MODULE ONE

ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND THE PERIODIC TABLE

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE ATOMIC NATURE OF SUBSTANCES
The existence of atoms has been proposed since the time of early Indian and Greek philosophers
(400 B.C.) who were of the view that atoms are the fundamental building blocks of matter. The
word ‘atom’ has been derived from the Greek word ‘a-tomos’ which means ‘uncutable’ or ‘non-
divisible’. These earlier ideas were mere speculations and there was no way to test them
experimentally. These ideas remained dormant for a very long time and were revived again by John
Dalton in the beginning of nineteenth century in terms of his atomic theory. The atomic theory
of matter was first proposed on a firm scientific basis by John Dalton, a British school teacher in
1808. His theory, called Dalton’s atomic theory, regarded the atom as the ultimate particle of
matter.
DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY AND THE MODERN ATOMIC THEORY
A. Dalton’s Atomic Theory
 The theory was based directly on the ideas of elements and compounds, and
on the three laws of chemical combination
The law of conservation of mass( Antoine Lavoisier’s)
 States that matter is neither created nor destroyed.
 also called the law of indestructibility of matter.
 that the mass of the reactants is exactly equal to the mass of the products
in any chemical reaction
The law of definite proportions(Proust’s Law)
 states that a pure compound is always composed of the same elements combined in
a definite ratio by mass.
Example,
 water (H2O) is composed of hydrogen and oxygen only, with
proportion of 11.19% hydrogen to 88.81% oxygen by mass and in
the proportion 2 : 1 by volume.
The law of multiple proportions( Dalton)
 states that when two different compounds are formed from the same elements,
the masses of one of the elements in the two compounds, compared to a given
mass of the other element, is in a small whole number ratio.
Example,
 Carbon and oxygen form two compounds: CO and CO2
 CO contains 1.3321 g of oxygen for each 1 g of carbon,
 CO2contains 2.6642 g of oxygen for each 1g of carbon.
 CO2contains twice the mass of oxygen as does CO.
Example
A nitrogen-oxygen compound is found to have an oxygen-to-nitrogen mass ratio of
1.142 g oxygen for every
1.0 g of nitrogen. Which of the following oxygen-to-nitrogen mass ratio(s) is/are
possible for different nitrogen-oxygen compound(s)?
a 2.285 c 0.571
b 1.000 d 2.500
Solution
The given compound has 1.142 g of oxygen and 1.000 g of nitrogen.
Response (a) has 2.285 g of oxygen for the same
1.000 g of nitrogen. The ratio of the masses of oxygen,
2.285:1.142, is almost exactly 2:1. Response (a)
seems to be correct possibility, so is response (c).
 Here the ratio is 0.571:1.142 =
0.500 = 1:2. Responses (b) and
(d) are not possibilities.
They yield ratios of 1.000:1.142 = 0.875 and 2.500: 1.142 =
2.189, respectively. Neither of these can be expressed as a
ratio of small whole numbers.

The basic postulates of Dalton’s Atomic Theory are summarized as follows:

1. All elements are made up of small particles called atoms.
2. Atoms are indivisible and indestructible.
3. All atoms of a given element are identical in mass and in all other properties.
4. Atoms are neither created nor destroyed in chemical reactions.
5. Compounds are formed when atoms of more than one element combine.
6. In a given compound, the relative numbers and types of atoms are constant.
Drawbacks of Dalton’s Atomic Theory
🖙 The indivisibility of an atom was proved wrong: an atom can be further
subdivided into protons, neutrons, and electrons. However, an atom is the
smallest particle that takes part in chemical reactions.
🖙 According to Dalton, the atoms of the same element are similar in all
respects. However, atoms of some elements vary in their masses and densities.
These atoms of different masses are called isotopes. For example, chlorine
has two isotopes with mass numbers 35 and 37.
🖙 According to Dalton, atoms of different elements combine in simple whole-
number ratios to form compounds. This is not observed in complex organic
compounds like sugar (C12H22O11) and protein molecules.
B. Modern Atomic Theory
1. Atoms are the smallest particles of all elements that can take part in a chemical
reaction.
2. An atom is divisible. It can be subdivided into electrons, protons, and neutrons.
An atom is also indestructible i.e., atoms can neither be created nor destroyed
during ordinary chemical reactions.
3. Atoms of the same element may not be identical in mass because of the existence of
isotopes.
4. Atoms of the same elements have identical chemical properties.
5. Atoms of different elements have different chemical properties.
6. Atoms of two or more elements combine in simple whole-number ratios to form
compounds

