Article

Maharshi Dayanand University

Crime in India: Research Journal ARTS
An Inter-State Analysis 2019, Vol. 18 (1) pp.81-101
ISSN 0972-706X
© The Author(s) 2019
http://www.mdu.ac.in/Journals/about.html

Neha Gupta
PGT-Economics (SHIS,Gurugram), Former Assistant Professor, DU

Lalit
Assistant Professor (VNC, DU), Ph.D Scholar

Abstract
The main objective of this paper is to present a general profile of crime in India. This paper
investigates the relative impact of socio-economic variables (NSDP as a proxy of economic
growth, poverty, unemployment, gender ratio and education) on crime rates in India. State-
level data of sixteen major states are used on the above variables for the period 1991 to
2011.This includes the study of changes in the composition of crime, trends, patterns and
contribution of selected crime-heads, viz. murder, rape, kidnapping & abduction and crimes
against property (dacoity, preparation & assembly for dacoity, robbery, burglary and theft).
Murder represents assault to human life and security. Similarly, rape represents crimes
against women, as women of all age group are generally vulnerable to this crime and these
crimes also represent violence crime in the economy. Crimes against property include
dacoity, burglary, preparation & assembly for dacoity, robbery and theft. These acquire
importance for their preponderance in the total rate of crime at any point of time.

Keywords: Crime, Crime rate, Interstate comparison.

Corresponding author:
Neha Gupta, PGT-Economics (SHIS,Gurugram), Former Assistant Professor, DU
Nehagoel2004@gmail.com
82 Neha Gupta & Lalit

Introduction
Peace is one of the most important necessities of human being in any society. The economic
development and hence overall development of the economy to a large extent depends on
the peaceful environment i.e. absence of violence. Freedom from violence, as an aspect
of the quality of life, is a neglected issue in development studies. Many people would
rather avoid being mugged, beaten, wounded, or tortured, and it is also nice to live without
fear of these traumatic experiences. Therefore, protection from violence may be thought
of as one of the "capabilities" that contribute to the quality of life (Sen 1985). Violence also
affects human wellbeing in indirect ways, as armed conflicts undermine economic growth
or the functioning of public services. If development is concerned with improving the
quality of life, the issue of violence should then be a major interest of the discipline. The
recent upward trend in crime rates of developing countries has spurred widespread public
concern about personal and proprietary insecurity. In some countries, the questions of
crime, violence, and victimization are attracting more attention from academics and policy
makers than traditional economic problems.
Objectives
l To study the interstate variation in the crime pattern and plausible reasons for the
same.
Data Source
In India, the Criminal Procedure Code divides crimes into two heads: cognizable and non-
cognizable. The police have the responsibility to take prompt action on receipt of a complaint
or of credible information in the case of cognizable crimes. Cognizable crimes are again
sub-divided as those falling under either the Indian Penal Code (IPC), or under the Special
and Local Laws (SLL). Non-cognizable crimes, on the other hand, are left to be pursued
by the affected parties themselves in Courts. The police force initiates investigation into
such crimes except with magisterial permission. In India statistics on crime are published
annually by the National Crime Records Bureau, under the Ministry of Home Affairs.
State, City and district wise data is available on number of different crimes committed,
judicial institutions and enforcement mechanism in a standardized format. 'Crime in India'
was first brought out 1954. Since then it is being regularly published. The focus of this
study will be only on IPC crimes (cognizable crime). The reason is that the motivations
and enforcement mechanism for SLL crimes are different from that of IPC crimes.The
study is restricted on 16 major states because of non-availability of data.
Methodology
Firstly, annual crime incidence have been taken for the years 1991 to 2011. Based on these
Crime in India: An Inter-State Analysis 83

crime incidences, linear graph has been constructed to see the trend. Secondly, in order to
find out changes in the composition of crime, crime rates for different heads of crime at
three different points of time i.e. 1991, 2001 and 2011 is calculated. For the same time
periods crime heads as percentage to total crime are also represented in the form of
tables.
Composition of crime (1991, 2001 and 2011)
The composition of crime in a region or state becomes part of the basic exercise in the
study of crime. This section aims to finding out the composition of crime in India and to
highlight the changes taken therein from 1991 to 2011.
Table: 3.1 Percentage (per cent) Contribution of Different Crime Heads in Total
Crime

