Syllabus

• Stress concentration - causes & remedies,

• fluctuating stresses,
• fatigue failures,
• S-N curve,
• endurance limit,
• notch sensitivity,
• endurance strength modifying factors, design for finite and infinite
life, cumulative damage in fatigue failure, Soderberg, Gerber,
Goodman, Modified Goodman diagrams
What are fluctuating Loads and why we need to design against
It?
 Stress Concentration
Stress concentration:
• Stress concentration is defined as the
localization of high stresses due to the
irregularities present in the component
and abrupt changes of the cross section.

Highest value of actual stress near discontinuity

K 
t Nominal stress obtained by elementaryequations for minimum croos - section

where σ0 and τ0 are stresses determined by elementary

equations and σmax and τmax are localized stresses at the
discontinuities. The subscript t denotes the ‘theoretical’ stress
concentration factor. The magnitude of stress concentration
factor depends upon the geometry of the component.
 The causes of stress concentration are as follows:
(i) Variation in Properties of (ii) Load Application: Forces act
Materials: either at a point or over a small area.
This is due to non homogeneity of Examples:
material. (a) Contact between the meshing teeth
(a) internal cracks and flaws like blow of the driving and the driven gear
holes; (b) Contact between the cam and the
(b) cavities in welds; follower
(c) air holes in steel components; and (c) Contact between the balls and the
(d) nonmetallic or foreign inclusions. races of ball bearing
(d) Contact between the rail and the
wheel
(e) Contact between the crane hook
and the chain
(iii) Abrupt Changes in Section:
• Steps are cut on the shaft to mount
different mountings and shoulders (iv) Discontinuities in the
are provided from assembly Component
considerations
machine components such as oil
holes or oil grooves, keyways and
splines, and screw threads result in
discontinuities
(v) Machining Scratches
Machining scratches, stamp marks
or inspection marks are surface
irregularities
 STRESS CONCENTRATION FACTORS
• The stress concentration factors are
determined by
1.the mathematical method
2.experimental methods like photo-
elasticity
3.FEA packages
• The charts for stress concentration
factors for different geometric shapes
and conditions of loading were
originally developed by RE Peterson
• At present, FEA packages are used to
find out the stress concentration
factor for any geometric shape.
REDUCTION OF STRESS CONCENTRATION

(i) Additional Notches and Holes in

Tension Member
• The method of removing undesired
material is called the principle of
minimization of the material.
(a) use of multiple notches
(b) drilling additional holes
(c) removal of undesired material
 (ii) Fillet Radius, Undercutting and Notch for Member in Bending

By providing undercut, fillet radius and additional notch that provides gradual increase in stress at additional features
instead of stress concentration in bending
(iii) Drilling Additional Holes for Shaft
Figure a) shows high stress concentration at
corner of key way in shaft.At point n1,n2
theorotically small value of torque can easily
damage shaft permanently but when fillet is
provided at n1 and n2,that reduces the stress
substantially(fig c))
Additional drilled holes are also effective in
stress reduction at corners
(iv) Reduction of Stress Concentration in Threaded Members
 FLUCTUATING STRESSES
• The components are subjected to forces, which are not static, but vary in
magnitude with respect to time. The stresses induced due to such forces are
called fluctuating stresses. It is observed that about 80% of failures of
mechanical components are due to ‘fatigue failure’ resulting from
fluctuating stresses.
• There are three types of mathematical models for cyclic stresses fluctuating
or alternating stresses, repeated stresses and reversed stresses.
 mean stress σm =(σmax +σmin )/2
stress amplitude σa=(σmax -σmin )/2
 FATIGUE FAILURE

• It has been observed that materials fail under

fluctuating stresses at
1.Stress magnitude < ultimate tensile strength
OR
2. Stress magnitude < the yield strength
Even
3.As no of cycles increases magnitude of the stress causing fatigue
failure decreases
 Why fatigue failure takes place?
The crack is more likely to occur in the following regions:
(i) Regions of discontinuity, such as oil holes,
keyways, screw threads, etc.
(ii) Regions of irregularities in machining
operations, such as scratches on the surface,
stamp mark, inspection marks, etc.
(iii) Internal cracks due to defects in materials
like blow holes
 Fatigue or Endurance limit & fatigue life

