Chemical basis of life

Part 01

Yashoda Priyangani
BSc Hons in Medical Laboratory Science
MSc in Medical Microbiology
 Introduction
• An organism is any living system that
functions as an individual entity.
• All organisms are made up of cells.
• The cells in the body of all organisms
are composed of various chemical
compounds.
• These chemical compounds are
formed by bonding naturally existing
elements in different ways.
• In the living organism, only around
25 of the 92 naturally occurring
elements can be found.
• These elements are distributed in
various forms throughout the body.
• The four most abundant elements
in living organisms are Carbon,
Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen.
• In addition to these, elements such
as Sulfur, Phosphorus, Sodium,
Potassium, Calcium, Magnesium,
Iron, and Chlorine play crucial roles
in the sustenance of life.
• The chemical substances found in living matter can be
classified into two distinct groups.
• Organic compounds
• Inorganic compounds
• Organic compounds are characterized by the presence
of Carbon, while inorganic compounds typically do not
contain Carbon.
• However, there are a few
exceptions, such as Carbon
dioxide, Carbon monoxide,
Carbonates, and
Bicarbonates, which are
considered inorganic
compounds despite containing
Carbon.
• Biomolecules are a specific category of organic compounds
that contribute to the formation and maintenance of living
organisms. Those are
• Carbohydrates
• Proteins
• Lipids
• Nucleic acids

• Instead of these Vitamins

are also one of the
organic compounds found
in living matter.

• Water, minerals and gases are some of the inorganic

molecules that are essential for the maintenance of life.
 Study questions
1. What is the simplest structural and functional unit of
the human body?
2. How many elements can be found in the human
body?
3. What are the most abundant elements in the human
body?
4. Give 4 examples of elements in the human body
except for the main elements.
5. What is the difference between organic compounds
and inorganic compounds?
6. What are biomolecules? Give 4 examples.
 Carbohydrates
• Carbohydrates represent the most abundant
organic compound on our planet.
• They are generated through the photosynthesis
process in green plants.
• Examples of carbohydrate-rich foods include
potatoes, sweet potatoes, grains, sugar, and flour.
• The primary elements found in carbohydrates are
Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), and Oxygen (O).
• The 'carbo' part of the name refers to carbon, and
the 'hydrate' part refers to the fact that the
hydrogen and oxygen atoms are in the ratio 2:1, as
in water (H20).

General formula Cx(H2O)y

•
• Makeup is about 1 % of the mass of the human
body, but they have a very important role.
• They are the body's main 'fuel' for supplying cells
with energy.
• Carbohydrates can be classified into three groups
according to how they are formed.

C6H12O6 C12H22O11 (C6H10O5)n

 Study questions
1. What are the 3 main types of carbohydrates?
2. Give an example for each type.
3. How carbohydrates are generated in nature?
4. What are the primary elements found in
carbohydrates?
5. Give 3 examples of carbohydrate-rich foods
6. What is the general formula of carbohydrates?
7. What is the importance of carbohydrates to the
human body?
8. What is the percentage of the mass of
carbohydrates stored in the human body.
 Monosaccharides
• Monosaccharides serve as the fundamental building
blocks of carbohydrates.
• Often referred to as simple sugars
• They are crystal-shaped and are typically sweet-
tasting and water-soluble.
• Some well-known examples of monosaccharides
include glucose, fructose, and galactose.
Monosac Location it’s
Other facts
charide present
Glucose • Ripen • The end product during hydrolysis of all
fruits starchy food is glucose. Glucose is finally
• Bee honey absorbed into the blood.
• Dried • Plants produce glucose during
fruits photosynthesis
e.g. Dates • Energy is released during the breakdown
Raisin of glucose in cellular respiration

Fructose • Ripen • Known as “fruit sugar”

fruits • Fructose is formed during the ripening
• Bee honey of fruits
• Pumpkin • This is the sweetest sugar
• Carrots
Galactose • Dairy • The end product of hydrolysis of Lactose
products • No sweet taste
 Disaccharides
• A disaccharide is formed when two monosaccharides
combine, releasing a water molecule in this process.
• Similarly, hydrolysis can break down disaccharides into
constituent monosaccharides.
• Disaccharides exhibit a sweet taste and are water-
soluble crystals

Maltose,
Sucrose and
Lactose are
examples of
disaccharides.
Disacch Location it’s
Other facts
aride present