Table 3.1 shows different crime heads as a % to total crime from 1991 to 2011. In 1991,
theft alone had highest percentage (21.6%). And, preparation & assembly for dacoity
shares the lowest % (0.1);whereas in 2001,major crime heads retain their position. Again,
theft is found sharing highest percentage (14.3%) but lowest percentage (0.1%) here is
being shared by counterfeiting (0.1%). However, in 2011, again theft had highest percentage
(14.7%) and preparation & assembly for dacoity and counterfeiting shares the lowest %
(0.1).
84 Neha Gupta & Lalit

Changes in the composition of crime are apparent (table 3.1) .In 1991, the total incidence
of IPC crime in India was 16,78, 375 which increased to 17, 69, 308 crimes in 2001.
Therefore, the decadal growth becomes 5.4% and average annual rate comes to 0.8%. In
terms of %, dominance of crimes against property which include theft, robbery, burglary,
and dacoity is evident at all points of time. Nonetheless, their % has declined considerably
(from 31.8% in 1991 to 21.5% in 2001). This change may be attributed to the growth of
other crimes. In fact, rapes and cheating have almost doubled in these years and kidnapping
& abduction have increased due to rise in the incidence in India. However, murder and
counterfeiting seem to have gradually declined. Though, there is a decline in the percentage
of riots in 2001 (4.3%) compared to 1991 (6.3%).There is also a rise in the % of others
crime from 52.8% (1991) to 64.4% (2001). This increase shows the decline in the % of
other crime in this decade.
The different pictures comes when we compare next decade i.e. 2001and 2011. In
these years, total incidence of IPC crime has also gone up from 17, 69,308 in 2001 to 23
25,575 in 2011.The decadal growth becomes 31.4% and average annual rate was 3.0%.
This represents a massive increase in the growth of this decade because in the earlier
decade (1991-2001) it was only 5.4% which was much lower than the current decade
(2001-2011).In term of %, same scenario has come up in this decade. Crime against
property which include theft, preparation & assembly for dacoity, robbery, burglary, and
dacoity have declined from 21.5% in 2001 to 20.0%, but this decline is very small only
0.5%. There is sharp decline in the murder from 2.0% (2001) to 1.5% (2011) and riots
from 4.3% to 2.9%. There are gradually increase in the % of rape and kidnapping and
abduction from 0.9% and 1.3% to 1.0% and 1.9% respectively in this decade. The main
point to note here is that the % of kidnapping and abduction of women & girls have almost
double. Crime against women has also gone up in these years.
Crime in India: An Inter-State Analysis 85

Trends of Crime Rate

Figure: 3.1 Trend of Crime rate (IPC) in India (1953 to 2011)

250

200

150

100

50

0
1950
1953
1956
1959
1962
1965
1968
1971
1974
1977
1980
1983
1986
1989
1992
1995
1998
2001
2004
2007
2010
crime rate

Source: national crime records bureau.

Analysis of crime-rates (at national level) for the last two decades does not show a smooth
trend. Figure 3.1 represents the smooth picture of total crime incidences and crime rate
(per 1, 00,000) of the last six decades. It showed how the pattern of crime rate has been
changing from 1950 to 2011. In 1950 the rate of crime was 182.5 and total incidences of
crime were 635508 in India. The crime incidences declined in 1953 from 635508 to 601964
and rate from 182.5 to 160.7 and further to 137.4 in 1955. The rate of crime was lowest in
1955 in the history of independent era of India. Why did this happen? And, what factors
could have involved in this process? Such questions are important to be looked into. From
1955 to 1959 the reverse process gets in as the crime rate which was only 137. 4. In 1955
kept on rising to 147.2 in 1959. In the 1960s, a good deal of fluctuations was observed. In
1980 the crime-rate rose to 206.2 which again declined till 1987.
At the time of adoption of new economic policy 1991, the crime rate was 198.2 almost
near to 200. The years become important in the 1991- 2011 decades in two ways. Firstly,
it was the year having lowest crime-rate (160. 0 crimes only) in the second decade i.e.
2001-2011. Secondly, it was the year from which the crime-rate started increasing again
and reached the level of almost 192.5 crimes per 1, 00,000 persons in 2011. Although it is
not possible to explain such strange fluctuations but at the same time it is equally important
to mark the abrupt changes after the introduction of new economic reform. Have the twin
86 Neha Gupta & Lalit

