Adama Science and Technology

University

General Chemistry (Chem1101)

Introduction to the study of modern chemistry

Instructor: Eneyew Tilahun(M.Sc.)

Gmail: Eneyew.tilahun@astu.edu.et
How and why has the atomic theory changed over time?

How engineers use their knowledge of atoms to create new

technologies?
 Modern Atomic Theory
Dalton’s Atomic Theory (1808)
1. Elements are composed of extremely small particles called
atoms.
2. All atoms of a given element are identical, having the same
size, mass and chemical properties. The atoms of one
element are different from the atoms of all other elements.
3. Compounds are composed of atoms of more than one
element. In any compound, the ratio of the numbers of atoms
of any two of the elements present is either an integer or a
simple fraction.
4. A chemical reaction involves only the separation,
combination, or rearrangement of atoms; it does not result in
their creation or destruction.
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 Dalton’s atomic theory hypothesis supports (is in agreement
with) the following laws:

The Law of Definite Proportion: States that different samples

of the same compound always contain its constituent elements in
the same proportion by mass.

Irrespective of sources of the compound!

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The Law of Multiple Proportions: States that if two elements
can combine to form more than one compound, the masses of
one element that combine with a fixed mass of the other element
are in ratios of small whole numbers.

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Law of Conservation of Mass: States that matter can be
neither created nor destroyed.

16 X + 8Y 8 X2Y

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 The Structure of the Atom
On the basis of Dalton’s atomic theory:

an atom is the basic unit of an element that can enter into chemical
combination

an atom is both extremely small and indivisible

However, a series of investigations that began in the 1850s and extended

into the twentieth century clearly demonstrated that atoms actually possess

internal structure; that is, they are made up of even smaller particles, which

are called subatomic particles. This research led to the discovery of three

such particles-electrons, protons, and neutrons.

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 The Discovery of Electron

M.F

E.F

Because the cathode ray is attracted by the plate bearing positive charges
and repelled by the plate bearing negative charges, it must consist of
negatively charged particles
These negatively charged particles are electrons!
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 Effect of a bar magnet on the cathode ray

(a) (b) (c)

(a) A cathode ray produced in a discharge tube traveling from the cathode
(left) to the anode (right). The ray itself is invisible, but the fluorescence of a
zinc sulfide coating on the glass causes it to appear green. (b) The cathode
ray is bent downward when the north pole of the bar magnet is brought
toward it. (c) When the polarity of the magnet is reversed, the ray bends in
the opposite direction
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 Cathode rays: properties

 Cathode rays originate from cathode

 Cathode rays travel in straight line

 Cathode rays are deflected by electric field

 Cathode rays are deflected by magnetic field

 These rays consist of material particles

 Cathode rays consist negatively charged particles called

"electron"
J. J. Thomson, used a cathode ray tube and his knowledge of
electromagnetic theory to determine the ratio of electric charge to
the mass of an individual electron. The number he came up with
is -1.76 x 108 C/g, where C stands for coulomb, which is the unit
of electric charge.

In a series of experiments carried out between 1908 and 1917,

R. A. Millikan, an American physicist, found the charge of an
electron to be -1.6022 X 10-19 C. From these data he calculated the
mass of an electron

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 Radioactivity
In 1895, the German physicist Wilhelm Röntgen noticed that

cathode rays caused glass and metals to emit very unusual rays. This

highly energetic radiation penetrated matter, darkened covered

photographic plates, and caused a variety of substances to fluoresce.

Because these rays could not be deflected by a magnet, they could

not contain charged particles as cathode rays do. Röntgen called

them X rays.

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Not long after Röntgen’s discovery, Purely by accident, Antoine
Becquerel, found that exposing thickly wrapped photographic
plates to a certain uranium compound caused them to darken,
even without the stimulation of cathode rays.

One of Becquerel’s students, Marie Curie, suggested the name

radioactivity to describe this spontaneous emission of particles

and/or radiation. Consequently, any element that spontaneously

emits radiation is said to be radioactive.

