SENSORS AND

ACTUATORS LABORATORY

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 INDEX
Ex.No. Date Name of Experiment Marks Staff Sign.
1(A). TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT USING
THERMISTOR

1(B). TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT USING

THERMOCOUPLE

1(C). TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT USING

RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTOR (RTD)

2. BEHAVIOUR OF PROXIMITY SENSORS

3. LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER

4(A). PERFORMANCE OF LIGHT SENSOR

4(B). SPEED MEASUREMENT USING OPTICAL SENSOR

5(A). PERFORMANCE OF ULTRASONIC SENSOR

5(B). PERFORMANCE OF MOISTURE SENSOR

6(A). ON/OFF CONTROL OF DC MOTOR USING PUSH

BUTTON, SPST, SPDT AND LIMIT SWITCH

6(B). ON/OFF CONTROL OF DC MOTOR USING

TRANSISTOR AND RELAY

7. FORWARD AND REVERSE CONTROL OF AC MOTOR

8. PNEUMATIC CIRCUIT FOR DOUBLE ACTING

CYLINDER

9. BEHAVIOUR OF HYDRAULIC MOTOR

10(A). SERVO MOTOR CONTROL WITH AN ARDUINO

10(B). INTERFACING POTENTIOMETER WITH ARDUINO

AVERAGE MARKS
 Contents
Page
THEORY (FOR EXAMINATION) ! No.
Unit – I. Sensors ⁄⁄⁄⁄............................................. 01
Unit – II. Actuators ⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄........................................ 53
ONE MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS FOR MCQ ..... 85

PRACTICAL – EXERCISES
Ex. No. Name of Exeriment
1(A). Temperature Measurement Using Thermistor ............ 96
1(B). Temperature Measurement Using Thermocouple ....... 101
1(C). Temperature Measurement Using Resistance
Temperature Detector (RTD) .................................... 105
2. Behaviour of Proximity Sensors ................................ 109
3. Linear Variable Differential Transformer ..................... 113
4(A). Performance of Light Sensor .................................... 117
4(B). Speed Measurement Using Optical Sensor ...................... 121
5(A). Performance of Ultrasonic Sensor ............................. 127
5(B). Performance of Moisture Sensor ................................ 133
6(A). On/Off Control of DC Motor Using Push Button,
SPST, SPDT and Limit Switch ................................. 139
6(B). On/Off Control of DC Motor Using Transistor
and Relay ............................ ................................... 141
7. Forward and Reverse Control of AC Motor .................... 145
8. Pneumatic Circuit for Double Acting Cylinder ............. 151
9. Behaviour of Hydraulic Motor ................................... 154
10(A). Servo Motor Control With an Arduino ...................... 158
10(B). Interfacing Potentiometer with Arduino ..................... 163
MODEL QUESTION PAPERS ⁄⁄⁄⁄⁄............ 166
 1020234440 L T P C
SENSORS AND ACTUATORS
PRACTICUM 1 0 4 3
DETAILED SYLLABUS

