1) After reading several definitions of applied linguistics you find that most

of them are similar. Why do you think most of them are similar?
Answer:
Because most of the definitions of applied linguistics deal with the
interdisciplinary field that covers or involves not only linguistics but also other
fields like sociology, psychology, anthropology, communication, education,
politics, law, computer science, and many other fields. Almost all definitions of
applied linguistics deal with the real or practical problems involving language.
2) State your own definition of applied linguistics!
Answer:
The answer will vary, but the definition proposed should include with the
keywords such as application, interdisciplinary field, real or practical problem
involving language.
3) Many people tend to agree with the inclusive or broad definition of
applied linguistics. What are the advantages of using the broad definition?
Answer:
There are two advantages of using broad definition. First, it makes applied
linguistics different from other branches of linguistics by focusing its
orientation towards language-related problems, and it implies that the work
in applied linguistics can have some impact upon those problems, potentially
influencing how decisions are made about them. Second, it is also general
enough to encompass many disparate activities and areas of enquiry that call
themselves applied linguistics.
4) What is the relationship between linguistics and applied linguistics?
Answer:
Looking at the term applied linguistics literally, many people say that applied
linguistics is the application of linguistic theories. This opinion is supported by
Hall, Smith and Wicaksono (2011: 32) who state that many people might think
that a definition of applied linguistics would follow on quite naturally as
another sub-discipline of general linguistics, presumably like applied physics
follows from pure physics. Applied physics could be defined as ‘physics
applied for practical use’. By analogy, then, the term ‘applied linguistics’
should refer to the application of general linguistics to practical use in
additional language teaching, translation, speech therapy, etc.
Another opinion says that there three positions to explain their relationship.
First, applied linguistics, because linguistics is part of its name, is linked to
linguistics, which is sometimes referred to as the ‘parent’ discipline. The literal
interpretation of applied linguistics as ‘linguistics applied’ reinforces this view.
From this perspective, linguistics is the authoritative source for all that is
needed to meet the aims of applied linguistics. The second view is known as
‘autonomous applied linguistics.’ Autonomous applied linguistics sees applied
linguistics as at least semiautonomous, if not completely autonomous, from
linguistics or any source discipline and allows that anyone can be an applied
linguist. While acknowledging that linguistics may be part of applied
linguistics, practitioners do not rely exclusively on linguistics. A third view is
known as the ‘applied linguistics’ position, so called because applied linguists
are linguists engaged in application. It is distinguished from other views in its
recognition that the knowledge and skills of a linguist are inadequate to the
task of solving problems related to the uses and users of language. To address
this inadequacy, the applied linguist calls upon the skills and knowledge of
other professionals both inside and outside the academic world.
5) What is the main difference between Applied Linguistics and Linguistics
Applied?
Answer:
Following the opinion from Davies and Elder, we can say that Applied
Linguistics (AL) looks outward, beyond language in an attempt to explain,
perhaps even ameliorate social problems, while Linguistics Applied (LA) looks
inward, concerned not to solve language problems “in the real world” but to
explicate and test theories about language itself. So LA uses language data to
develop our linguistic knowledge about language, while AL studies a language
problem with a view to correcting it. Applied Linguistics is a coherent activity
which theorizes through speculative and empirical investigations real-world
problems in which language is a central issue. They intend to offer a coherent
account of applied linguistics as an independent and coherent discipline,
which seeks to marry practical experience and theoretical understanding of
language development and language in use.
6) Why do many people view applied linguistics as a sister (rather than a
sub-) discipline of general linguistics?
Because they view applied linguistics as a discipline concerned with the role of
language and languages play in perceived problems of communication, social
identity, education, health, economics, politics and justice, and in the
development of ways to remediate or resolve these problems. Scholars in this
view address an increasingly broad range of language-related issues. They
draw on theory, findings and method from many other scholarly fields aside
from general linguistics, including education, anthropology, sociology, public
policy, health sciences, information technology and others. Thus they differ
largely in terms of the scope of objectives, methods and inputs.
De Bot (2015) classifies the definitions of applied linguistics in inclusive and
exclusive definitions. The inclusive definition is the open one in line with the
range of topics at the conferences of the Association Internationale de
Linguistique Appliquée (AILA), avoiding any risk that someone would not feel
welcome. The exclusive definition is the restricted definitions, usually
proposed by an individual based on his/her area of expertise. Find two
examples of inclusive definitions and twoexamples of exclussive definitons
and provide the reasons for choosing the examples.