Maltose • Germinating • Union of two glucose molecules

seeds forms a Maltose molecule
• An intermediate product of starch
hydrolysis

Glucose + Glucose Maltose +Water

Sucrose • Sugar • Union of a Glucose molecule with a

• Sugar cane Fructose molecule forms a Sucrose
Beet molecule
• Fruits
• Phloem sap in Glucose + fructose Sucrose +Water
tree
Disacch Location it’s
Other facts
aride present
Lactose • Dairy • Union of a Glucose molecule with a
products Galactose molecule forms a Lactose
molecule
• The only sugar that is absent in plants
• Not sweet as Sucrose
• The percentage of Lactose in cows’ milk
according to the composition is 4% - 6%
• The percentage of Lactose in human milk
according to the composition is 6% - 7%

Glucose + Galactose Lactose +Water

 Polysaccharides
• Polysaccharide molecules are created through the
polymerization of numerous monosaccharides.
• When hydrolyzed, polysaccharides break down into
their respective monosaccharides.
• Not like monosaccharides and disaccharides, they are
insoluble in water and do not have a crystalline
structure.
• Cellulose, starch, and glycogen are some examples of
polysaccharides
• Although glucose is the fundamental building block for
cellulose, starch, and glycogen, their properties vary
based on the number of glucose units and the manner
in which they are connected.
 Characters of different types of polysaccharides

Type of
Location it's
polysacchari Other Facts
Present
de
Cellulose The cell wall of It is not digested in the human
plant cells digestive system, but it helps to
In fibres avoid constipation

Starch Grains, Yams, Jak, The type of carbohydrate that

Bread Fruit stores in plants is starch.

Glycogen Animal liver and The type of carbohydrate that

muscles stores in animal body is
Glycogen
Significance of Carbohydrates
• Act as an energy source
• The main source to obtain energy for the activities of
organisms is carbohydrates.
• The Monosaccharides (Glucose) produced due to hydrolysis of
those compounds release energy.
• As a storage compound
• Glycogen, starch
• As a structural component in plant cell wall
• Cellulose
• As a constituent of Nucleic acid
• Deoxy ribose, ribose
 Study questions
1. Write a short note of monosaccharides
2. Write a short note of disaccharides
3. Write a short note of polysaccharides
4. List 04 importance of carbohydrates to the
human body.
Test to identify carbohydrates
• Carbohydrates in the food can be tested using simple
laboratory tests. Those are
• Starch – Iodine test
• Glucose and reducing sugars – Benedict test
• Sucrose – Benedict test (modified)

*** Reducing sugars (all monosaccharides and

disaccharides except sucrose) can react with benedict
solution. Reducing sugars are sugars that can act as
reducing substances. This can reduce copper (II) sulfate to
copper (I) oxide. Hence ordinary table sugar (sucrose) is
not give the reaction.
 Iodine test – Starch
• Small amount of food is obtained
and grind well with water.
• A drop of Iodine solution is added
to the above solution.
• The iodine reacts with the starch,
forming a very dark blue. or 'blue-
black' colour
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SgDeHXWm8Hk
 Test for glucose
• A solution of Glucose is obtained in a test tube.
• A few drops of Benedict solution to the above solution is
added.
• The above solution is immersed in a water bath and
heated.
• Can observe colour changes as below.

Blue Green Green – yellow Orange Brick red

precipitate
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SYgsxZg1330
 Test for sucrose
• A sucrose solution is obtained in a test tube.
• A few drops of Benedict solution are added to it.
• The test tube is immersed in a water bath and heated.
• No colour change.
• A few drops of diluted Sulphuric acid (H2SO4 ) are added to
a freshly prepared sugar solution and heated.
• Next few drops of Benedict solution are added to it.
• Can observe colour changes as below.
Blue Green Green – yellow Orange Brick red
precipitate
***Why is hydrochloric acid used to test for
non-reducing sugars?

• The acidic conditions and heat break the glycosidic

bond in sucrose through the hydrolysis process.
• The products of the hydrolysis process are reducing
sugars (glucose and fructose) which can be
detected by Benedict's reagent.
 Study questions
1. What is the name of the test to detect starch in a food
2. Briefly describe the steps in the above test (Use the
format: Materials, method, observation conclusion)
3. What is the name of the test to detect glucose in a food
4. Briefly describe the steps in the above test (Use the
format: Materials, method, observation conclusion)
5. What is the importance of adding sulfuric acid to the
sucrose solution before adding benedict reagent?