EARLY EXPERIMENTS TO CHARACTERIZE THE ATOM

A. Discovery of the Electron
Cathode Rays
 When a very high electrical potential is applied across a gas taken in a discharge
tube some radiations are emitted from cathode.
 These radiations are called cathode rays.
 Cathode rays normally travel in straight lines, but are deflected when a magnet is
brought nearby
  JJ Thomson studied the behaviour of cathode rays in electric and magnetic fields
 Thomson established clearly that the rays consist of negatively-charged particles.
 the particles were identical, regardless of the materials from which the electrodes
were made or the type of gas in the tube.
 Thomson concluded that these negatively charged particles were constituents of
every kind of atom.
 We now call these particles electrons
 Cathode rays are beams of electrons.
 Thomson also calculate the ratio of the mass of an electron to its charge.
–12 –1
 This ratio has a value of– 5.686 × 10 kg C (kilograms per coulomb)
 Robert A. Millikan, determined the charge on the electron by observing the
behaviour of electrical charged oil drops in an electric field.
–19
 The charge on an electron as e = –1.602 × 10 C.
 From this value and the value for me /e, we can calculate the mass of an electron
–12 –1 –19
 =5.686 × 10 kg C × –1.602 × 10 C
-31
 = 9.109 × 10 kg
Summary of the properties of cathode rays:
 They travel in a straight line from the cathode and cast shadows of metallic
objects placed in their path.
 They cause mechanical motion of small puddle-wheel placed in their path; they possess
kinetic energy and must be material particles.
 Their properties are independent of the electrodes, and the gas present in the
cathode ray tube.
 The charge/mass ratio of the rays is constant.
 Upon passing through electric field, the cathode rays bend towards the positive plate
showing that they are negatively charged.
 Cathode rays have penetrating power. When cathode rays are allowed to pass through
thin metal foils, a glow is seen behind the metal foil indicating that they

B, Discovery of the Proton

 The presence of positively charged particles in an atom has been predicted by
Goldstein (1886) based on the electrical neutrality of an atom.
 The discovery of the proton by Goldstein was done based on the cathode ray experiment
conducted by using a perforated cathode
 In his experiment some rays were found to emanate from an anode and pass through the
perforations in the cathode, without deflection by the cathode.
  These are called anode rays or canal rays.
Properties of anode rays:
i. Anode rays travel in straight lines.
ii. They consisted of material particles.
iii. They are deflected in electric and magnetic field in opposite to that of cathode
rays.
iv. The nature or e/m ratio of anode rays depends upon the nature of gas
present in the cathode ray tube.
v. They are (particles of anode rays) simply positively charged gaseous ions.

C, Radioactivity and Discovery of Nucleus

Radioactivity
 Is the spontaneous emission of radiation from the unstable nuclei of certain
isotopes.
 Isotopes that are radioactive are called radioactive isotopes or radioisotopes.

Radioactive decay is defined 6as a nuclear 7 breakdown in which particles or

(electromagnetic) radiation is emitted.
 There three types of rays emanations from radioactive substances.
1. Alpha  Particles
 that have a mass that is about four times that of a hydrogen atom.
 have a charge twice the magnitude of an electron but positive rather than
negative.
 is now known to be a doubly-ionized helium atom, that is, He 2+.

2. Beta () Particles

 consist of negatively-charged particles, identical to cathode rays.
 which are electrons, coming from inside the nucleus.

3. Gamma ()Rays,
 is a form of electromagnetic radiation much like the X-rays but of even higher
energy.
 unlike alpha and beta particles, gamma rays are a form of energy and not a
form of matter
D, Discovery of Nucleus
Rutherford bombarded a thin gold foil with fast moving alpha particle

Rutherford’s Conclusion
1. Since most of the -particles passed through the gold foil undeflected, most of
the space in an atom is empty.
2. Some of the -particles were deflected by small angles. This indicated the
presence of a heavy positive centre in the atom, which Rutherford named the
nucleus.
3. Only a few particles (1 in about a million) were either deflected by a very large
angle or deflected back.
E, Discovery of Neutrons

 James Chadwick bombarded a thin foil of beryllium with -particles of a

radioactive substance.
 He then observed that highly penetrating rays, consisting of electrically
neutral particles of a mass approximately equal to that of the proton, were
produced.
 These neutral particles are called neutrons.
 A neutron is a subatomic particle carrying no charge and having a mass of 1.675 ×
10–24 g.
 This mass is almost equal to that of a proton or of a hydrogen atom.
Process of Discovery of Neutron
 Chadwick bombarded a thin beryllium sheet foil with alpha particles.
 The beryllium foil released electrically neutral particles with a mass somewhat
larger than that of protons.
 Then, these rays passed through a slab of paraffin wax, and due to collision,
charged species (protons) were ejected.

𝐻𝑒24+𝐵𝑒49→c612+𝑛01
 He named these electrically neutral particles ’neutrons’.