processes of industrialization - urbanization led to overall increase in crime? Or it is growing

awareness among masses responsible for a comparatively higher reporting of crimes
because of the education? Have our social-priorities and cultural goals become dominant
over the 'sanctioned - means' to achieve them? Also, it is important to find out is the basic
needs of human being one of the factor of rising crime in this decades? Sometime people
choose illegal activities rather than legal activities because of fewer opportunities in the
economy. It is important to know about the state level pattern of the some important crime
in which study will focus on like murder, rape, kidnapping & abduction and burglary.
Contribution in total IPC crime at State level
The following Table 3.2 tell us the contribution (in %) of IPC crime of sixteen major state
in all India IPC crime, it shows the contribution of a state in total IPC crime and their
changing contribution with the time period from 1991 to 2011. The idea behind this table is
that it will give us a clear pattern of crime contribution of different states in total all India
IPC during the liberalization era. Before going on state wise explanation of different major
crime heads it is important to know about the state wise contribution of IPC crime in total
crime in India and this contribution includes all the IPC crime heads. In this table, the
following years have been taken; 1991, 2001 and 2011, because it represent decadal trends
and is simple to understand and more comparable.
Table: 3.2 Percentage contributions to all India total (IPC crime)
Crime in India: An Inter-State Analysis 87

As depicted in the above table, in 1991, Madhya Pradesh was the highest % contributed
state in all India IPC crime. MP has shown highest incidence (218431) and 13% contribution
in total IPC. The second highest contributed state was Uttar Pradesh (UP), having 12.4%
contribution with 208561total incidences. The lowest contributed states were Himachal
Pradesh and Punjab. The state which lies in southern part of India also contributed one
fourth of total IPC crime together. On the other hand, the states on the northern part of
India like Haryana, Delhi and Bihar have contributed 1.7%, 2.1% and 7.1%. The total
contribution of Gujarat and Rajasthan which are the western part of India in all IPC crime
was 14.2%.The eastern part of India, state like Orissa and West Bengal contributed 3.1%
and 4.1% respectively. Thus, overall the major contribution of IPC crime in all total India
were came from those states which are the central part of India.
In 2001, some major decline and increase were found in the contribution of IPC crime
of some states. Again, Madhya Pradesh shown highest contribution in all India; Uttar
Pradesh and Maharashtra have also shown declining trend in their contribution. Bihar,
Gujarat, Orissa and West Bengal have also shown a declined contribution in all India. On
the other side some states like Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan, Delhi, Haryana and
Karnataka have shown rising trend in contribution as compared to 1991.
However in 2011, MP, Maharashtra and UP have shown continually decline share of
contribution in total IPC crime in India.MP still has larger contribution in India's total crime
but its declined from last two decadal. Only Bihar and West Bengal have shown upward
trend from 2001 to 2011. The same trend, which was found in 1991 to 2001 of other states,
has shown in 2011.The contribution of Andhra Pradesh, Haryana and Kerala were further
increased in 2011. On the other hand, the contribution of following states has significantly
declined in 2011 named by Gujarat, Karnataka and Orissa. Some states like Delhi, Punjab
and Rajasthan were shown upward trend from 1991 to 2001 and have shown downward
trend of contribution from 2001 to 2011.
State wise contributions (per cent) in different Crime Heads
Table (3.4) represent the state wise contribution (in %) of murder in all India (total murder).
This table gives state wise decadal trend of murder from 1991 to 2011 and has also explained
how the pattern of murder has been changing within states over the decades.
88 Neha Gupta & Lalit