UNIT 2
1) Davies and Elder (2004) classify a wide range of topics into
two broad categories, namely the topics that belong to
linguistics applied and the topics that belong to applied
linguistics. Mention some topics that belong to linguistics
applied and the topics that belong to applied linguistics. Provide
your reasons for this classification. Answer: Some topics that are
classified into Linguistics-Applied are language descriptions,
lexicography, second language acquisition, language corpora, discourse
analysis, assessing language attitude, language attrition, language,
thought and culture, conversation analysis, language and law, language
and gender, language and politics, and stylistics. Some topics that are
classified into applied linguistics are native speaker in applied
linguistics, language minorities, second language learning, literacy
studies, fashions in language teaching methodology, Computer Assisted
Language Learning (CALL), language for specific purposes, bilingual
education, language maintenance, language planning, language testing,
and critical applied linguistics. The classification is based on the extent
of the use of linguistics in solving problems related to each topic. If the
involvement of the linguistic theories is greater, then we classify the
topic into linguistics applied. On the other hand, the involvement of the
other fields, such as education, sociology, computer science, is greater,
we classify the topic into applied linguistics.
2) Answer 2: Theories of grammar come and go with monotonous
regularity. There is ongoing debate about the role of explicit grammar
teaching in the language classroom, and this has been a fruitful area for
a great deal of applied linguistic research. Although there remain a
number of different positions on this question, the general consensus is
that language learners do benefit from having their attention drawn to
target language structures and patterns, but that the teaching of rigid
‘grammar rules’ can sometimes do more harm than good as they do not
accurately describe the way the language actually works
3) Find as mush as information about audio-lingual method.
Then answer the following questions! - What are the goals of
teachers who use this method? The teacher wants his/her students
to be able to use the target language communicatively so that they
need to overlearn the target language, to learn it automatically without
stopping to think. The student achieve this by forming new habits in the
target language.
- What is the role of the teacher? What is the role of the
students?
The teacher is like an orchestra leader, directing and controlling the
language behavior of the students and responsible for providing the
students with a good model for imitation. Students are imitators of
teacher’s model. They follow the teacher’s directions and respond as
accurately and as rapidly as possible.
- What are some characteristics of the teaching/learning
process?
New vocabulary and structural pattern are presented through dialog and
the dialogues are learned through imitation and repetition. Drills are
conducted based on the patterns presented in the dialogue. Grammar is
induced from the examples given and explicit grammar rules are not
provided.
- What is the nature of student-teacher interaction? What is the
nature of student-student interaction?
There is student-to-student interaction in chain drills or when students
take different role in dialogues but this interaction is teacher-directed
and most of the interaction between teacher and students is initiated by
the teacher.
- What is the role of students’ native language?
The target language is used in the classroom. Not the students’ native
language because the habits of the native language interfere with the
students’ attempts to master the target language.
4) What are the main differences between grammatical syllabus
and functional syllabus?
The grammatical syllabus focuses on the ordering of grammatical
structures from the simplest to the most complex. Vocabulary and
grammar tend to be treated as separate phenomena and the language
presented tends to be somewhat artificial, in order to allow for the
systematic introduction of grammar ‘rules’. Functional syllabus is the
syllabus that is ordered according to lists of functions and notions which
the syllabus designer deems relevant to learners at a particular level.
Functions are the ‘communicative purposes’ for which language is used
and include things such as ‘advising’ or ‘persuading’, and notions are
the contexts in which these functional communicative acts take place.
5) Explain the types of language test based on the purposes of
conducting the test
- Achievement test is the test used to measure students’ progress on a
certain type of learning process.
- Proficiency test is the test used to measure someone’s performance
regardless of any training or learning process he/she has followed.
- Placement test is the test used to position the students in the
appropriate level of language training.
- Diagnostic test is the test used to find the
6) What is language for specific purposes?
Language for Specific Purposes (LSP) is generally used to refer to the
teaching and research of language in relation to the communicative
needs of speakers of a second language in facing a particular workplace,
academic, or professional context. In such contexts language is used for
a limited range of communicative events. For example, in a university
context, spoken language is typically used by students in events such as
participating in seminars and tutorials, presenting papers, and asking
and answering questions in class. Analysis of language in such events
generally reveals that language is used in constrained and fairly
predictable ways.