THEORY Hrs.
Unit – I: SENSORS
Resistance, Inductance and Capacitive Sensors: Definition - Classification of
Sensors/Transducers - Elements of measurement system - Primary Sensing
Elements (Bellows, Bourdon Tube) - Potentiometer - Linear potentiometer - Rotary
potentiometer - Load Cell - Strain Gauge Load Cell - Linear Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT) – Rotary Variable Differential Transformer (RVDT) - DC
Tachogenerator - AC Tachogenerator - Principles of Capacitive Sensors - Hall
effect sensor.
Temperature Sensors: Thermocouple – Resistance Temperature Detector - 8
Thermistor - Infrared (IR) thermometer.
Proximity Sensors: Inductive Proximity Sensor - Capacitive Proximity Sensor -
Photoelectric Proximity Sensor - Ultrasonic Proximity Sensor - Basic Reed Switch.
Light Sensor: Photodiode - Phototransistor - Photoconductive Cell - Photovoltaic
Cells - Bar Code Reader - Shaft Encoders - Encoder Types (Incremental Encoder,
Absolute Encoder) - Optical Shaft Encoder - Photoelectric Tachometer.
Arduino Compatible Sensor: Voltage Sensor - Current Sensor - LM35 Sensor -
Ultrasonic Sensor - Force Sensor - Moisture Sensor - Gas Sensor.
Unit – II: ACTUATORS
Electrical Actuators: General aspects - Switching Devices - Mechanical Switches
(Push button - SPST - SPDT - Limit Switch - Solenoid - Relays) - Solid State
switches (Diode, Transistor and Thyristor) - DC Motors - AC Motors - Stepper
Motors - Servo Motors.
Pneumatic Actuators: Introduction - Components of a Pneumatic System - Linear
actuators - Construction and working of Single acting and Double acting cylinders
7
- Rotary Actuators - Air Motors - Types of Air Motors - Piston type Motor, Vane
Motor, Turbine Motor - Applications of Air Motors.
Hydraulic Actuators: Hydraulic Power Supply - Components of Hydraulic system -
Linear actuators - Construction and working of Single acting and Double acting
cylinders - Applications of Hydraulic Cylinders - Some example mechanism driven
by an Hydraulic cylinders - Rotary Actuators - Hydraulic Motors - Advantages and
Applications of Hydraulic Motors.
PRACTICAL EXERCISES
Ex.No. Name of Experiment Hrs.
1. TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
Activities to Perform:
i) Construct a circuit to measure Temperature of Liquid using Thermistor 4
or Thermocouple or RTD.
ii) Also find the graphical relationship between input and output.
2. BEHAVIOUR OF PROXIMITY SENSORS
Activities to Perform:
i) Observe the behaviour of Inductive proximity sensor and Capacitive 4
Proximity sensor for different material samples.
ii) Interface relay and buzzer with sensors to test the output.
3. LVDT
Activities to Perform:
4
i) Construct a circuit for Measurement of Linear Displacement using LVDT.
ii) Find the graphical relationship between input and output.
4. PERFORMANCE OF LIGHT SENSOR
Activities to Perform:
i) Construct a circuit to obtain the VI characteristics and Response
4
Characteristics of Photoconductive Cell (LDR).
ii) Construct a circuit to measure the speed of the motor using Optical
Sensor.
5. PERFORMANCE OF ULTRASONIC AND MOISTURE SENSORS
Activities to Perform:
i) Interface Ultrasonic sensor with Arduino and measure the distance of
4
the object.
ii) Interface Moisture sensor with Arduino and measure the moisture
content in the soil.
6. OBSERVE THE BEHAVIOUR OF TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH
Activities to Perform:
i) Construct a circuit to get ON/OFF control on DC Motor using Push
4
Button, SPST, SPDT and Limit Switch.
ii) Construct a circuit to get ON/OFF control on DC Motor using Transistor
and Relay.
 7. FORWARD AND REVERSE CONTROL OF AC MOTOR
Activities to Perform:
i) Connect Forward Reverse Control switch to change the direction of
rotation of three phase induction motor. 4
ii) Demonstrate the Forward and Reverse operation of Motor.
iii) Measure the No-Load current in each phase using Tongue tester
(Clamp Meter).
8. PNEUMATIC CIRCUIT FOR DOUBLE ACTING CYLINDER
Activities to Perform:
i) Construct a Pneumatic Circuit to control double acting pneumatic 4
cylinder using 5/2 Solenoid Valve.
ii) Discuss the behaviour of cylinder as linear actuator.
9. OBSERVE THE BEHAVIOUR OF HYDRAULIC MOTOR
Activities to Perform:
4
i) Construct a Hydraulic Circuit to control Hydraulic Motor.
ii) Observe the behaviour of Hydraulic Motor.
10. SERVO MOTOR CONTROL WITH AN ARDUINO
Activities to Perform:
i) Construct an Arduino based circuit to sweeps the shaft of servo motor
4
back and forth across 180 degree.
ii) Interface potentiometer with Arduino and based on its position get the
control of servo motor shaft.
Activity + Revision + Assessment Test 20
TOTAL HOURS 75
Cycle – I : Exercises 1, 2, 3, 4 & 5
Cycle – II : Exercises 6, 7, 8, 9 & 10
Suggested List of Students Activity
Activity 1 : Each student writes and submits the assignment on the topic Basics of
Electricity, Ohm’s Law and Electromagnetism.
Activity 2 : Four students can be grouped as a batch and practice an additional
experiment to interface any one of the Arduino compatible sensors (LM35
Temperature sensor, Force Sensor, Gas Sensor, Voltage Sensor, Humidity Sensor,
Rain Sensor, Acceleration sensor, magnetic sensor, Infrared sensor etc.,) with
Arduino and observe the behaviour of sensors.
 ASSESSMENT METHODOLOGY
Continuous Assessment (40 marks) End Semester
Examination
CA–1 CA–2 CA–3 CA–4 (60 marks)
Practical Practical Written Test Practical Practical
Mode
Test Test Theory Test Examination
Cycle – I Cycle – II All All All
Portion
Exercises Exercises Units Exercises Exercises
Duration 2 Periods 2 Periods 3 Hours 3 Hours 3 Hours
Exam Marks 60 60 100 100 100
Converted to 10 10 15 15 60
Marks 10 15 15 60
Tentative 7th 14th 15th 16th
-
Schedule Week Week Week Week

CA–1 & CA–2 :

All the exercises/experiments should be completed as per the portions above and
kept for the practical test. The students shall be permitted to select any one by lot for
the test. The practical test should be conducted as per the scheme of evaluation as
below. The marks awarded shall be converted to 10 Marks for each assessment test.
Best of one will be considered for the internal assessment of 10 Marks.
Practical documents should be maintained for every exercise / experiment
immediately after completion of the practice. The practical document should be
submitted for the practical test. The same should be evaluated for 10 Marks for each
exercise / experiment. The total marks awarded should be converted to 10 Marks for
the practical test as per the scheme of evaluation as below.
The details of the documents to be prepared as per the instruction below.
Each experiment should be completed on the day of practice. The same shall be
evaluated for 10 marks on the day or next day of practice before commencement of
the next exercise.
This documentation can be carried out in a separate notebook or a printed manual or
a file with documents. The observations, readings, calculations and sketches should
be written by the student manually.
The detailed date of the practices and its evaluations should be maintained in the
course logbook. The log book and the practical documents should be submitted for
the verification by the Flying Squad and DOTE Official.
 SCHEME OF EVALUATION (CA - 1 & CA - 2)
Part Description Marks
A Aim and procedure 10
B Tabular Column / Formulae 10
C Observation / Calculation / Diagram 30
Practical Total 50
D Practical Documents (As per the portions) 10
TOTAL MARKS 60

CA–3: Written Test for complete theory portions should be conducted for 100 Marks
as per the question pattern below. The marks scored will be converted to 15 Marks
for internal assessment.
QUESTION PATTERN – WRITTEN TEST (THEORY)

Part Description Marks

A 30 MCQ from the complete theory portion 30 × 1 = 30 Marks
B 7 Questions to be answered out of 10 Questions 7 × 10 = 70 Marks
TOTAL MARKS 100 Marks

CA – 4: All the exercises/experiments should be completed and kept for the practical
test. The students shall be permitted to select any one by lot for the test. The practical
test should be conducted as per the scheme of evaluation below. After completion of
all the exercises the practical test should be conducted as per End Semester
Examination question pattern scheme of evaluation. The marks awarded should be
converted to 15 Marks for the internal assessment.
SCHEME OF EVALUATION
(Model Practical Examination & End Semester Examination - Practical Exam)
Part Description Marks
A Aim and procedure 10
B Tabular Column / Formulae 10
C Observation / Calculation / Diagram 30
D Result / Graph 10
E Written Test (Theory Portions) 30
F Viva voce 10
TOTAL MARKS 100

Note: For the written test 30 MCQ shall be asked from the theory portions.
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 Unit – I
SENSORS
1.1 Sensors or Transducers
Sensors or transducers are devices that detect and respond to physical,
chemical, or biological stimuli and convert them into measurable signals for
interpretation or processing. The output signal may be electrical, optical, or digital.