Table: 3.3 State Wise Percentage Contribution in All India Murder Crime

Figure: 3.2 State wise contribution (in per cent) in total Murder Crime
1991
AP Bihar Delhi Gujarat
Haryana HP Karnataka Kerala
MP Maharashtra Orissa Punjab
Rajasthan Tamil Nadu UP WB
others
4% 5% 7%

11% 1%
4%
26%
2%
0% 4%

9% 1%

4% 4% 8% 8%
2%
Crime in India: An Inter-State Analysis 89

2001 2011

7% 8%
15%
17%
10% 9%
2% 2%
6%
4% 3%
3% 2%
3%
0% 0%
4% 14% 5%
21%
1% 1%
7% 7%
5%
8% 8%
5% 4%
3% 4%
2%
2% 3%

Source: crime in India 1991, 2001 and 2011.

In 1991, the total incidence of murder in India was observed 39174. From the sixteen
states, Uttar Pradesh was reported highest incidence of murder (9994) and its contribution
in the total murder was 25.5%. The lowest contributed state was Himachal Pradesh (0.26%)
and reported only (103) incidence of murder. One fourth of all murder in India was accounted
for by the Uttar Pradesh and more than half of all murder in India was accounted for by
the four states UP (25%), Bihar (11%), MP (9%) and Maharashtra (8%). Most of the
murder was accounted by the central and east (Bihar) part of India.
In 2001, the total incidence of murder was 36202 in India which shows a sharp decline
in the murder. Again the highest contributed state in all India murder was UP (21%) and
the lowest share contributed state was Himachal Pradesh (0.33%). Those states whose
shares were declining from 1991 to 2001 are Gujarat, Kerala, MP, Punjab, and Bihar.
Although some states shown larger share in 2001 as compare to 1991 named as Andhra
Pradesh, Delhi, Haryana, HP, Karnataka, Orissa, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal.
In 2011, the number of murder was declined from 36202 in 2001 to 34305 in 2011.
Moreover, there was a sharp decline in murder incidence in India from 1991 to 2011.
Though the dominated state was UP in the share contribution but a major decline in share
was found in the UP on the; other hand, share of Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, Orissa,
Maharashtra and West Bengal were gone up. Surprisingly, different picture has emerged
in 2011 as compared to 1991 and 2001. The new states have emerged with larger share in
the all India murder as before mention as their name by Delhi, Karnataka, Rajasthan, West
90 Neha Gupta & Lalit

Bengal and Tamil Nadu. These states were shown continuously upward trend of their
share in total murder.
Table: 3.4 State Wise Percentage Contribution in All India Rape Crime

Table (3.4) shows us the state wise incidence of rape and the % share of the states in total
rape incidence in India. In 1991, the total incidence of rape was (10410) reported in India.
The highest rape incidences were observed in Madhya Pradesh (2596) i.e. 25% in all
India total rape incidence. The state which follows MP was Uttar Pradesh. The lowest
contribution in total rape cases in India done by Punjab (0.61%) and followed by Himachal
Pradesh (0.87%).
In 2001, there was major rise in total incidences of rape in India (16075). Again MP
has contributed (18%) in total India but there was decline in the share % in total. The state
which was reported lower incidence of rape in India was Himachal Pradesh (124) followed
by Gujarat (286). There was major decline in the per cent share in total India of some
states namely were Gujarat, Bihar, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, UP and West
Bengal. But from the above state, only in Gujarat the incidence of rape has declined (not
major fall) from (304 to 286) otherwise rest of the states were shown upward trend in this
decade (1991-2001). Again, most of the incidences of rape were observed in the central
and western part of India.
Crime in India: An Inter-State Analysis 91

Figure: 3.3 State wise contribution (in per cent) in Rape Crime

1991
Andhra Pradesh Bihar Delhi
Gujarat Haryana Himachal Pradesh
Karnataka Kerala MP
Maharashtra Orissa Punjab
5%
8% 6% 2% 3%
8% 1%
14% 1% 2%
2%

8%
3% 25%
9%
1%
3%

2001 2011

2% 4% 2%
5% 2% 6% 2%
4% 18% 6% 19%
2% 1% 3%
1%
2% 3%
10% 5%
4%
12%
18% 8% 14%
7% 7% 7%
5% 8% 5%

3% 3%
2% 2%

Source: crime in India 1991, 2001 and 2011.