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 Thomson’s Atomic Model
By the early 1900s, two features of atoms had become clear:

they contain electrons,

they are electrically neutral

On the basis of this information,

Thomson proposed that an atom
could be thought of as a uniform,
positive sphere of matter in which
electrons are embedded

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Rutherford’s Experiment, Discovery of Proton
(1908 Nobel Prize in Chemistry)

 particle velocity ~ 1.4 x 107 m/s

(~5% speed of light)

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 Observations of Alpha Rays Scattering Experiment
1. Most of the -particles passed through the metal foil with out any
change in their path.

2. A few of the -particles were deflected through small angles.

3. A very small number of the -particles were deflected through such

large angles that they almost retraced their original path. So,
 Positive charge is concentrated in the nucleus of an atom
 Proton is positively charged particle of an atom
 Most mass of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus
 Nucleus is a dense central core within the atom
 nucleus occupies only about 1/1013 of the volume of the atom
 Rutherford's Model of Atom

• Total number of positive charges on the

nucleus is equal to the number of electrons.

• Almost the entire mass of the atom is

concentrated in the nucleus.

• The volume of the nucleus is very small

compared to the volume of the atom.

• Electrons are not stationary. They revolve

round the nucleus at extremely high speed.

“If the atom is the Adama stadium, then

the nucleus is a coin on the middle of
the stadium.”
Chadwick’s Experiment, Discovery of neutrons

The ratio of the mass of a helium atom to that of a hydrogen

atom should be 2:1 in reality, however, the ratio is 4:1

Rutherford and others postulated that there must be another

type of subatomic particle in the atomic nucleus

 + 9Be 1n + 12C + energy (-ray)

The  -rays actually consisted of electrically neutral particles

having a mass slightly greater than that of protons

Chadwick named these particles neutrons (mass 1.67 x 10-

24 g) 19
 atomic radius ~ 100 pm = 1 x 10-10 m
nuclear radius ~ 5 x 10-3 pm = 5 x 10-15 m

Electron, proton, and the neutron are the three fundamental

components of the atom that are important in chemistry
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 mass p ≈ mass n ≈ 1840 x mass e-
Subatomic Particle Charge Location

Proton Positive (+) Nucleus or “Core”

Neutron No Charge (0) Nucleus or “Core”

Electron Negative (-) Electron Cloud

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 Rutherford-Bohr Model of Atom
• Electrons revolve around the nucleus in definite orbits. These are called
Stationary states.

• Each stationary state is associated with a definite quantity of energy. Hence

these stationary states are also called Energy levels.

• As long as electrons are moving in these stationary states , they do not lose or
gain energy.

• Energy is lost or gained by an electron whenever it jumps from one energy level
to another .
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 Indivisible Electron Nucleus Orbit Electron
Cloud

Greek X

Dalton X

Thomson X

Rutherford X X

Bohr X X X

Wave X X X
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 Atomic number, Mass number and Isotopes

Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus

Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons
= atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons
Isotopes are atoms of the same element (X) with different
numbers of neutrons (mass number) in their nuclei

Mass Number A
ZX
Element Symbol
Atomic Number
(Short hand representation of
an element)
1 2 3
1H 1H (D) 1H (T)
235 238
92 U 92 U 25
 The Isotopes of Hydrogen

protium (A = 1) deuterium (A = 2) tritium (A = 3)

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 14
How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in 6 C ?
6 protons, 8 (14 - 6) neutrons, 6 electrons
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How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are in 6 C ?
6 protons, 6 (12 - 6) neutrons, 6 electrons
How many protons and electrons are in 27 3+ ?
13 Al
13 protons, 10 (13 – 3) electrons
78 2-
How many protons and electrons are in 34 Se ?
34 protons, 36 (34 + 2) electrons

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 Noble Gas
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Halogen
The Modern Periodic Table

Group
Period
Alkali Earth Metal
Alkali Metal
 Molecules and Ions
Of all the elements, only the six noble gases in Group 8A of the
periodic table (He,Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, and Rn) exist in nature as single
atoms. For this reason, they are called monatomic (meaning a single
atom) gases. Most matter is composed of molecules or ions formed
by atoms.

