Design of Machine Element

Fatigue strength
Module 2: Stress concentration factor, theoretical stress concentration factor,
causes of stress centration, reduction of stress concentration
Stress concentration factor:
▪ Class Objectice1: Why stress concentration factor?
▪ Class Objective2: How stress concentration factor?
▪ Class Objective3: When stress concentration factor?

Assumptions:
▪ Homogeneous
▪ Uniform stress distribution
▪ Isotropic
Comparison of stress of rectangular plate with hole and
without hole:

(b)

(a)

(c)

Fig.1: Stress distribution of rectangular plate with hole & without Fig. 2: Stress Concentration
hole
Effect of discontinuity geometry:

Fig. 3: The discontinuity geometry has a significant effect on the stress distribution around it.
Theoretical stress concentration factor (𝑘𝑡 ):
▪ Used to determine maximum stress in component with changes in geometry.
▪ Stress concentration is defined as the localization of high stresses due to the
irregularities present in the component and abrupt changes of the cross-
section.

𝜎max
𝑘𝑡 =
𝜎𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙

𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑘𝑡𝑠 =
𝜏𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙
Where to consider stress concentration factor (𝑘𝑡 ):

Machine Design Failure

Static Dynamic

Ductile Brittle Fatigue

𝜺𝒕 ≥ 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 𝜺𝒕 < 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓
No 𝑘𝑡 Yes 𝒌𝒕 Yes 𝒌𝒕
Causes of stress concentration :
▪ Variation in Properties of Materials
▪ Load Application
▪ Abrupt Changes in Section
▪ Discontinuities in the Component
▪ Machining Scratches
Process for reduction of stress concentration :

▪ Additional Notches and Holes in Tension Member

Fig. 4: Reduction of Stress Concentration due to V-notch: (a) Original Notch (b) Multiple Notches
(c) Drilled Holes (d) Removal of Undesirable Material
Process for reduction of stress concentration (contd.) :

▪ Fillet Radius, Undercutting and Notch for Member in Bending

Fig. 5:Reduction of Stress Concentration due to Abrupt Change in Cross-section: (a) Original Component
(b) Fillet Radius (c) Undercutting (d) Addition of Notch
Process for reduction of stress concentration (contd.) :
▪ Drilling Additional Holes for Shaft

Fig. 6: Reduction of Stress Concentration in Shaft with Keyway: (a) Original Shaft (b) Drilled Holes
(c) Fillet Radius
Process for reduction of stress concentration (contd.) :
▪ Reduction of Stress Concentration in Threaded Members

Fig. 7: Reduction of Stress Concentration in Threaded Components: (a) Original Component

(b) Undercutting (c) Reduction in Shank Diameter
Chart for the stress concentration factor :

Fig. 8: Stress Concentration Factor Fig. 9: Stress Concentration Factor Fig. 10: Stress Concentration Factor
(Rectangular Plate with Transverse (Round Shaft with Shoulder Fillet in (Flat Plate with Shoulder Fillet in
Hole in Tension or Compression) Tension) Tension or Compression)
Chart for the stress concentration factor :

Fig. 11: Stress Concentration Factor Fig. 12: Stress Concentration Factor
(Round Shaft with Shoulder Fillet in Bending) (Round Shaft with Shoulder Fillet in Torsion)
Theoretical stress concentration factor of elliptical hole :
▪ Theoretical stress concentration factor
a
𝑘𝑡 = 1 + 2
b
where,
a = half width (or semi-major axis) of the ellipse perpendicular to the direction
of the load
b = half width (or semi-minor axis) of the ellipse in the direction of load

A very sharp crack is indicated and the stress at

b=0, 𝑘𝑡 =∞ the edge of the crack becomes very large

circular hole in a flat plate, which is subjected

a= b, 𝑘𝑡 =3 to tensile force, is 3

Fig. 13: Plate with elliptical hole

Problem1(stress concentration) :
A flat plate subjected to a tensile force of 5 kN is shown in Fig.14. The plate
material is grey cast iron FG 200 and the factor of safety is 2.5. Determine the
thickness of the plate.