Atomic Mass and Isotopes

 Most elements found in nature are mixtures of isotopes.
 The average mass for the atoms in an element is called the atomic mass of the
element
 can be obtained as averages over the relative masses of the isotopes of each
element, weighted by their observed fractional abundances.
 If an element consists of n isotopes, of relative masses A1, A2…An and
fractional abundances of f1, f2… fn, then the average relative atomic mass (A)
of the element is:
A = A1 f1 + A2 f2 + … + An fn.
Review Exercise
1. Millikan oil drop experiment enabled the determination of;

A. The charge of an electron C. The mass of electron

B. The mass of proton D. The charge to mass ratio of electron.

2. Rutherford’s alpha particles experiment led to the conclusion that each atom in
the gold foil was composed of mostly empty space because most alpha particles

C. Were deflected by the nuclei in gold foil. C. Remained trapped in the foil.

D. Were deflected by the electrons in gold foil. D. Passed through the gold foil
undeflected

3. The nuclear model of the atom was proposed by

A. Thomson B. Bohr C. Rutherford D. Dalton

65 Zn2+ respectively
4. The number of protons, electrons, and neutrons of an ion 30
are;

A. 28 , 30 45 B. 30, 28, 35 C.32, 30, 35 D. 28,30,35.

5. Which postulates of Dalton’s atomic theory was disproved by modern atomic theory?

a. ALL substance is made up indivisible particle called atoms.

b. Atoms of the same element have identical in chemical properties.

c. Compounds are formed when atoms of more than one element combine.

d. Atoms of one element differ from atoms of any other element.

6. An element ‘X’ exists in two isotopic forms 100X and 110X, the average atomic mass
of element ‘X’ is 108.what is the percentage abundance of each isotopes
respectively?

A. 40%&60% B. 30% & 70% C. 20% & 80% D. 50% & 50%
7. What is the relative atomic mass of an element whose isotopic composition is 90% of
20
x and 10% of 22x?

A. 202 C. 21.2
B. 21 D. 20.2
8. The properties of cathode rays do not depend on the nature of the gas in the
discharge tube or on the material of the cathode. This indicates that
A. Cathode rays move in straightline
B. Cathode rays are a particle nature
C. Cathode rays are present in the atom of all elements
D. Cathode rays are negatively charged
9. Which one of the following statements is NOT accepted in modern atomic theory?
A. An atom is divisible into electrons, protons and neutrons
B. Atoms of two or more elements combine in simple whole number ratios to from
compounds
C. Atoms of different elements have different chemical properties
D. All atom of a given element are identical in mass

10. The mass of reactant is exactly equal to the mass of the products. This law is known
as

A. The law of multiple proportion

B. The law of the indestructibility of matter
C. The law of fixed proportion
D. The law of charges

11. Which of the following particles contains more electrons than neutrons?
1 −¿ +¿
I. 1H II. 35
17 Cl ¿ III. 39
19 K ¿

A. I only B. II only C. I and II only D. II and III only

12. What did Rutherford’s particle experiment show?
A. Electrons have a negative charge
B. A proton is a hydrogen atom without electron
C. Electrons circle the nucleus of an atom in orbits
D. Most of the mass and all of the positive charge of an atom is found in a tiny
nucleus.

13. A monoatomic ion that has 20 protons and a +2 charge

A. Has 16 protons. B. Has the symbol Ar2+ C. has 18 neutrons D. is iso
electronic with Ar

14. What is the difference between chlorine- 35 and chlorine -37?

A. Chlorine-37 has two more protons than chlorine-35.
B. Chlorine-37 has two more neutrons than chlorine-35.
C. Chlorine-35 has two more electrons than chlorine-35
D. Chlorine-37 has one more proton and one more neutron than chlorine-35.
15. What important conclusion was reached through the study of cathode rays?
a. Cathode rays were shown to be neutral particles with mass
b. Cathode rays were proven to be light rays indicating that atoms were indeed
indivisible
c. Cathode rays were shown to be positively charged particles indicating that
atoms contained electric charge
d. The ratio of the charge to mass of particles making up cathode rays was
constant, indicating they were

16. Who used the cathode Ray Tube to discover the electron and determine its charge
to mass ratio?
A. Robert. A. Millikan B. Ernest Rutherford
C. James Chdwick D. J.J Thomson
17. What aspects of the modern view of atomic structure was proved by Rutherford’s
gold foil experiment?
A. The charge on an electron C. The charge on an alpha particle
B. The existence of the nucleus D. The existence of the electron
18. In a chemical reaction, mass is conserved. This means that
a. The mass of the reactants stays the same during a chemical reaction
b. The mass of the products stays the same during a chemical reaction
c. The type and number of atoms in the reactants equals the type and number of
atoms in the products
d. The mass of the products is always twice the mass of the reactants.
19. An unbalanced chemical reaction represents a violation of which law?
a. The law of conservation of mass C. The law of multiple proportions
b. The law of constant proportions D. The law of reciprocal proportions
20. Which is an example of the law of multiple proportions?
A. CO and CO2 C. CO and CH4
B. CO and H2O D. CO and C2H4
21. Consider the following data?

