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Chapter 3.2 - Basic Logical Concepts

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39 views39 pages

Chapter 3.2 - Basic Logical Concepts

Uploaded by

trang12032005
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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CHAPTER 3.

BASIC LOGICAL
CONCEPTS
DR. PHAM THANH TUNG
PTTUNG@HCMIU.EDU.VN
2

CONTENT

1. Deductive validity
2. Inductive Strength
DEDUCTIVE VALIDITY
4

DEDUCTIVE VALIDITY

Valid deductive argument:


• The argument is well reasoned
• Logically reliable pattern of reasoning
• Conclusion follows necessarily from premises

Note: Valid does not mean true.


5

DEDUCTIVE VALIDITY

Deductive validity test:


• Step 1 - True/false combination:
• Valid arguments: Cannot have all true premises
and a false conclusion
• Invalid arguments: Can have any combination
of truth or falsity in premises and conclusion.
6

DEDUCTIVE VALIDITY

Deductive validity test:


• Step 2 – Question: If the deductive argument’s
premises were true, would the conclusion also
HAVE TO be true?
• The answer is YES: Valid argument
• The answer is NO: Invalid argument
7

DEDUCTIVE VALIDITY
Example:
• If you’re reading this, you are live. • Premise 1: True
• You are reading this. • Premise 2: True
• Therefore, you are alive. • Conclusion: True

→ True premises, true conclusion


→ If premises are true, will conclusion must be true?
→ Valid deductive argument
8

DEDUCTIVE VALIDITY
Example:
• All fruits are vegetables. • Premise 1: False
• Spinach is a fruit. • Premise 2: False
• Therefore, spinach is a vegetable. • Conclusion: True

→ False premises, true conclusion


→ If premises are true, will conclusion must be true?
→ Valid deductive argument
9

DEDUCTIVE VALIDITY
Example:
• All squares are circles. • Premise 1: False
• All circles are triangles. • Premise 2: False
• Therefore, all squares are triangles. • Conclusion: False

→ False premises, false conclusion


→ If premises are true, will conclusion must be true?
→ Valid deductive argument
10

DEDUCTIVE VALIDITY

Invalid deductive argument:


• The conclusion does not follow necessarily
from the premises.
• True/false combination: Invalid deductive
argument can have any combination of truth
or falsity in premises and conclusion.
11

DEDUCTIVE VALIDITY
Example:
• All dogs are mammals. • Premise 1: True
• All cats are mammals. • Premise 2: True
• So, all cats are dogs. • Conclusion: False

→ True premises, false conclusion


→ Cannot be valid (based on true/false combination)
→ Invalid deductive argument.
12

DEDUCTIVE VALIDITY
Example:
• All dogs are animals. • Premise 1: True
• Lassie is an animal. • Premise 2: True
• Therefore, Lassie is a dog. • Conclusion: True

→ True premises, true conclusion


→ If premises are true, will conclusion must be true?
→ Invalid deductive argument.
13

DEDUCTIVE VALIDITY
Example:
• All pears are vegetables. • Premise 1: False
• All fruits are vegetables. • Premise 2: False
• So, all pears are fruits. • Conclusion: True

→ False premises, true conclusion


→ If premises are true, will conclusion must be true?
→ Invalid deductive argument.
14

DEDUCTIVE VALIDITY
Example:
• All dogs are cats. • Premise 1: False
• All cats are whales. • Premise 2: False
• So, all whales are dogs. • Conclusion: False

→ False premises, true conclusion


→ If premises are true, will conclusion must be true?
→ Invalid deductive argument.
15

DEDUCTIVE VALIDITY

How good is a deductive argument?


• Sound deductive arguments: valid deductive
argument that have all true premises.
• Unsound deductive arguments:
• Invalid deductive arguments.
• Valid deductive arguments that have least
one false premise.
16

DEDUCTIVE VALIDITY
Deductive
argument

Valid Invalid
argument argument

Sound True Ps, True C Unsound


argument argument
Unsound False Ps, True C
argument False Ps, False C
17

DEDUCTIVE VALIDITY

Exercise 1: The following arguments are deductive.


Determine whether the arguments are valid or invalid.

Argument 1:
• If Flipper is a dolphin, then Flipper is a mammal.
• Flipper is a dolphin.
• So, Flipper is a mammal.
18

DEDUCTIVE VALIDITY
Argument 2:
• If anything is a trout, then it’s a fish.
• A dolphin is not a fish.
• Therefore, a dolphin is not a trout.

Argument 3:
• If we’re at the North Pole, then we’re on Earth.
• We are on Earth.
• Therefore, we’re at the North Pole.
19

DEDUCTIVE VALIDITY
Argument 4:
• If Alex the Dog is human, then Alex has a heart.
• Alex is not human.
• So, Alex doesn’t have a heart.

Argument 5:
• Some people like ice cream.
• Some people like cake.
• So, some people who like ice cream must also like cake.
20

DEDUCTIVE VALIDITY
Argument 6:
• Your mother can’t be a professional race car driver.
• Only men are professional race car drivers.
• And your mother, obviously, is not a man.

Argument 7:
• Some people like ice cream.
• Some people like cake.
• So, some people who like ice cream must also like cake.
21

DEDUCTIVE VALIDITY

Exercise 2: The following arguments are deductive.