Classification of Sensors / Transducers

(a) Based on Operating Principle
1) Resistive Sensors: Change resistance in response to input.
Examples: Thermistors, strain gauges.
2) Capacitive Sensors: Change capacitance in response to input.
Examples: Capacitive touch sensors, proximity sensors.

AM
3) Inductive Sensors: Change inductance due to variations in magnetic fields.
Examples: Inductive proximity sensors, LVDTs.

G
PA
4) Piezoelectric Sensors: Generate voltage when mechanical stress is applied.
Examples: Piezoelectric accelerometers, pressure sensors.
IP

5) Optical Sensors: Detect changes in light properties (intensity, wavelength, etc.).

TH

Examples: Photodiodes, CCD sensors.

PA

6) Magnetic Sensors: Detect changes in magnetic field intensity.

Examples: Hall effect sensors, fluxgate magnetometers.
L
KA

(b) Based on Input (Measured Physical Quantity)

1) Temperature Sensors: Measure temperature changes.
Examples: Thermocouples, RTDs, thermistors, infrared temperature sensors.
2) Pressure Sensors: Measure force per unit area.
Examples: Piezoelectric sensors, strain gauges, capacitive pressure sensors.
3) Displacement/Position Sensors: Detect linear or angular displacement.
Examples: Linear potentiometers, LVDTs, rotary encoders.
4) Motion Sensors: Measure velocity, acceleration, or angular movement.
Examples: Accelerometers, gyroscopes, tachometers.
5) Light Sensors: Detect light intensity or wavelength.
Examples: Photodiodes, phototransistors, LDRs (Light-Dependent Resistors).
6) Magnetic Sensors: Measure magnetic fields or proximity of ferromagnetic objects.
Examples: Hall effect sensors, magnetometers.

THEORY  1
 7) Humidity Sensors: Measure moisture content in the air.
Examples: Capacitive or resistive humidity sensors.
8) Chemical Sensors: Detect chemical properties like gas concentration or pH.
Examples: pH sensors, gas sensors, biosensors.
9) Force and Torque Sensors: Measure mechanical force or torque.
Examples: Load cells, strain gauges.

(c) Based on Output Signal

1) Analog Sensors: Provide continuous output signals proportional to the input.
Examples: Thermistors, strain gauges, potentiometers.
2) Digital Sensors: Provide discrete or quantized output (binary or digital values).
Examples: Digital encoders, digital temperature sensors.

(d) Based on Power Requirement

AM
1) Active Sensors: Generate their own output signal from the measured quantity.
Examples: Thermocouples, piezoelectric sensors.

G
2) Passive Sensors: Require an external power source to function.
PA
Examples: RTDs, strain gauges.
IP

1.2 Elements of Measurement System

TH
PA

Physical Primary Signal

Quantity Sensing Transducer Conditioning
(Measurand) Element
L
KA

Feedback Output / Data

Acquisition / Signal
Display /
Recording Transmission
Control

Fig.1.1 Elements of Measurement System

A measurement system consists of various elements that work together to
sense, process, and interpret the value of a physical quantity. It includes the following:
1) Primary Sensing Element: Directly interacts with the physical quantity
(measurand) to produce a response. Examples include thermocouple, strain
gauge, photodiode, etc.
2) Transducer/Transduction Element: Converts the sensed physical quantity
into a measurable signal. Examples include resistance sensors, capacitive
sensors, inductive sensors, etc.

THEORY  2
 3) Signal Conditioning Element: Modifies the raw signal from the transducer
to make it suitable for measurement or analysis. The processes include
amplification, filtering, Analog-to-Digital Conversion (ADC), etc.
4) Signal Transmission Element: Transmits the conditioned signal to the next
stage without significant loss or distortion. Examples include wires, cables, etc.
5) Data Acquisition/Recording Element: Collects, stores, and displays the
signal data for interpretation or further processing. Examples include
oscilloscopes, data loggers, computers, microcontrollers, etc.
6) Output Element (Display/Indicator): Presents the final measured value in
a human-readable form or interfaces with a control system. Examples include
digital screens, analog meters, etc.
7) Feedback or Control Element: In systems with closed-loop control, the
output is fed back into the system for real-time adjustments.

AM
1.2 Primary Sensing Elements

G
Primary sensing elements are the fundamental components of a measurement
PA
system that directly interact with the physical quantity to produce a response. These
elements detect changes in physical, chemical, or environmental conditions and
IP

convert them into a measurable signal.

TH

1.3 Bellows
PA
L
KA

Pointer

Calibrated scale

Bellows

Pressure to be
measured
Fig.1.2 Bellows
A bellows is a type of mechanical sensor used to measure pressure. It consists
of a flexible diaphragm (bellows) that expands or contracts in response to changes in
pressure.

THEORY  3
Types of Bellows
1) Single-Ended Bellows: The pressure is applied to one side of the bellows.
2) Double-Ended Bellows: Pressure is applied on both sides of the bellows.
3) Differential Pressure Bellows: Used to measure the difference in pressure
between two areas.

Working Principle
When pressure is applied to the inside or outside of the bellows, it causes the
bellows to expand or contract. This movement is a direct response to the change in
pressure. The displacement of the bellows can then be used to drive a mechanical
pointer, activate a switch, or generate an electrical signal.