However, in 2011 the total incidences of rapes were reported in India was 24602 which
was higher than from 2001. The lowest contributed state in total was Himachal Pradesh
(0.69%). The major increase was observed in West Bengal where the total incidence was
2363 recorded in 2011. On the other hand, contribution of UP and MP in total has declined
but it shows upward trend of rape incidence from l991 to 2011. Overall the data of all three
years has shown that the crimes against women have increased over the years; where
most of the rape cases accounted in central, eastern and western part of India from last
two decades.
92 Neha Gupta & Lalit

Table: 3.5 State Wise Percentage Contribution in All India Kidnapping & Abduction

Figure: 3.4 State wise contribution (in per cent) in Kidnapping & Abduction

1991
AP Bihar Delhi Gujarat
Haryana HP Karnataka Kerala
MP Maharashtra Orissa Punjab

5%
10% 4% 11% 4%

6% 1%
25% 1%
2%
6%
6%
11%
1%

4%
2% 2%
Crime in India: An Inter-State Analysis 93

2001 2011
6% 4% 2%
2% 2% 2%
18% 5% 19% 6% 3%
4% 2%1% 1%
2% 3%
4% 10% 5%
12%
18% 8% 14%
7% 7% 7%
3% 5% 8% 5%

2% 3%

2%

Source: crime in India 1991, 2001 and 2011.

Table (3.5) represents the state wise incidence of the Kidnapping & Abduction of decadal
years (1991, 2001 and 2011). The total incidence of K & A were reported in 1991 was
20079 in India. From among the sixteen states, UP has the largest contribution; one fourth
% share of K &A in total India were accounted by UP. The lowest contributed state was
Kerala. The most of the incidence of K & A were reported in the central, western and
eastern regions of India. The southern region has shown smallest share in all India total.
In 2001, the incidence of K & A has increased from 20079 in 1991 to 22487 in 2001.
Himachal Pradesh has contributed smallest with some states namely Bihar, Gujarat, HP,
MP, Maharashtra, UP and West Bengal have shown declining trend of K & A (incidence)
in this decade. UP has shown largest contribution in all India in 2001 which is quite low as
compare to 1991. A sharp increase in the incidence of K & A in the following states mainly
in Andhra Pradesh, Delhi, Haryana, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu. The majority
of this crime came from the central, eastern and north-west part of India.
In 2011, the total incidence of K & A observed in India was 44664. These incidences
were twice from the year of 1991. The most important state for observing was Delhi, the
incidence of K & A risen very fast during the decades. In West Bengal and Bihar, there
was huge jump in the reported cases of K & A in the year of 2011 as compare to other.
These two states contributed almost 21% share together in total all India. Again UP was
the top and HP was bottom in the share list. The states whose share has been increased
from last two decades were Delhi, Haryana, Karnataka, Orissa and Tamil Nadu.
94 Neha Gupta & Lalit

Table: 3.6 State Wise Percentage Contributions in All India Property Crime

Table (3.6) represents the property crime of the India states and their contribution in the all
India property crime of three years i.e. 1991, 2001 and 2011. In 1991, total crimes against
property observed in India were 533667. Out of this total incidence, UP has contributed
largest 80573 incidences and its share in percentage was 15.1% in 1991. Altogether
Maharashtra, MP and Uttar Pradesh were contributed more than two third share of India's
total. Thus, majority of the property crimes in India came from the central region in 1991.
In 2001, there was decline in total incidence of crimes against property from 533667 in
1991 to 381654 in 2001. There was sharp fall in the incidence of property crime in UP and
Bihar. On the other hand, states like Kerala, Delhi, Haryana and Punjab where the incidence
of property crime have gone up. The contribution share of Delhi was raised in this year; on
the other hand % share of Bihar, Gujarat, MP, Orissa, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal have
gone down. UP and Maharashtra together contributed one fourth share of total all India.
Crime in India: An Inter-State Analysis 95