• The fatigue or endurance limit of a material is

defined as the maximum amplitude of completely reversed stress that
the standard specimen can sustain for an unlimited (practically 10^6)
number of cycles without fatigue failure.
• The fatigue life is defined as the number of stress cycles that the
standard specimen can complete during the test before the appearance
of the first fatigue crack.
Fatigue/Endurance Test
• Rotating beam machine developed by R R Moore
 Results of Endurance test
• The results of these tests are plotted by means of an S–N curve. The S–N curve(Wöhler diagram,
after August Wöhler, a German engineer who published his fatigue research in 1870) is the
graphical representation of stress amplitude (Sf ) versus the number of stress cycles (N) before the
fatigue failure on a log-log graph paper. The S–N curve for steels is illustrated in Fig.
*
Failure
Log10 Sf *
Stress Sut
*
* time
*
Log10 Se * * * *
Stress
*
Failure

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 *
Log10 N Failure
S-N Curve for steels
• The S–N diagram is also called Wöhler diagram.
• For ferrous materials like steels, the S–N curve becomes asymptotic at 10^6 cycles, which indicates the
stress amplitude corresponding to infinite number of stress cycles.
• The magnitude of this stress amplitude at 10^6 cycles represents the endurance limit of the material.
SN curve for non ferrous Material
• For nonferrous metals like aluminum alloys, the S–N curve slopes gradually
even after 10^6 cycles.
• They do not exhibit a distinct value of the endurance limit. So, Se =f(no. of
cycles(N))
• Facts about Endurance limit
• The endurance limit, in a true sense, is not exactly a property of material like
ultimate tensile strength.
• It is affected by
i)the size of the component ii)shape of component
iii) the surface finish iv) temperature
v) notch sensitivity of the material.
 NOTCH SENSITIVITY
Endurance limit of the notch free specimen
Kf 
Endurance limit of the notched specimen
Kf  fatigue stress concentration factor

Notch sensitivity is defined as the susceptibility(weakness) of a material to succumb(surrender) to the

damaging effects of stress raising notches in fatigue loading.
• The notch sensitivity factor q is defined as
Increase of actual stress over nominal stress
q
Increase of theoretical stress over nominal stress
σ0 = nominal stress as obtained by elementary Equations
actual stress = Kf σ0
theoretical stress = Ktσ0
increase of actual stress over nominal stress = (Kf σ0– σ0)
increase of theoretical stress over nominal stress = (Ktσ0– σ0 )
Kf = 1 + q(Kt – 1)
(i) When the material has no sensitivity to notches, q = 0 and Kf = 1
(ii) When the material is fully sensitive to notches, q = 1 and Kf = Kt
 ENDURANCE LIMIT APPROXIMATE ESTIMATION

• A number of tests are required to prepare one S–N curve and each test takes considerable time.
• S’e = endurance limit stress of a rotating beam specimen subjected to reversed bending stress
(N/mm2)
• Se = (corrected )endurance limit stress of a particular mechanical component subjected to
reversed bending stress (N/mm2)
• For steels S’e = 0.5 Sut
• For cast iron, cast steels, wrought aluminum alloys, S’e = 0.4 Sut
• For cast aluminum alloys, S’e = 0.3 Sut
• These relationships are based on 50% reliability.
Se = Ka Kb Kc Kd S’e
Ka = surface finish factor, Kb = size factor, Kc = reliability factor,
Kd = modifying factor to account for stress concentration.
1. Surface finish Factor (Ka) 3.Reliability Factor(Kc )
• The greater the likelihood that a part will survive, the more
is the reliability and lower is the reliability factor. The
reliability factor is one for 50% reliability.