Applications
Mechanical pressure gauges
Pressure Transmitters

AM
Pressure relief valves and safety switches

G
Vacuum Systems PA
Flow Measurement
Advantages
IP

Simple Design
TH

Cost-Effective
PA

Wide Pressure Range

Non-Electrical Output
L
KA

Disadvantages
Low precision
Mechanical wear
Low sensitivity

1.4 Bourdon tube

A Bourdon tube is a mechanical sensor used to measure pressure. It converts
the pressure exerted on it into a mechanical displacement.

Types of Bourdon Tubes

1) C-Shaped Bourdon Tube
2) Spiral Bourdon Tube
3) Helical Bourdon Tube

THEORY  4
 Pinion
Pointer
Scale
Bourdon tube

Toothed
sector Link

Pressure

Fig.1.3 Bourdon Tube

AM
Working Principle
When internal pressure is applied to the tube, the tube tries to straighten out

G
because the pressure forces the internal walls of the tube to expand.
PA
As the tube straightens, it causes the tube’s free end to move. This movement
IP

is proportional to the amount of pressure inside the tube.

TH

The free end of the Bourdon tube is connected to a mechanical linkage, which
can amplify the movement. The linkage transfers the movement of the tube to
PA

a pointer or needle on a dial gauge, which displays the pressure.

L

Applications
KA

Industrial pressure gauges

HVAC systems
Monitoring oil pressure, fuel pressure, and coolant pressure in vehicles.
Measuring pressures in reactors, pipelines, and other equipment used in
chemical production.

Advantages
Simple design
Highly durable.
Measures a wide range of pressures.
Less expensive
No power requirement

THEORY  5
Disadvantages
Low precision
Large and heavy
Mechanical wear of moving parts.
Temperature sensitivity

1.5 Potentiometer
A potentiometer is a type of variable resistor used to measure voltage or adjust
electrical resistance in a circuit. Potentiometers can be used as position sensors. The
resistance varies with the position of the wiper, which makes it useful for detecting
the position of movable parts in mechanical systems.
Rh V
Known Voltage
A1

AM
G
PA
IP
TH

G
PA

Fig.1.4 Potentiometer
L
KA

Working Principle
The basic idea behind a potentiometer is that it divides the input voltage in
proportion to the resistance setting between two fixed points.
A potentiometer has three terminals. Two fixed terminals connected to the ends
of a resistive track (the total resistance between these two points is constant).
One movable terminal (wiper) that slides along the resistive track and provides
an adjustable output.
When a voltage is applied across the two fixed terminals, the wiper moves along
the resistive track. This adjusts the proportion of the input voltage that appears
across the wiper and the other fixed terminal.
As the wiper moves, it changes the resistance between the wiper and the two
fixed terminals, thereby varying the voltage or current.

THEORY  6
Types of Potentiometers
1) Linear potentiometer: The resistance between the wiper and each end
terminal changes linearly as the wiper moves along the resistive track. It
measures the displacement or position of an object along a straight line. It is
used in linear actuators or positioning systems.
2) Rotary potentiometer: The wiper moves in a circular motion across the
resistive track. It measures rotational displacement. it is used in measuring the
angle of a rotating shaft.

Applications
Measuring the position of a movable part in robotics, automotive, and industrial
applications
Adjusting the volume in audio devices.
Adjust the brightness of lamps and other lighting systems.

AM
Advantages

G
Simple to Use PA
Relatively inexpensive
IP

Can be used in a wide range of applications

TH

Disadvantages
PA

Mechanical wear of moving parts.

Low accuracy
L

Causes a small power loss.

KA

1.6 Load Cells

Load cells are elastic members used for the measurement of force by
measuring displacement. Application of force on the elastic members causes a
deflection. This deflection is measured directly or indirectly. Then the proportionate
force is calculated from this deflection.

1.7 Strain Gauge Load Cell

Strain gauge is a device used to measure strain on an object. Strain is the
measure of deformation due to the applied force. When an elastic member is
combined with a strain gauge and used for the measurement of force, it is termed as
a load cell. In load cells, elastic members act as primary transducers and strain gauges
as secondary transducers.

THEORY  7
 A load cell consists of four strain gauges. Two of these are used for measuring
the longitudinal strain and the other two for measuring the transverse strain. The four
strain gauges are mounted at 90° to each other.
F
B

𝑅1 𝑅2

A C V

Strain
gauges 𝑅3 𝑅4

D
F
𝑅1
E

AM
𝑅2 𝑅3 Wheatstone bridge

G
𝑅4
PA
Fig.1.5 Strain Gauge Load Cell
IP

At the no-load condition, resistance in all the four gauges will be same. The
TH

voltage across the two terminals 𝐵 and 𝐷 are same. The Wheatstone bridge is now
balanced and the output voltage is zero.
PA

When the specimen is stressed due to the applied force, the strain induced is
L

measured by the gauges. Gauges 𝑅1 and 𝑅4 measure the compressive strain.

KA

Gauges 𝑅2 and 𝑅3 measure the tensile strain. In this case, voltages across the
terminals 𝐵 and 𝐷 will be different. This voltage difference is proportional to the
applied force. The voltmeter is calibrated to directly show the value of applied force.

1.9 Linear Variable Differential Transformer

A LVDT is an electrical sensor used to measure linear displacement or position
with high precision.