Figure: 3.5 State wise contribution (in per cent) in Total Property crimes

1991
AP Bihar Delhi Gujarat
Haryana HP Karnataka Kerala
MP Maharashtra Orissa Punjab

6% 5% 6% 7% 3%
15% 6% 1%
6% 0%
7%
2%
13%
15%
5%
1% 3%

2001 2011

4% 5% 5%
4% 6% 10% 8% 5%
10% 7%
6% 5%
11% 3% 10%
5%
6% 0% 6%
5% 6%
7%
9% 3% 5% 7% 0%
15% 16%
2%
2% 3%
1%
3%

Source: crime in India 1991, 2 001 and 2011.

In 2011, the incidences of property crime in India were 465184 which were more than
from 2001. Again Maharashtra has shown largest incidence of this crime and HP has
lowest. But in this year newly emerged state in this crime was Haryana whose contribution
has increased sharply from 1991 and 2001. The incidences of property crime have jumped
from 9841 in 2001 to 23417 in 2011. Andhra Pradesh has also shown a rising trend of its
contribution in total all India. Haryana was the only state where property crime has gone
up very fast over the last ten years.
Relationship of Crime and Social indicators
It is important to find out how much socio economic variables impacts the crime in the
96 Neha Gupta & Lalit

economy. Are these socio economic variables determining the crime in the society? Do
these variables contribute any role in the determination of crime rate in the economy or is
there any relationship between these variables and the different crime heads in India? The
answer of these questions is very important.
Table: 3.7 Relation of crime rate with socio-economic variables

Table 3.7 represents the overall picture about the relation of selected crime heads with
selected socioeconomic variables like literacy, sex ratio, unemployment rate, urbanization
rate and poverty (percentage of poor in total population). This table mention the index
value of the entire socioeconomic variables because it will help us to known about the
degree of impact of all socioeconomic variables together on crime rate in India and also
provide a better picture about the relationship between socioeconomic variables and the
crime in India. The highest value of index found in Delhi (i.e. 2.32) and crime rate (number
of crimes committed per 1, 00,000 population) of this state was 318.5 which were second
highest among the sixteen states. The rate of Kidnapping & Abduction and Property
crimes were highest in the state of Delhi. This is shows us that socioeconomic variable has
a strong effect on the crime. Among the states, Delhi has most urbanization state but the
property crime in Delhi was also highest. Does this shows that more urbanization lead to
more crime? Over the last decade, the rate of Kidnapping & Abduction has raised in
Delhi. On the other hand, the highest crime rate was observed in Kerala and the index
value of this state is (1.58) which is second highest. In this state Literacy played an
important role due to more awareness among people, the number of reporting are higher in
Crime in India: An Inter-State Analysis 97