Reliability R (%) Kc
50 1.000
95 0.868
99 0.814
99.999 0.659

4.Modifying Factor to Account for Stress Concentration Kd

=1/Kf
2.Size Factor (Kb ) Kf =fatigue stress concentration factor
According to the maximum shear stress theory, Sse = 0.5 Se
The rotating beam specimen is small with 7.5 mm diameter.
According to distortion energy theory,
The larger the machine part, the greater the probability that a fl
aw exists somewhere in the component. Sse = 0.577 Se
Sse =endurance limit in fluctuating torsion shear stresses
For axial loading,
(Se)a = 0.8 Se
Se= endurance limit in reversed bending
REVERSED STRESSES—DESIGN FOR
FINITE AND INFINITE LIFE

Problems on fluctuating Load

components subjected to completely components subjected to fluctuating

reversed stresses stresses

Modified Goodman’s
design for infinite life
Diagram

design for finite life

 Infinite-life Problems (Reversed Load)

A plate made of steel 20C8 (Sut = 440 N/mm2) in hot rolled and normalized
condition is shown in Fig. It is subjected to a completely reversed axial load of 30
kN. The notch sensitivity factor q can be taken as 0.8 and the expected reliability is
90%. The size factor is 0.85. The factor of safety is 2. Determine the plate thickness
for infinite life.
• Given P = ± 30 kN , Sut = 440 N/mm2 Ka = 0.67
fs= 2,R = 90% ,q = 0.8, Kb = 0.85 Kb = 0.85
For 90% reliability ,Kc = 0.897
• Step I Endurance limit stress for plate
• d/w= 10/50 =0.2 then Kt = 2.51
S’e = 0.5 Sut = 0.5(440) = 220 N/mm2 • Kf = 1 + q (Kt – 1)
From following Fig. (hot rolled steel and = 1 + 0.8 (2.51 – 1)
Sut = 440 N/mm2) = 2.208
• Kd=1/k f=1/2.208=0.4529
• Se = Ka.Kb.Kc.Kd .S’e
=0.67x 0.85x0.897 0.4529 x220=50.9N/mm2
• For axial load,
• (Se)a = 0.8 Se = 0.8(50.9) = 40.72N/mm2
Step II Permissible stress amplitude

Step III Plate thickness

t = 36.84 mm
 Infinite-life Problems (Reversed Load)

• A rod of a linkage mechanism,made of steel 40Crl(Sut=550N/mm2),is

subjected to completely reversed axial load of 1000KN.The rod is
machined on lathe and reliability is 90%.There is no stress
concentration. Determine diameter of rod using a factor of safety 2 for
an infinite number of cycles.
• Take Ka=0.78,Kb=0.85,Kc=0.868,kd=1
 A rotating bar, made of steel 0.9Sut = 0.9 (630) = 567 N/mm2
45C8(Sut=630MPa),is subjected log10 (0.9Sut) = log10(567) = 2.7536
to completely reverse bending log10 (Se) = log10(315) = 2.4983
stress. The corrected endurance log10 (90000) = 4.9542
limit is 315MPa.If Expected life log10 (103) = 3 and log10 (106) = 6
of bar is 90000 cycles, calculate
its fatigue strength. Draw
necessary SN curve and indicate Log10(0.9Sut)

all parameters.
?
• Solution Log10(Se)

Given Sut = 630 N/mm2 Se = 315

N/mm2,N = 90000 cycles
Step I Construction of S–N
diagram Log10(N)
• Step II Fatigue strength for
90000 cycles
x 2  x1 x  x1 ?

y 2  y1 y  y1
x1  log10 ( N1)  3
x2  log10 ( N 2)  6
y1  log10 (Sf 1)  2.7536 x 2  x1 x  x1

y 2  y1 y  y1
y 2  log10 (Sf 2)  2.4983 63 4.9542  3

2.4983  2.7536 log 10 ( sf )  2.7536
x  log10 ( Nf )  4.9542 log 10 ( sf )  2.7536  ((2.4983  2.7536) / 3) x(4.9542  3)
y  log10 (Sf )  ? log 10 ( sf )  2.7536  0.1663
log 10 ( sf )  2.5873
sf  386.63MPa
A forged steel bar, 50 mm in diameter, is
subjected to a reversed bending stress
of 250 N/mm2. The bar is made of steel
40C8 (Sut= 600 N/mm2). Calculate the
life of the bar for a reliability of 90%.
 CUMULATIVE DAMAGE IN FATIGUE
When the mechanical component is subjected to
different stress levels for different parts of the
work cycle then the life of such a component is
determined by Miner’s equation.