Working Principle
The LVDT has a primary coil that is energized by an alternating current (AC)
signal. This coil generates a magnetic field when energized.
Two secondary coils are placed symmetrically on either side of the primary coil.
The voltage induced in these secondary coils depends on the position of the
movable core.
THEORY  8
 A ferromagnetic core is placed inside the LVDT. The core is free to move along
the axis of the coil assembly in response to the displacement being measured.
As the core moves within the coils, it alters the magnetic flux through the
secondary coils, inducing a voltage in each coil. When the core is centered, the
voltages induced in the two secondary coils are equal and cancel each other
out, resulting in zero output. When the core shifts to one side, one secondary
coil receives more flux and generates a higher voltage than the other. It
produces a differential voltage that is proportional to the displacement.
The differential voltage between the two secondary coils is measured, and this
signal provides the displacement measurement.
AC Input

Primary
winding

AM
Displacement
Core

G
PA
E1 E2 Secondary
winding
IP

Output voltage
Eo
TH

𝑬𝒐 = 𝑬𝟏 − 𝑬𝟐

Fig.1.6 Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

PA

Applications
L

Position feedback systems in robotic arms, actuators, or valves.

KA

Measuring the position of machines or workpieces in manufacturing.

Measuring the position of flight control surfaces, landing gear, and other critical
components in aircrafts.
Measuring the position of automotive parts, such as suspension components.
Measuring displacements or deformations in structures like bridges, dams, and
buildings under various loads.

Advantages
High accuracy and resolution
Long life and durability
High sensitivity
Wide range of applications
Linear output

THEORY  9
Disadvantages
Requires an AC excitation signal.
Bigger than some other displacement sensors.
Requires signal conditioning

1.10 Rotary Variable Differential Transformer

RVDT is a type of electromechanical sensor used to measure angular
displacement (rotation) or position.
AC Input

Primary
winding

Core

AM
Shaft

E1 E2 Secondary

G
PA winding
Output voltage
Eo
𝑬𝒐 = 𝑬𝟏 − 𝑬𝟐
IP

Fig.1.7 Rotary Variable Differential Transformer (RVDT)

TH

Working Principle
PA

The RVDT has a primary coil that is energized with an alternating current (AC).
This coil generates a magnetic field.
L
KA

Two secondary coils are positioned symmetrically relative to the primary coil.
The voltage induced in these coils depends on the rotational position of a
ferromagnetic core.
The core inside the RVDT is attached to a shaft or rotor, which rotates based
on the angular displacement being measured.
As the shaft rotates, it alters the magnetic flux passing through the secondary
coils. The displacement of the core results in differential voltages induced in the
secondary coils. When the core is positioned symmetrically, the voltages
induced in the two secondary coils are equal and cancel each other out. As the
core rotates, this balance is disturbed, and a differential voltage is generated.
The differential voltage between the secondary coils is measured, and it is
proportional to the angle of rotation of the shaft. This output can be processed
to determine the precise rotational position.

THEORY  10
Applications
Rotational position feedback in servo motors, robotic arms, or actuators in
industrial machinery.
Angular position measurements of control surfaces in aircraft and missile
control systems
Providing feedback on the orientation or position of various components in
robotic systems.
Used in steering systems and suspension systems of automobiles.
Measuring rotational motion in engines and other components.

Advantages
High precision
Long life and durability
Linear and reliable output

AM
Wide operating temperature range

G
Rugged construction PA
Disadvantages
IP

Requires an AC excitation signal.

TH

Requires signal conditioning

Comparatively larger size and weight
PA

Limited measuring range.

L
KA

1.11 Tachogenerator
Brushes
N Reistance

Moving coil
Speed to be voltmeter
measured
S Commutator
Permanent
Magnet
Fig.1.8 Tachogenerator

A tachogenerator is a type of electromechanical device used to measure the

rotational speed of a rotating object. It converts the rotational speed into an electrical
signal which is proportional to the speed of rotation.

THEORY  11
Working Principle of Tachogenerator
The basic working principle of a tachogenerator is based on electromagnetic
induction. A rotating mechanical system generates a voltage proportional to the
speed of rotation. The two main types of tachogenerators are:
a) AC Tachogenerator
It operates by generating an alternating voltage in proportion to the speed of
rotation.
It consists of a rotating coil inside a magnetic field.
As the coil rotates, it induces a alternating voltage.
The voltage generated is directly proportional to the rotational speed, and its
frequency corresponds to the speed of rotation.

b) DC Tachogenerator
The DC tachogenerator works by generating a direct current voltage that is

AM
proportional to the rotational speed.
It consists of a rotating armature within a magnetic field, and the armature is

G
connected to a commutator. The commutator is used to convert the alternating
PA
voltage induced in the rotor into a DC voltage.
IP

As the armature rotates, it induces a direct current voltage, which is proportional

TH

to the speed of rotation.

The DC voltage can be measured and used to monitor or control the speed.
PA

Applications
Speed control in motors
L
KA

Vehicle speed measurement

Monitoring the speed of joints and actuators in robotic systems.
Monitoring the speed of rotating machinery in factories.
Advantages
Continuous feedback
High accuracy
More durable and robust
Simple design
Wide speed range
Disadvantages
Sensitivity to environmental conditions
Mechanical wear of moving parts.
Requires output conditioning

THEORY  12
1.12 Principle of Capacitive Sensors
Conductive
plates

A
d

Dielectric

Fig.1.9 Capacitive Sensor

Capacitive sensors work on the principle of capacitance, which is the ability

of a system to store electrical charge.

AM
Working Principle

G
A capacitive sensor consists of a pair of conductive plates with a dielectric
PA
material (air, vacuum, or other insulating material) between them. The key idea is to
IP

measure changes in capacitance caused by variations in the distance, area, or

dielectric properties between the plates. These changes are interpreted to detect
TH

proximity, position, or material properties.

PA

Applications
L

Touchscreens in smartphones, tablets, and ATMs for detecting touch input.

KA

Detect the presence of passengers in automotive systems.

Track the movement or alignment of robotic arms.
Measuring fluid levels in tanks, reservoirs, or pipelines
Analyzing material composition by detecting changes in dielectric properties.

Advantages
High sensitivity.
Non-contact measurement.
Long life span
Compact and lightweight
Low power consumption

THEORY  13
Disadvantages
Affected by environmental factors like humidity and temperature.
Limited sensing range.
Performance is dependent on dielectric material.