Kerala (Even little crimes are reported in Kerala because of growing citizen rights
awareness).
A study done by (Kumari, 2001), states that Kerala has a high rate of charge sheets;
it lags behind India in convicting the crimes against women. When the strength of police
was analyzed it was found that in Kerala policemen have to deal with more number of
cases than overall in India. The high work load of the police could be one of the reasons
for Kerala's lower conviction rate and better women's status with educational background,
may be the reason for the high number of reported cases of crime in Kerala. The female
literacy are also higher in this state which represent that awareness of female population
is also higher as compared to other states where female population generally not known
about their rights. That is number of reporting rape cases also higher as compared to
others states. A research study conducted by Chandrika, C.S. 1998., on sexual harassment
at the workplace as a part of the study for SAKSHI, an NGO in New Delhi found that 95
percent of the women felt that there was prevalence of sexual harassment at the work
place in Kerala. The state like Uttar Pradesh where crime rate was observed only 97.8
per one lakh person in 2011 shows that the lowest crime state in India. This doesn't mean
that crime in UP were very less but numbers of reporting were very less due to less
awareness of the people. The literacy rate in UP only was 69.72 due to which people
doesn't report the crime specially crime against women. The poverty and unemployment
were responsible in the increasing crimes incidence in UP. Earlier tables of states contribution
of different crime heads in total IPC crime in India also shown that the contribution of UP
in murder and kidnapping & abduction was the highest and in other crimes not too much
behind in 2011. It shows that people are more involved in illegal activities rather than legal
because of lack of opportunities and also because of less awareness. Similarly in Bihar
where the literacy rate was only (63 per cent) and the poor percentage was (24 per cent)
in 2011 which was the lowest as compared to other states. The index has also shown that
socio economic variable affects overall crimes in Bihar. The crime rate was observed 131
per lakh population in Bihar which is again least reported number of cases but again socio
economic variable are responsible in determination of different crimes rate. The low level
of urbanization found as per the data in Bihar and crime rate is also lower in Bihar (as
compared to Delhi). Bihar contributed second highest in all India murder which shown a
major part of India from where murder incidence were reported but in other crime the
reporting were very less that is why crime rate were lower in Bihar. On the other hand,
unemployment rate played crucial role in the determination of crime in Bihar the
unemployment rate was 2.1 in 2001 and the crime rate was 106 per lakh persons but in
2011 there was major increase in the crime rate and unemployment rate (3.2) which
98 Neha Gupta & Lalit

shows there is positive relationship between crime rate and unemployment. The lacking of
opportunities pushes people into the illegal work such as kidnapping and abduction and the
Property crimes like theft etc. The rate of kidnapping & abduction and theft were
considerably increases over the last decade in Bihar. In Madhya Pradesh , crime rate was
299 per lakh population in 2011 and 301 in 2001 there was minor decline in rate in last
decade but there was major decline found in the burglary and theft. On the other hand
literacy rate has gone up from 63 per cent (2001) to 70 per cent in 2011 but there is
increase in the unemployment rate from 0.9 to 1.5. The highest rape rate found in this state
(4.7) which clearly shown the awareness doesn't reduce the rape incidence even in Kerala
where the literacy was highest, also reported larger numbers of rape cases. It means
awareness doesn't reduce the amount of rape cases. But urbanization level raises the
opportunities of the illegal work; the urbanization rate in MP was 28 per cent in 2011.
Theories suggest that urbanization is good for promoting growth of industries and
development in the economy. The other face of this urbanization may be the encouragement
of crimes as well, since, crimes normally occur in large cities and in urbanized areas
(Krivo & Peterson, 1996). In rural areas, due to lower population density, criminal persons
have less chance of hiding themselves because people know each other. The opposite is
true for urban areas. The main facts of crimes in urban areas are the fewer chances of
arrest and recognition (Glaeser & Sacerdote, 1996). So it is argued that as urbanization
increases so does crime (Galvin & Gaviria, 2002). The pattern in our study has also similar
to other study where in the state like Delhi has shown higher crime rate in comparisons to
UP and MP (lower urban areas).
In Gujarat, the states who have shown highest employment rate found lower crime
rate as compared to other states. The literacy rate was 80 per cent in 2011 and poverty
ratio was 16 per cent. The crime rate was not influenced in last decade and also shown a
declining trend of different crime heads with improvement of the socio economic conditions.
But state like Haryana where the murder rate was found highest (4.2) in comparison of
other states, awareness doesn't too much influence the crime rate specially crime against
property. The crime rate in Haryana was considerably raising even rate of selected different
crime heads like murder, rape, K & A, burglary and theft also shown upward trends during
last decades. But on the other hand, literacy level has gone up over the period of time. The
percent contribution of property crime in total India property crimes in the last decade in
Haryana was continually gone up.
In a nutshell, socio economic factors play key contributory role in explaining crime
trends in India in general and across states in particular. However, it cannot be ignored that
the crime figures provided by NCRB may not as close to the reality as it should be given
Crime in India: An Inter-State Analysis 99