The following arguments are deductive. Determine
whether the arguments are sound or unsound.

Argument 1:
• All mosquitoes are insects.
• All insects are animals.
• So, all mosquitoes are animals.
22

DEDUCTIVE VALIDITY
Argument 2:
• Either dogs are cats, or dogs are fish.
• Dogs are not fish.
• So, dogs are cats.

Argument 3:
• If Rome is in Italy, then Rome is in Europe.
• Rome is in Italy.
• So, Rome is in Europe
23

DEDUCTIVE VALIDITY
Argument 4:
• If Bill Gates is a billionaire, then he’s rich.
• Bill Gates is rich.
• So, he’s a billionaire

Argument 5:
• No cats are dogs.
• Tom is a cat.
• So, Tom is not a dog.
24

DEDUCTIVE VALIDITY
Argument 6:
• If John plays for the New York Yankees, then he is a
professional baseball player.
• John does not play for the New York Yankees.
• So, John is not a professional baseball player.

Argument 7:
• California has a larger population than Ohio.
• Ohio has a larger population than Vermont.
• So, California has a larger population than Vermont.
INDUCTIVE STRENGTH
26

INDUCTIVE STRENGTH

• Inductive arguments can be well reasoned


(STRONG) or poorly reason (WEAK) at a
certain degree.
• Strong inductive argument: Conclusion
follows probably from premises
• If premises are true, conclusion is probably true
• Premises provide probable (but not conclusively)
grounds for the truth of conclusion.
27

INDUCTIVE STRENGTH

Inductive strength test:


• Step 1 - True/false combination:
• Strength arguments: Cannot have all true
premises and a probably false conclusion
• Weak arguments: Can have any combination of
truth or falsity in premises and conclusion.
28

INDUCTIVE STRENGTH

Inductive strength test:


• Step 2 – Question: If the inductive argument’s
premises were true, would the conclusion
PROBABLY be true?
• The answer is YES: Strong inductive argument
• The answer is NO: Weak inductive argument
29

INDUCTIVE STRENGTH
Example:
• Most college students own laptops • Premise 1: True
• Andy is a college student. • Premise 2: True
• So, Andy probably owns a laptop • Conclusion: Probably true

→ True premises, true conclusion


→ If premises are true, will conclusion probably be true?
→ Strong inductive argument
30

INDUCTIVE STRENGTH
Example:
• Every previous U.S. president has • Premise 1: False
been white.
• So, the next U.S. president probably • Conclusion: Probably true
will be white.

→ False premise, true conclusion


→ If premises are true, will conclusion probably be true?
→ Strong inductive argument
31

INDUCTIVE STRENGTH
Example:
• All previous U.S. presidents have • Premise 1: False
been women.
• Therefore, it is likely that the next • Conclusion: Probably false
U.S. president will be a woman.

→ False premise, false conclusion


→ If premises are true, will conclusion probably be true?
→ Strong inductive argument
32

INDUCTIVE STRENGTH

Weak inductive argument:


• The conclusion does not follow PROBABLY
from the premises.
• True/false combination: Weak inductive
argument can have any combination of truth
or falsity in premises and conclusion.
33

INDUCTIVE STRENGTH
Example:
• Most U.S. presidents have been • Premise 1: True
married.
• Therefore, probably the next U.S. • Conclusion: Probably true
president will be a man.

→ True premises, true conclusion


→ If premises are true, will conclusion probably be true?
→ Weak inductive argument
34

INDUCTIVE STRENGTH
Example:
• Most U.S. presidents have been • Premise 1: True
over fifty years old.
• Therefore, probably the next U.S. • Conclusion: Probably false
president will be single.

→ True premises, false conclusion


→ If premises are true, will conclusion probably be true?
→ Weak inductive argument
35

INDUCTIVE STRENGTH

How good is an inductive argument?


• Cogent inductive arguments: Strong inductive
argument that have all true premises.
• Uncogent inductive arguments:
• Weak inductive arguments.
• Strong inductive arguments that have least one
false premise.
36

INDUCTIVE STRENGTH
Inductive
argument

Strong Weak
argument argument

Cogent True Ps, True C Uncogent


argument argument
Uncogent False Ps, True C
argument False Ps, False C
37

INDUCTIVE STRENGTH

Exercise 3: The following arguments are inductive.


Determine whether the arguments are cogent or uncogent.

Argument 1:
• It tends to be cold in Alaska in January.
• So, probably it will be cold in Alaska next January.
38

INDUCTIVE STRENGTH

Argument 2:
• The vast majority of Nobel laureates have been Vietnamese.
• Therefore, the next Nobel laureates will probably be a
Vietnamese.

Argument 3:
• In poker it’s OK to lie and deceive.
• Business is like poker.
• Therefore, in business it’s OK to lie and deceive.
39

INDUCTIVE STRENGTH
Argument 4:
• Harvard University has been a leading American university for many
years.
• Therefore, probably Harvard University will be a leading American
university ten years from now

Argument 5:
• John F. Kennedy was a Democratic president, and he cheated on his
wife.
• Bill Clinton was a Democratic president, and he cheated on his wife.
• I suppose all Democratic presidents have cheated on their wives.

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