Fig. 14: Plate with a hole

Design of Machine Element
Fatigue strength
Module 2: Fatigue strength, S-N curve, Endurance limit estimation (surface, size,
reliability, modifying factors)
Fatigue strength:
▪ Class Objectice1: Difference between fatigue and static failure
▪ Class Objective2: Interpret the strength life (S-N) diagram, Endurance limit
▪ Class Objective3: Difference between finite and Infinite life

Assumptions:
▪ Homogeneous
▪ Uniform stress distribution
▪ Isotropic
Static vs Fatigue failure:

Static Fatigue

▪ Load not varies with time ▪ Load varies with time ( cyclic, alternative,
fluctuation, variable, repeated & dynamic)
▪ Constant load

▪ Static failure occurs because of deformation/ ▪ Fatigue failure happen suddenly & catastrophic
Yield

▪ Failure occurs at Yield strength ▪ Failure occurs below Yield strength

▪ Static failure theory well understood ▪ Complex and high variation

Different type of failure:
Machine Design Failure

Static Fatigue

𝜺𝒕 ≥ 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓 𝜺𝒕 < 𝟎. 𝟎𝟓

Ductile Brittle S-N method

Theory of failure applicable Theory of failure applicable Stress life method applicable
(𝑺𝒚𝒕 = 𝑺𝒚𝒄 ) (𝑺𝒚𝒕 ≠ 𝑺𝒚𝒄 )
Mathematical model of cyclic stress:
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥

+ Repeated stress
+ Fully reversed stress
Stress
Stress

time +
-

𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 =0
𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 time

𝝈𝒎𝒂𝒙 − 𝝈𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝝈𝒂𝒍𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 = 𝝈𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒆 = 𝝈𝒂 =
𝟐
𝝈𝒎𝒂𝒙 + 𝝈𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝝈𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒏 = 𝝈𝒎𝒊𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 = 𝝈𝒎 =
+ 𝟐
Stress
Fluctuating stress

time
-

𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛
Fatigue failure due to crack propagation:
▪ Stage I:Fatigue crack nucleation
▪ Stage II: Fatigue crack propagation
▪ Stage III: Fatigue unstable crack

Fig.1: Fatigue failure of a bolt Fig.2: Fatigue failure initiated at the end of the keyway
Fatigue failure Initiates:
▪ At discontinuities
▪ Changes in cross-sectional area, keys, holes (stress concentration)
▪ Rolling/sliding contact
▪ Scratches, tool marks, assembly/fabrication factor
▪ Material composition and processing : voids & inclusion
▪ Type of mechanical (axial, bending, torsion or combination) and thermo
mechanical fluctuation)
Rotating beam specimen ( 4 point bending test):

F F Fully reversed stress

M 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥

+
Stress

-
F F
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛
Fig.3: Rotating beam specimen

Fig. 4: Shear and Fatigue Failure of Wire: (a) Shearing of Wire (b) Bending of Wire (c) Unbending of Wire
S-N curve:

F F F F

Fig. 4: Specimen for Fatigue Test

Fig.6: S-N diagram

Fig. 5: Rotating beam fatigue experiment set up

Endurance limit and fatigue life:

➢ The fatigue or endurance limit of a material is defined as the maximum

amplitude of completely reversed stress that the standard specimen can
sustain for an unlimited number of cycles without fatigue failure.

➢ The fatigue life is defined as the number of stress cycles that the standard
specimen can complete during the test before the appearance of the first
fatigue crack.
Endurance limit-Approximation method:

𝑆𝑒 = 𝑘𝑎 𝑘𝑏 𝑘𝑐 𝑘𝑑 𝑆𝑒′

Where, 𝑆𝑒′ = endurance limit stress of a rotating beam specimen subjected to

reversed bending stress (𝑁Τ𝑚𝑚2)
𝑠𝑒 = endurance limit stress of a particular mechanical component
subjected to reversed bending stress (𝑁Τ𝑚𝑚2)
𝑘𝑎 = surface finish factor
𝑘𝑏 = size factor
𝑘𝐶 = reliability factor
𝑘𝑑 = modifying factor to account for stress concentration.
Approximation relation between 𝑆𝑒′ 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝑆𝑢𝒕 :

𝑆𝑒′ = 0 ⋅ 5𝑆𝑢𝑡 ( for steel)

𝑆𝑒′ = 0 ⋅ 4𝑆𝑢𝑡 ( for cast iron and cast steel)
𝑆𝑒′ = 0 ⋅ 4𝑆𝑢𝑡 ( for wrought aluminium alloy)
𝑆𝑒′ = 0 ⋅ 3𝑆𝑢𝑡 ( For cast aluminium alloys)
Surface finish factor (𝑘𝑎 ):
Shigley and Mischke have suggested an exponential equation
for the surface finish factor.