Particle proton neutron electrons

I X X X+2
II Y Y+1 Y
III Z Z+1 Z
IV Z Z Z
V W W+4 W-1
Which of the following statement is more unlikely to be true, based on the above
data?
A. Particle V is radioactive
B. Particle III and IV may represent hydrogen isotopes
C. Particle I is an anion.
D. Particle II and III must be inert gases.

22. Which of the following pair illustrate the law of multiple proportion ?
a. Na2CO3 and CaCO3 C. O3 and O2
b. H2O and H2O2 D. C2H6 and C6H18
224
23. 88 Ra is radioactive isotope of Randium, when this isotope emits 4 alpha particles
followed by 3 beta particles ,the daughter atomic number will be
A , 84 B. 83 C. 85 D. 82
24. The number of neutrons in an atom of 226 88Ra is:
a. 88 b. 82 c. 138 d. 314
25. Which of the following are usually found in the nucleus of an atom?
a. Protons and neutrons only b. Protons, neutrons and electrons
c. Neutrons only d. Electrons and neutrons only an atom has an
25. Which of the following is NOT a postulate of Dalton's Atomic Theory?
a) All matter is composed of extremely small particles called atoms.
b) Atoms of the same element are identical in size, mass, and other properties.
c) Atoms cannot be created, destroyed, or subdivided in chemical processes.
d) Atoms are made up of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
26 According to Dalton's Atomic Theory, atoms of different elements combine in simple
whole-number ratios to form:
a) Electrons b) Isotopes
c) Compounds d) Mixtures

27 Which of the following statements was later disproven by the discovery of subatomic
particles?
a) Atoms are indivisible and indestructible.
b) Atoms of a given element are identical in mass and properties.
c) Compounds are formed by a combination of two or more different kinds of atoms.
d) A chemical reaction is a rearrangement of atoms.

28. According to Dalton, what determines the chemical properties of an element?

a) The number of electrons
b) The arrangement of atoms
c) The number and kinds of atoms in a molecule
d) The mass of the atom

29. Which of the following correctly describes Dalton's model of the atom?
a) Solid and indivisible
b) Positively charged nucleus surrounded by electrons
c) Mostly empty space with a small, dense nucleus
d) Electrons embedded in a positively charged 'soup'

30 Who is credited with the discovery of the electron?

a) Ernest Rutherford b) Niels Bohr
c) J.J. Thomson d) James Chadwick
31. What experimental apparatus did J.J. Thomson use to discover the electron?
a) Gold foil apparatus c) Oil drop apparatus
b) Cathode ray tube d) Cloud chamber
32. J.J. Thomson's experiments demonstrated that cathode rays are composed of:
a) Neutrons b) Protons c) Electrons d) Photons
33. What property of the electron was determined by J.J. Thomson's experiments?
a) Mass of the electron c) Charge-to-mass ratio of the electron
b) Charge of the electron d) Spin of the electron
34. J.J. Thomson's model of the atom is often referred to as the:
a) Planetary model c) Nuclear model
b) Plum pudding model d) Quantum mechanical model
35. Which of the following was NOT a conclusion drawn by J.J. Thomson from his
experiments?
a) Electrons are negatively charged particles.
b) Electrons are much smaller than atoms.
c) Electrons are found in the nucleus of an atom.
d) Atoms are divisible into smaller particles.
36.In a chemical reaction, the total mass of reactants is always equal to the total mass
of products. This statement describes the:
a) Law of Definite Proportions
b) Law of Multiple Proportions
c) Law of Conservation of Mass
d) Law of Reciprocal Proportions

37. Which of the following illustrates the Law of Definite Proportions?

a) Water (H₂O) always consists of 2 parts hydrogen and 1 part oxygen by mass.
b) Hydrogen and oxygen can form water and hydrogen peroxide.
c) The mass of the products is equal to the mass of the reactants.
d) Elements combine in different ratios to form different compounds.
38. The Law of Multiple Proportions states that:
a) Elements combine in a fixed ratio to form compounds.
b) When two elements form more than one compound, the ratios of the masses of the
second element that combine with a fixed mass of the first element are ratios of small
whole numbers.
c) The total mass of reactants is equal to the total mass of products.
d) A chemical compound always contains the same proportion of elements by mass.