7) What is the difference between English for Academic
Purposes (EAP) and English for Occupational Purposes?
A major sub-branch of LSP is English for Academic Purposes (EAP),
whose main aim is to help prepare international students for study at
English-speaking universities. According to Groom and Littlemore (2011:
18), researchers in this area study the types of language that are used
in lectures, seminars and written papers across the range of disciplines
that are offered at universities where English is the medium of
instruction. They are also interested in studying how the types of
language used vary across different disciplines, and across the different
spoken and written genres of higher education (e.g. lectures, seminars,
research articles, textbooks, argumentative essays, laboratory reports,
etc.). They also investigate the effectiveness of different modes of
delivery, including for example team teaching with subject lecturers.
Related to this is the field of academic literacy. The focus here is more
on native speakers of the language who for one reason or another may
not be familiar with the linguistic conventions that are common in
academic discourse. Again the focus is on describing and teaching or
critiquing these conventions in order to enhance student learning levels
in higher education
8) Provide your explanation about a three-part framework for
understanding how education in multiple languages is commonly
organized!
The three-part framework consists of (1) language-based, (2) content-
based and (3) context based. These ways of looking at programs are not
mutually exclusive, of course. To some extent, all programs must take
into account the language and subject matter learning needs of their
students, as well as the contextual features and constraints of the larger
context in which they are based. We argue that much more can be
learned about particular schools and programs by examining them from
all three frames.
10) What is sociolinguistics?
Sociolinguistics studies the relationship between language and society.
The focus is on variation in the way people use language as well as on
language change. Researchers in this area are interested in how people
use language to create and maintain social structures and hierarchies.
They also look at the role of language in creating and maintaining a
person’s identity

UNIT 3

1) There are two interrelated strands of work in language

teaching, how language should be taught and what kind of
language should be taught. What are the focuses of the first
strand?
Answer:
The focus of the first strand is on how language is best presented to
learners and what kinds of activities are most conducive to language
learning. In this case, we find several approaches and methods used by
the teachers in teaching language, especially in teaching second or
foreign language. We recognize grammatical translation method as one
of the oldest language teaching methods, direct method, and
audiolingual method. We also recognize some alternative approaches
and methods in the twentieth century. They are the natural approach,
total physical response, the silent way, community language learning,
and suggestopedia. Some current approaches and method in language
teaching are communicative language teaching (CLT), content based
instruction and content and language integrated teaching (CLIL), whole
language, competency based language teaching, task based language
teaching, text based instruction, the lexical approach, multiple
inteligences, and cooperative language teaching.
2) What is Widdowson and Brumfit’s view of language learning?
Answer:
Language learning should not just be about learning grammar rules and
vocabulary, but should focus on teaching learners how to use the
language that they have learned to express themselves effectively, and
to understand how linguistic meanings relate to the social and
situational contexts in which they occur
3) What is the main difference between the model of
communicative competence proposed by Celce-Murcia et. al
(1995) and the model of communicative competence proposed
by Cecle-Murcia (2007)?
Answer:
Celce-Murcia et.al. (1995) say that the components of communicative
competence are linguistic competence, socio-cultural competence,
actional competence, discourse competence, and strategic competence.
Discourse competence is the center of communicative competence,
while strategic competences function as ways to achieve other
competencies. The following figure describes the interrelation among
the five competencies. Celce-Murcia (2007) revises the model of
communicative competence that Celce-Murcia et.al. (1995) propose. She
adds one more component into the diagram. The new component is the
formulaic competence. The following figure shows the revised model of
communicative competence proposed by Celce-Murcia.
4) What is the main difference between linguistic competence
and formulaic competence?
Answer:
Linguistic competence refers to one’s knowledge of the language itself,
and includes knowledge of vocabulary, morphology, syntax and
phonology, as well as knowledge about how the different parts of a text
fit together and are generally organised. Linguistic competence includes
four types of knowledge:
– phonological: includes both segmentals (vowels, consonants, syllable
types) and suprasegmentals (prominence/stress, intonation, and
rhythm).
– lexical: knowledge of both content words (nouns, verbs, adjectives)
and unction words (pronouns, determiners, prepositions, verbal
auxiliaries, etc.).
– morphological: parts of speech, grammatical inflections, productive
derivational processes.
– syntactic: constituent/phrase structure, word order (both canonical and
marked), basic sentence types, modification, coordination,
subordination, embedding.