1.13 Hall Effect Sensors

Regulator
VInput VCC

+
Hall Output
Element Differential
Amplifier
_

AM
V EE

Fig.1.10 Hall Effect Sensor

G
Hall effect sensors operate on the Hall effect principle. When a current-
PA
carrying conductor or semiconductor is placed in a perpendicular magnetic field, a
IP

voltage (called the Hall voltage) is generated across the material due to the deflection
of charge carriers by the magnetic field.
TH

Working Principle
PA

It consists of a thin piece of conductive material (hall element) where the Hall
effect takes place.
L
KA

A regulator supplies a constant current that flows through the Hall element.
When a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the current, the moving
charge carriers (electrons or holes) experience a force (Lorentz force). This force
deflects the carriers to one side of the conductor or semiconductor.
The deflection of charge carriers creates a potential difference across the
material, known as the Hall voltage. The Hall voltage is proportional to the
strength of the magnetic field.
The Hall voltage is amplified and conditioned to generate an output signal.

Applications
Detecting the presence of magnetic objects.
Measuring angular or linear position in automotive systems.
Monitoring rotational speed of wheels, gears, or motors.
Indicating the limits of motion in robotics or machinery.

THEORY  14
Advantages
Non-contact sensing.
Operates over a wide range of environmental conditions.
High durability and reliability.
Compatible with high-speed operations.

Disadvantages
Sensitive to temperature variations.
Requires a consistent and measurable magnetic field.
Affected by external electromagnetic interference.

1.14 Temperature Sensor

A temperature sensor is a device that measures temperature by detecting
changes in physical characteristics such as resistance, voltage, or current, which vary

AM
with temperature.

G
Common types of temperature sensors PA
1) Thermocouple
IP

2) Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

3) Thermistor
TH

4) Infrared (IR) thermometer.

PA

1.14 .1 Thermocouple
L
KA

Cold junctions
Material-1
Hot end
Copper
V
Copper
Material-2
Fig.1.11 Temperature Sensor

A thermocouple is a temperature sensor that measures temperature

differences based on the Seebeck effect. According to this effect, when two dissimilar
metals or alloys are joined at two junctions and exposed to different temperatures, a
voltage is generated. Thermocouples come in different types based on the materials
used and their respective temperature ranges.

THEORY  15
Working Principle
A thermocouple consists of two junctions:
Hot junction: Exposed to the environment being measured.
Cold junction: Maintained at a known reference temperature
Voltage Generation: The temperature difference between the hot and cold
junctions creates a small voltage (measured in millivolts) proportional to the
temperature difference. The voltage is measured by a voltmeter or data
acquisition system. Then it is converted to a temperature value using standard
reference tables or calibration curves.

Applications
Kilns, furnaces, and turbines.
Exhaust gas temperature sensors in automobiles.
Monitoring of engine and component temperatures in aircrafts.

AM
Research and laboratory testing.
Sterilization equipment.

G
PA
Advantages
Wide temperature range
IP

Fast response time

TH

More durable
PA

Variety of types

Disadvantages
L
KA

Non-linear output
Low voltage output
Requires a reference junction
Limited accuracy

1.14.2 Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)

Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) is a type of temperature sensor that
measures temperature by correlating the resistance of the sensor with temperature.

Working Principle of RTD

The basic operating principle of an RTD is based on the fact that the electrical
resistance of certain metals changes predictably with temperature.
RTDs are made from platinum. Platinum is preferred due to its high stability,
linearity, and wide operating temperature range.

THEORY  16
 The resistance of the RTD increases as the temperature increases. This change
in resistance is generally linear within a certain temperature range.
RTD has two or more wires attached to it. A constant current is passed through
the RTD, and the voltage across the RTD is measured. The resistance is
calculated using Ohm's law.
The resistance measured from the RTD is then converted into a temperature
reading using the known resistance-temperature characteristic.

𝑅1 𝑅2
Lead
Resistor
𝑉𝐵
S
Bridge voltage Power
Supply
𝑅𝑇

AM
𝑅4
Resistance
Element

G
PA
Fig.1.12 Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
IP

Applications
TH

Industrial temperature measurement

Scientific research
PA

HVAC systems
Power plants
L

Vehicle, aircraft and space applications.

KA

Medical devices, such as incubators, sterilizers, etc.

Advantages
High accuracy
More stability
Wide temperature range
Hight linearity
Good repeatability
Wide variety of sizes and configurations
Disadvantages
More expensive than other sensors.
More fragile
Slower response time
More power consumption
THEORY  17
1.14.3 Thermistors
Glass Glass
Leads coated
bead

(a) Bead (b) Probe

(c) Disc (d) Rod

Fig.1.13 Forms of Thermistors

A thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance changes significantly with
temperature. Its name is derived from thermally sensitive resistor. Thermistors are
made from ceramic or polymer materials.

AM
Working Principle
There are two main types of thermistors based on their resistance-temperature

G
relationship: PA
a) Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) Thermistor
IP

Resistance decreases as temperature increases.

TH

At low temperatures, the thermistor's material has fewer charge carriers, leading
to high resistance. As the temperature rises, thermal energy excites more charge
PA

carriers, reducing resistance.

L

b) Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) Thermistor

KA

Resistance increases as temperature increases.

As temperature rises beyond a certain threshold, structural changes in the material
reduce the mobility of charge carriers, causing resistance to increase sharply.

Forms of Thermistors
1) Bead Thermistors: Small, spherical, or cylindrical thermistors made from
sintered semiconductor materials.
2) Disc Thermistors: Flat, disc-shaped or rectangular thermistors made from
ceramic material.
3) Epoxy Coated Thermistors: Thermistors coated with epoxy resin for
protection against moisture and other environmental factors.
4) Probe Thermistors: Thermistors embedded in a metal or plastic probe for
easy installation and mechanical protection.