Natural abundance of elements in Earth’s crust

Natural abundance of elements in human 29body

A molecule is an aggregate of two or more atoms in a definite
arrangement held together by chemical forces

H2 H2O NH3 CH4

A diatomic molecule contains only two atoms

H2, N2, O2, Br2, HCl, CO, NO

diatomic elements

A polyatomic molecule contains more than two atoms

O3, H2O, NH3, CH4
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An ion is an atom, or group of atoms, that has a net
positive or negative charge.
cation – ion with a positive charge
If a neutral atom loses one or more electrons
it becomes a cation.

11 protons 11 protons
Na 11 electrons Na+ 10 electrons

anion – ion with a negative charge

If a neutral atom gains one or more electrons
it becomes an anion.
17 protons 17 protons
Cl 17 electrons Cl- 18 electrons
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A monatomic ion contains only one atom
Na+, Cl-, Ca2+, O2-, Al3+, N3-
A polyatomic ion contains more than one atom
OH-, CN-, NH4+, NO3-
Common Ions Shown on the Periodic Table

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 Chemical Formulas
 Chemical formula: short hand representation of molecules/
chemical compounds.
 Used to express the composition of molecules and ionic
compounds in terms of chemical symbols.
Composition we mean not only the elements present but also the
ratios in which the atoms are combined.
 A chemical equation is the symbolic representation of a chemical
reaction in the form of symbols and formula.
Formulas and Models

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Molecular formula shows the exact number of atoms of
each element in the smallest unit of a substance
Empirical formula shows the simplest whole-number
ratio of the atoms in a substance

molecular empirical
H2O H2O
C6H12O6 CH2O
O3 O
N2H4 NH2
A structural formula uses lines to represent covalent bonds, and
shows how the atoms in a molecule are joined together: H—O—
O—H H—O—H O=C=O. 35
 Calculating Empirical Formula
An oxide of aluminum is formed by the reaction of 4.151 g of
aluminum with 3.692 g of oxygen. Calculate the empirical
formula.
1. Determine the number of grams of each element in the compound.

4.151 g Al and 3.692 g O

2. Convert masses to moles.

4.151 g Al 1 mol Al
= 0.1539 mol Al
26.98 g Al

3.692 g O 1 mol O
= 0.2308 mol O
16.00 g O
3.Find ratio by dividing each element by smallest amount of moles.

0.1539 moles Al = 1.000 mol Al

0.1539

0.2308 moles O = 1.500 mol O

0.1539

4. Multiply by common factor to get whole number. (cannot have

fractions of atoms in compounds)

O = 1.500 x 2 = 3
Al = 1.000 x 2 = 2

4.Use the whole numbers obtained as subscript for the

corresponding element in simplest whole number therefore, Al2O3
When a 2.00 g sample of iron metal is heated in air, it reacts with
oxygen to achieve a final mass of 2.573 g. Determine the empirical
formula.
Fe = 2.000 g O = 2.573 g – 2.000 g = 0.5730 g

2.000 g Fe 1 mol Fe = 0.03581 mol Fe

55.85 g Fe

0.573 g O 1 mol O
= 0.03581 mol Fe ,1:1 FeO
16.00 g

Q. Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) contains 40.92% C, 4.58% H, and

54.50% O by mass. What is the empirical formula of ascorbic acid?
A sample of lead arsenate, an insecticide used against the potato
beetle, contains 1.3813 g lead, 0.00672g of hydrogen, 0.4995 g of
arsenic, and 0.4267 g of oxygen. Calculate the empirical formula for
lead arsenate.

1.3813 g Pb 1 mol Pb
= 0.006667 mol Pb;
207.2 g Pb
0.00672 gH 1 mol H
= 0.00667 mol H
1.008 g H
0.4995 g As 1 mol As
= 0.006667 mol As
74.92 g As
0.4267g O 1 mol O
= 0.02667 mol O
16.00 g O

PbHAsO4
A white powder is analyzed and found to have an empirical formula
of P2O5. The compound has a molar mass of 283.88g. What is the
compound’s molecular formula?