𝑏
𝑘𝑎 = 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑡 If 𝑘𝑎 > 1, set 𝑘𝑎 =1

The value of coefficients a and b are given below

Table 1: Values of coefficients a and b

Surface finish 𝒂 𝒃
Ground 1.58 -0.085
Machined or cold drown 4.51 -0.265
Hot-rolled 57.7 -0.718

Fig. 7: Surface Finish Factor Forged 272 -0.995

Size factor (𝑘𝑏 ):

Table 2: Values of size factor

Shigley and Mischke have suggested an exponential equation for
the size factor. For bending and torsion, the equation is in the
Diameter (d) 𝒌𝒃 following form
mm
𝑑 ≤7⋅5 1.0 For 𝟐 ⋅ 𝟕𝟗𝒎𝒎 ≤ 𝒅 < 𝟓𝟏𝒎𝒎
𝑘𝑏 = 1 ⋅ 24𝑑 −0⋅107
7 ⋅ 5 < 𝑑 ≤ 50 0.85
For 𝟓𝟏𝒎𝒎 < 𝒅 ≤ 𝟐𝟓𝟒𝒎𝒎
𝑑 > 50 0.75 𝑘𝑏 = 0 ⋅ 859 − 0.000873𝑑

For axial loading, 𝑘𝑏 = 1

Reliability factor and modifying factor (𝑘𝑐 and 𝑘𝑑 ) :

Modifying Factor to Account for Stress Concentration

Table 3: Reliability factor
1
𝑘𝑑 =
Reliability R(%) 𝒌𝒄 𝑘𝑓
50 1
➢ The endurance limit ( 𝑆𝑠𝑒 ) of a component subjected to
90 0.897
fluctuating torsional shear stresses is obtained from the
95 0.868 endurance limit in reversed bending (𝑆𝑒 )
99 0.814
𝑠𝑠𝑒 = 0.5𝑠𝑒 (torsional shear stress)
99.9 0.753
99.99 0.702 𝑠𝑒 𝑎 = 0.8𝑠𝑒 ( axial stress)
99.999 0.659
Reversed stresses- Design for Infinite life & Finite life:

Infinite life Finite life

➢ Endurance limit become the criterion of failure. ➢ Endurance limit become the criterion of failure.

𝑆 𝑠s𝑒
➢ Factor of safety (n) = 𝜎𝑒 or
a 𝜏a

𝑠𝑒 𝑠𝑠𝑒
𝜎𝑎 = 𝑛
or 𝜏𝑛 = 𝑛

Fig.7: Infinite life region Fig.8: Finite life region

Problem 1:
A forged steel bar, 50mm in diameter, is subjected to reverse bending stress of
250 𝑁Τ𝑚𝑚2 . The bar is made of steel 40C8 ( Sut= 600 𝑁Τ𝑚𝑚2 ). Calculate the
endurance strength of the bar for a reliability of 90%

Surface finish 𝒂 𝒃
Ground 1.58 -0.085
Machined or cold 4.51 -0.265 Reliability 𝒌𝒄
drown R(%)
Hot-rolled 57.7 -0.718 50 1
Forged 272 -0.995 90 0.897
95 0.868
Diameter (d) 𝒌𝒃
99 0.814
mm
99.9 0.753
𝑑 ≤7⋅5 1.0
99.99 0.702
7 ⋅ 5 < 𝑑 ≤ 50 0.85
99.999 0.659
𝑑 > 50 0.75
Problem 2:
A rotating bar made of steel 45C8 (Sut = 630 𝑁Τ𝑚𝑚2 ) is subjected to a
completely reversed bending stress. The corrected endurance limit of the bar is
315 𝑁Τ𝑚𝑚2 . Calculate the fatigue strength of the bar for a life of 90,000 cycles
Problem 3:
A forged steel bar, 50 mm in diameter, is subjected to a reversed bending
stress of 250 𝑁Τ𝑚𝑚2 . The bar is made of steel 40C8 (Sut = 𝑁Τ𝑚𝑚2 ). Calculate
the life of the bar for a reliability of 90%.
Problem 4:
A plate made of steel 20C8 (Sut = 440 N/mm2) in hot rolled and normalised
condition is shown in Fig. 9. It is subjected to a completely reversed axial load
of 30 kN. The notch sensitivity factor q can be taken as 0.8 and the expected
reliability is 90%. The size factor is 0.85. The factor of safety is 2. Determine the
plate thickness for infinite life.

Fig.9: Infinite life plate problem

Problem 5:
A component machined from a plate made of steel 45C8 (Sut = 630 N/mm2) is
shown in Fig. 10. It is subjected to a completely reversed axial force of 50 kN.
The expected reliability is 90% and the factor of safety is 2. The size factor is
0.85. Determine the plate thickness t for infinite life, if the notch sensitivity factor
is 0.8.

Fig.10: Infinite plate problem