THEORY  18
 5) Rod Thermistors: Cylindrical thermistors with long leads for easy integration
into circuits.

Applications
Thermometers
HVAC systems
Medical devices
Ovens, washing machines, and refrigerators
Overcurrent protection in electronics
Rechargeable batteries.
Fitness trackers and smartwatches
Incubators, freezers, and water baths

Advantages

AM
High sensitivity
Wide operating temperature range

G
Fast response time
PA
Compact and versatile
IP

High accuracy
TH

Cost-effective
PA

Simple circuit integration

Disadvantages
L
KA

Non-linear response
Self-heating problem
Fragility
Accuracy decreases over time
Requires calibration

1.14.4 Infrared (IR) thermometer

An Infrared (IR) thermometer is a non-contact device used to measure the
temperature of an object or surface by detecting its emitted infrared radiation.

Working Principle
All objects emit infrared radiation as a function of their temperature. The
amount of radiation emitted increases with temperature.

THEORY  19
 The IR thermometer has a lens that focuses the infrared radiation onto a
detector. It may be a thermopile or pyroelectric sensor.
The detector converts the absorbed infrared energy into an electrical signal. The
signal is then processed and displayed as a temperature reading.

Applications
Measuring body temperature
Measuring the temperature of molten metals, furnaces, or moving objects.
Measuring engine, brake, or tire temperatures in automobiles.
Checking appliance temperatures, such as ovens or grills.
Measuring water temperature without touching it.

Advantages
Non-contact measurement

AM
Quick response time
More accuracy

G
Wide range of temperatures and materials.
PA
Disadvantages
IP

Cannot measure internal temperatures.

TH

Accuracy is affected by emissivity

PA

Environment-dependent

1.15 Proximity Sensors

L
KA

Proximity sensors are devices used to detect the presence or absence of an

object without requiring physical contact.

Common types of proximity sensors

Inductive Proximity Sensor
Capacitive Proximity Sensor
Photoelectric Proximity Sensor
Ultrasonic Proximity Sensor
Basic Reed Switch.

1.15.1 Inductive Proximity Sensors

Inductive proximity sensors are non-contact devices used to detect the presence
of metallic objects by generating and sensing changes in an electromagnetic field.

THEORY  20
 Electromagnetic
detection field
Oscillator Output switching
circuit

Inductor coil Schmitt trigger

Fig.1.14 Inductive Proximity Sensor

Working Principle
The sensor has a coil wound around a ferrite core that generates an alternating
electromagnetic field when energized by an oscillator. This field extends in front

AM
of the sensor.

G
When a metallic object enters the electromagnetic field, it induces eddy currents
PA
in the object. These eddy currents cause energy loss in the sensor's
electromagnetic field.
IP

The sensor detects the change in the electromagnetic field due to the energy loss.
TH

The change is processed by internal circuitry to determine the presence of the object.
PA

Once an object is detected, the sensor outputs a signal (digital or analog) to

trigger further action.
L
KA

Applications
Detecting metallic parts on conveyor belts.
Position sensing in CNC machines and robotic arms.
Detecting the position of gears, shafts, and other metallic components in
automobiles.
Counting objects on assembly lines.
Position detection in aircraft landing gear and control systems.

Advantages
More durable
More reliable.
Fast response time
Robust construction

THEORY  21
Disadvantages
Only detects metals.
Limited detection distance.
Extreme temperatures affect performance.
Higher cost.

1.15.2 Capacitive Proximity Sensors

Electromagnetic field Output switching
Oscillator
circuit

Object Conductive Schmitt trigger

AM
plate
Fig.1.15 Capacitive Proximity Sensor

G
A capacitive proximity sensor is a non-contact sensor that detects the presence
PA
or absence of an object by sensing changes in capacitance.
IP

Working Principle
TH

A capacitor consists of two conductive plates separated by a dielectric (non-

PA

conductive) material. The capacitance depends on the area of the plates, the
distance between them, and the dielectric constant of the material.
L

The sensor has one plate built into its sensing face, and the other "virtual plate"
KA

is formed by the object being detected.

When an object enters the sensor's electromagnetic field, the dielectric constant
around the sensor changes. It causes a variation in capacitance.
The sensor's internal circuit detects the capacitance change, processes it, and
determines the presence of objects.
A signal (analog or digital) is generated to indicate the detection of the object.

Applications
Level detection in silos or hoppers for granular materials.
Detecting non-metallic parts on conveyor belts.
Monitoring plastic or glass components in assembly lines.
Monitoring liquid levels in bottles or tanks.
Touch-sensitive interfaces (e.g., touchscreens and buttons).

THEORY  22
Advantages
Can detect both metallic and non-metallic objects.
Non-contact operation.
Adjustable sensitivity.
More durable.

Disadvantages
Limited detection distance.
Sensitive to environmental change.
Effectiveness depends on the dielectric constant of the target material.
More expensive.

1.15.3 Photoelectric Proximity Sensors

A photoelectric proximity sensor is a non-contact sensor that detects the

AM
presence or absence of an object using light.

G
PA
Transmitter Target Receiver
(a) Through beam sensor
IP
TH
PA

Transmitter Target Reflector

(b) Retro reflective sensor
L
KA

Transmitter

Receiver Target
Reflector
(c) Diffuse reflective sensor

Fig.1.16 Photoelectric Proximity Sensor

Working Principle
There are three primary types of photoelectric sensors based on how the light
is detected:
1) Through-Beam Sensors (Emitter + Receiver): The emitter and receiver
are placed opposite to each other, and the emitter sends a light beam (infrared
or visible) to the receiver. When an object breaks the light beam, the receiver
detects the interruption and signals the presence of the object.