Step 1: Molar Mass Step 3: Multiply

P = 2 x 30.97 g = 61.94g MF = (EF)n

O = 5 x 16.00g = 80.00 g
141.94 g
MF = (P2O5)2
Step 2: Divide MM by
Empirical Formula Mass
MF = P4O10
238.88 g
=2
141.94g
Suppose that in one experiment the combustion of 11.5 g of ethanol produced
22.0 g of CO2 and 13.5 g of H2O. We can calculate the mass of carbon and
hydrogen in the original 11.5 g sample of ethanol as follows:

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 Q1. A compound with an empirical formula of C2OH4 and a molar mass of 88
grams per mole. What is the molecular formula of this compound?
Q2. Nitrogen and oxygen form an extensive series of oxides with the general
formula NxOy. One of them is a blue solid that comes apart, reversibly, in the gas
phase. It contains 36.84% N. What is the empirical formula of this oxide?
Q3. An unknown compound was found to have a percent composition as follows:
47.0 % potassium, 14.5 % carbon, and 38.5 % oxygen. What is its empirical
formula? If the true molar mass of the compound is 166.22 g/mol, what is its
molecular formula?
Q4. What are the empirical and molecular formulas of caffeine that contains by
mass composition of 49.5% C, 5.15% H, 28.9% N and 16.5 % O and the
molecular mass is about 195 g/mol? 45
Ionic compounds consist of a combination of cations
and anions
• The formula is usually the same as the empirical formula
because ionic compounds do not consist of discrete molecular
units
• The sum of the charges on the cation(s) and anion(s) in
each formula unit must equal zero

The ionic compound NaCl 46

Formula of Ionic Compounds

2 x +3 = +6 3 x -2 = -6

Al2O3
Al3+ O2-

1 x +2 = +2 2 x -1 = -2

CaBr2
Ca2+ Br-

1 x +2 = +2 1 x -2 = -2

Na2CO3
Na+ CO32-
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The most reactive metals (green) and the most reactive
nonmetals (blue) combine to form ionic compounds.

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 Percent Composition
• Percent Composition –percentage by mass of each element in a
compound.
_______
Part x 100%
Percent = Whole

% composition of= Mass of element in1mol x 100%

____________________
a cpd Mass of 1 mol

Example: What is the percent composition of Potassium KMnO4?

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Step1: We use the observed mass of CO2, 0.4931 grams, to determine
the mass of carbon in the original sample. There is one mole of
carbon atoms, 12.01 grams, in each mole of CO2, 44.01 grams; we use
this information to construct the unit factor.

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 Chemical Reactions and Chemical Equations
Chemical reaction-a process in which a substance (or substances)
is changed into one or more new substances.
A chemical equation- uses chemical symbols to show what
happens during a chemical reaction.
substance formed as a result of
starting materials in a
a chemical reaction
chemical reaction

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 Reaction Yield

 Yield, also referred to as reaction yield, is the amount of product

obtained in a chemical reaction.
 The absolute yield can be given as the weight in grams or in
moles
 Limiting Reactant-The reactant used up first in a reaction
Determines maximum amount of product to be formed.
 Excess reactants- are the reactants present in quantities greater
than necessary to react with the quantity of the limiting reagent

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Theoretical yield- the amount of product that would result if all
the limiting reactant reacted (obtained from balanced chemical
reaction)
Actual yield- the amount of product actually obtained from a
reaction (experimentally obtained yield!)
almost always less than the theoretical yield
Percent yield- describes the proportion of the actual yield to the
theoretical yield,

Why actually yield is less than theoretical yield?

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Q1 - What is the % yield of H2O if 138 g H2O is produced from 16 g
H2 and excess O2?
Step 1: write the balanced chemical equation
2H2 + O2  2H2O
Step 2: determine actual and theoretical yield. Actual is given,
theoretical is calculated:

# g H2O= 16 g H2 x1 mol H2 x2 mol H2Ox 18.02 g H2O=143 g

2.02 g H2 2 mol H2 1 mol H2O
Step 2: Calculate % yield
% yield = actual x 100% = 138 g H2Ox 100% = 96.7%
theoretical 143 g H2O
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2.

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Q1

Q2. Assume the reaction given below:

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