Formulaic competence is the counterbalance to linguistic competence.
Linguistic competence entails the recursive, open-ended systems listed
above. Formulaic competence refers to those fixed and prefabricated
chunks of language that speakers use heavily in everyday interactions.
Formulaic competence inncludes:
• routines: fixed phrases like of course, all of a sudden and formulaic
chunks like How do you do? I’m fine, thanks; how are you?
• collocations: verb-object: spend money, play the piano, adverb-
adjective: statistically significant, mutually intelligible; adjective-noun:
tall building, legible handwriting
• idioms: e.g., to kick the bucket = to die; to get the ax = to be
fired/terminated
• lexical frames: e.g., I’m looking for ______________. See you
(later/tomorrow/ next week, etc)
5) One approach that is commonly used in analyzing discourse,
especially spoken discourse, is ethnography of speaking
proposed by Hymes. Provide your explanation about this
approach.
Answer
Ethnographic approaches to conversation are concerned with ‘the
situation and uses, the patterns and functions, of speaking as an activity
in its own right. Hymes developed a schema for analysing context that
has the ‘speech event’ in which language occurs as its prime unit of
analysis. Speech events include interactions such as a conversation at a
party or ordering a meal, etc. Any speech event comprises several
components and these are listed in the grid in the following table. With
each letter acting as an abbreviation for a different component of
communication, Hymes’s grid has become known as the ‘SPEAKING
grid’.
S Setting scene temporal and physical circumstances subjective
definition of an occasion
P Participant speaker/sender/addressor hearer/receiver/audience/
addressee
E Ends ends purposes and goals outcomes
A Act sequence message form and content
K Key tone, manner
I Instrumentalities channel (verbal and non-verbal; physical forms of
speech drawn from community repertoires)
N Norms norms of interaction and interpretation specific properties
attached to speaking interpretations of norms within cultural belief
system
G Genre textual categories
1) There are two interrelated strands of work in language
teaching, how language should be taught and what kind of
language should be taught. What are the focuses of the second
strand?
Answer:
The second strand focuses more on what kind of language should be
taught. Traditionally the grammar components of language classes have
tended to focus on written grammar, but the advent of spoken corpora
has revealed patterns in spoken language that could usefully be taught
to language learners. Recent studies have revealed that spoken
language has its own grammar which differs in places from the grammar
of the written language. The second component is vocabulary.
Traditionally, the main focus of teaching vocabulary was the vocabulary
of written language. But nowadays, vocabulary is taught based on the
context.
2) What is Richards’ view of communicative language teaching?
Answer:
Communicative approaches to language teaching differ from previous
approaches to language learning in that they are competency based.
The main focus is on the outcomes of learning. They look at what
learners might be expected to do with the language, and use these to
inform the ways in which the language is taught. The ultimate goal of
communicative language teaching is to foster the ability not only to
apply the grammatical rules of a language in order to form
grammatically correct sentences but also to know the appropriate time
and place to use these sentences and to the appropriate audience.
3) Explain some variables included in sociocultural competence
Answer:
Sociocultural competence refers to the speaker’s pragmatic knowledge,
i.e. how to express messages appropriately within the overall social and
cultural context of communication. This includes knowledge of language
variation with reference to sociocultural norms of the target language.
Three most crucial variables of sociocultural competence are:
– social contextual factors: the participants’ age, gender, status, social
distance and their relations to each other re: power and affect.
– stylistic appropriateness: politeness strategies, a sense of genres and
registers.
– cultural factors: background knowledge of the target language group,
major dialects/regional differences, and cross cultural awareness.
4) Why is discourse competence important in applied linguistics?
Answer:
Because discourse analysis enables applied linguists to analyze and
understand real language data, for example, texts written by first and
second language learners, or recordings of the spoken output of second
language learners, or of the interaction between teachers and learners
or among learners themselves in classrooms. It also enables us to
understand better the kinds of discourse that language learners are
exposed to outside the classroom: the language of service encounters in
shops, banks, restaurants, etc., the language of newspapers, the
language of everyday informal conversation. In addition, such analyses
can assist language teachers and materials writers to evaluate language
course books in terms of how closely they are approximate authentic
language, or what needs to be modified when authentic texts are
brought into the classroom. Language testing can also gain a great deal
from looking at real language use as a source of criteria for the
evaluation of test performances.