σ1 for n1 σ2 for n2 σ3 for n3

 CUMULATIVE DAMAGE IN FATIGUE(Miners Equation)

• Suppose that a component is subjected to completely reversed stresses

(σ1) for (n1) cycles, (σ 2) for (n2) and (σ3) for (n3) cycles, and so on.
Let,
N1 =Fatigue life when σ1 is acting alone
N2 =Fatigue life when σ2 is acting alone…and so
on……..
1/N1 = fatigue life consumed by one stress cycle
for σ1
1/N2 = fatigue life consumed by one stress cycle
for σ2 ….and so on……
n1(1/N1 ) = fatigue life consumed by n1 stress
cycle
n2(1/N2 ) = fatigue life consumed by n2 stress
cycle…..and so on………
Let N=Total life of component
α1, α2, α3, α4….. αx = proportions of life time
consumed by σ1, σ2, σ3… σx
The work cycle of a mechanical component log10 (σ2) = log10 (400) = 2.6021
subjected to completely reversed bending log10 (σ3) = log10 (500) = 2.6990
stresses consists of the following three
elements: The S–N curve for this problem is shown
(i) ± 350 N/mm2 for 85% of time in fig
(ii) ± 400 N/mm2 for 12% of time
(iii) ± 500 N/mm2 for 3% of time
The material for the component is 50C4
(Sut = 660 N/mm2) and the corrected
endurance limit of the component is 280
N/mm2. Determine the life of the component.
Sol:
Sut = 660 N/mm2,Se = 280 N/mm2
Step I Construction of S–N diagram:
0.9Sut = 0.9(660) = 594 N/mm2
log10 (0.9Sut) = log10 (594) = 2.7738
log10 (Se) = log10 (280) = 2.4472
log10 (σ 1) = log10 (350) = 2.5441
 Design for fluctuating load (Soderberg and Goodman Lines)

For fluctuating Load there is mean stress (σm) as well as stress amplitude (σa).
When stress amplitude (σa) is zero, the load is
purely static and the criterion of failure is Sut or Syt.
When the mean stress (σm) is zero, the stress is
completely reversing and the criterion of failure
is the endurance limit Se
Equation of strainght Line
x /a+ y/b =1
where a and b are the intercepts of the line on
the X and Y axes respectively.
Applying the above formula, the equation of the
Soderberg line is given by,
σm/Syt+ σa /Se =1
the equation of the Goodman line is given by,
σm/Sut+ σa /Se =1
Why Goodman Line for design?
(i) Safe from design considerations because it is
completely inside the failure points
(ii) Straight line is simple compared with the
equation of a parabolic curve.
(iii) Rough sketch is enough to construct fatigue
diagram.
 Modified Goodman Diagram

Modified Goodman Diagram for Axial and X (Sm, Sa) represent the limiting values of
Bending Stresses stresses, which are used to calculate the
dimensions of the component.
Where,Sa=Limiting/Safe Amplitude stress The permissible stresses are as follows:
Sm=Limiting/Safe Mean Stress
Modified Goodman Diagram for Torsional
Shear Stresses

torsional yield strength Ssy

torsional endurance limit Sse
 GERBER EQUATION
• Goodman or Modified Goodman and
Soderberg approches are linear
approches
• But Gerber Equation is nonlinear i.e.
Elliptical Approch

Where,Sa=Limiting/Safe Amplitude stress

Sm=Limiting/Safe Mean Stress
 Reference
• V B Bhandari, Design Against Fluctuating Load ,Design of Machine
Elements, Third edition,pp-141-182