑥𝑦) 𝑗⃗ + ( +
𝐻 − 𝑥𝑧 − 𝑦𝑧) 𝑘⃗⃗
2 2 2

⃗⃗ is not unique.)
(Notice that 𝐻

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