the nature of reporting in India. It cannot be debunked that the crimes that are most
frequently occurring in our society like rape, sexual harassment etc are often seen as
social stigma and hence are under reported by the victims.
Conclusion
We can conclude that the annual crime rates are not following any specific trend line. Line
graph shows there have been high irregularity and thus, a smooth curve line is not formed.
What factors have given shape to such trends necessarily arouse curiosity. As far as
patterns of crime rates are concerned it is difficult to present a general picture because
every specific crime has its own patterns and such a condition does not allow to construct
generalization, which, if drawn could give distorted imagery. Yet, specific crime wise
watersheds may be identified. It is important to bear in mind that patterns show major shift
during 1991 -2011. Patterns of murder suggest that the central and north central region is
prone to higher rates of murder than the rest of the country. In case of rape the same
pattern stands true. But, the patterns of rape rates in 1991 are totally different from 2011
patterns. Except states like Bihar, UP and Gujarat, all remaining states have shown rising
trend which is important to note that what factors are responsible for upward trend of rape
in Indian states. Does social factor are for this or other? K & A and property crime pattern
are, on the other hand, very interesting. Why states like Delhi is showing highest rate of K
& A as compare to all other states? One of the factors responsible for this rising trend may
be the increasing growth of this state which led to inequalities among other state. People
want to live in a state where the standard of living is high but due to less opportunities of
legal work, their involvement in such kind of crime are increasing with the time period. Not
even in Delhi but other states also have shown upward trend of K & A and their contribution
in total India have also raised in last few years. Crimes against property patterns suggest
the central and northern region have the highest rate among the all regions. Specially,
northern regions are showing highest crime against property, Delhi has shown highest rate
of these crimes and Haryana have shown upward trend of property crime rate from last
few years. Even the murder rate has shown highest in Haryana in 2011. The study has
also shown that the contribution of states in different crime heads is also raised in last few
years. Among the crime heads, the number of rape cases have increased significantly
because of large reporting, due to increasing awareness among women for their rights as
citizen and also because of the criminal justice in India.
Moreover, it has also been observed that socio-economic variables play a crucial role
in the determination of crime in India and across the states. In fact, in few states due to
some social factor the variation in crime heads have been found. These descriptions and
conclusions are attempted at broader level as the objective was to outline the general
100 Neha Gupta & Lalit

image of crime in India. But certain questions are relevant to be mentioned. First, is it that
all given state has similar rates? If not, why do certain states is prone to higher rates of
crimes? Second, why the patterns of crime in some states have not changed even in a
decade time? Does it mean that patterns of crime manifest their deep roots in social
sanctions and socio-economic structure of these states? And, many more such questions
need to be looked into.
The composition of crime and changes, therein support the preponderance of crimes
against property in the total crime, at all points of time and gradual decline in their percentage
over the years. Murder rate have also declined significantly. Rape rate and kidnapping &
abduction s of women and girls has shown rising trend. Trends show great fluctuation in
the patter of crime over the period of time.
The patterns at the state level show that there has been major shift in some of the
crime heads from 1991 to 2011. The overall crime rate has been fluctuating during the
periods but different picture come up when crime rate was taken at state level. The
decadal trend of total crime in some states have shown upward trend like Andhra Pradesh,
Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Haryana. The murder rate has significantly risen in Haryana and
Orissa but declined in many states during the decadal period. The central region and
northern region of India have found higher murder rate. At aggregate level, rape rate has
shown upward trend which means crime against women has raised over the time. At state
level, except UP, Bihar and Gujarat, other states have shown upward trend of rape rate.
On the other hand kidnapping and abduction rate have also increased in many states but
major and noticeable rise has been found in Delhi. The crime against property or total
property crime has significantly declined at aggregate level and at state level but again
Haryana has shown major rise in that rate.
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