THEORY  23
 2) Retro-Reflective Sensors (Emitter + Receiver + Reflector): The sensor
has both the emitter and receiver in the same housing. A reflector is placed on
the opposite side, and the light emitted by the sensor is reflected back to the
receiver. When an object interrupts the light path, the sensor detects the change
in the reflected light.
3) Diffuse Reflective Sensors (Emitter + Receiver): The emitter and
receiver are located in the same housing, and the sensor detects light that is
reflected off an object. The sensor is designed to detect reflected light when it
returns from an object placed in its detection range.

Applications
Object detection and counting on conveyor belts.
Position detection of robotic arms and parts.

AM
Detecting objects or products on packaging lines.
Sensing bottle or container positions in filling and labeling machines.

G
Object sorting based on size or shape.PA
Counting people or vehicles entering/exiting a building.
IP

Advantages
TH

Non-contact detection
PA

High precision
Long detection range
L

Fast response time

KA

Can detect a wide range of objects

Can be used in many different environments.

Disadvantages
Sensitivity to environment
Proper alignment of the emitter and receiver is essential.
External light sources can affect the performance.

1.15.4 Ultrasonic Proximity Sensors

Ultrasonic proximity sensors are non-contact sensors that use sound waves at
ultrasonic frequencies to detect objects or measure distances.

THEORY  24
 Transmitter

Object

Receiver

Fig.1.17 Ultrasonic Proximity Sensor

Working Principle
The sensor emits ultrasonic waves from a transducer (emitter).
When these sound waves hit an object, they are reflected back towards the
sensor.
The sensor measures the travelling time of the sound waves to travel from the
emitter to the object and then return to the receiver (sensor).

AM
Using the time of flight and the speed of sound, the sensor calculates the

G
distance to the object. PA
Based on the detected distance or the presence of the object, the sensor
provides an output (digital or analog).
IP

Applications
TH

Detecting the presence of objects on conveyor belts.

PA

Measurement of material levels in bins, tanks, or hoppers.

Detecting the proximity of workers to dangerous machinery.
L

Parking assist systems.

KA

Collision avoidance in vehicles and robots.

Advantages
Non-contact operation
Works in harsh environments
Wide material detection
Effective for both short and long-range detection
More cost-effective
Disadvantages
Not suitable for highly reflective surfaces.
Sensitive to temperature and humidity
Less effective in detection for small objects
Cannot detect objects outside a certain angle.
THEORY  25
1.15.5 Basic Reed Switch
A reed switch is used in sensors to detect the presence or absence of a
magnetic field. When integrated into a sensor, reed switches function as a type of
proximity sensor, activating or deactivating when exposed to a magnetic field.

Glass capsule
Inert gas

Reed blade
Contacts

Fig.1.18 Basic Reed Switch

Working Principle
The reed switch is typically placed near a magnet or in a system where the

AM
presence of a magnetic field is expected. The reed switch is made up of two
ferromagnetic reeds that are housed in a sealed glass tube.

G
When a magnet comes close to the reed switch, it induces magnetization in the
PA
reeds. It causes them to attract each other. This closing of the reeds allows
current to flow through the circuit connected to the reed switch.
IP

When the magnetic field is removed, the reeds return to their initial state. The
TH

switch opens and stops the current flow.

PA

Applications
Home security systems to monitor the opening and closing of doors and windows.
L
KA

Detect the position of a moving part in automated systems.

Detect the presence of objects in robotics.
Vehicle security systems to detect door positions, ignition switches, etc.
Turning a device on or off when the cover is opened or closed.

Advantages
Simple design
Comparatively inexpensive.
Low power consumption
Compact size
Non-contact detection
Wide range of applications

THEORY  26
Disadvantages
Magnetic field dependence
Mechanical wear due to moving parts.
Not suitable for high-voltage applications.
Sensitive to environment.

1.16 Light Sensors

Light sensors are devices that detect the intensity of light in their environment.
These sensors convert light energy into an electrical signal, which can then be
processed and used for various applications.

Common types of light sensors:

1) Photodiode
2) Phototransistor

AM
3) Photoconductive Cell
4) Photovoltaic Cells

G
5) Bar Code Reader PA
IP

1.16.1 Photodiode
TH

Anode Cathode
PA
L

(a) Photodiode (b) Symbol

KA

Fig.1.19 Photodiode

Photodiode is a semiconductor device that converts light into an electrical

current. It is a type of photodetector, commonly used in light detection systems.

Working principle
Photodiodes are made of semiconductor materials such as silicon (Si) or
gallium arsenide (GaAs).
They have a p-n junction, which is covered with a transparent material to allow
light to reach the junction.
When photons (light particles) strike the photodiode, they excite electrons in
the semiconductor material, creating electron-hole pairs.
The built-in electric field of the p-n junction separates these charges, generating
a flow of current proportional to the light intensity.
THEORY  27
Applications
Used in fiber optics to convert light signals into electrical signals.
Cameras, barcode scanners, and light meters.
Detecting the presence or absence of objects.

1.16.2 Phototransistor
A phototransistor is a light-sensitive semiconductor device that functions like
a combination of a photodiode and a transistor. It detects light and amplifies the
electrical signal generated in response to light.

C Collector
E B
B Base
C
E Emitter

AM
(a) Phototransistor (b) Symbol

Fig.1.20 Phototransistor

G
Working Principle
PA
A phototransistor is a bipolar junction transistor (BJT) or a field-effect transistor
IP

(FET) with a light-sensitive base region.

TH

The base current of a typical BJT is replaced or supplemented by light energy.

When photons strike the light-sensitive region, electron-hole pairs are
PA

generated.
These carriers trigger the transistor’s operation, allowing current to flow
L

between the collector and emitter.

KA

The generated current is amplified by the transistor's gain, resulting in higher

sensitivity compared to photodiodes.

Applications
Detecting light intensity and presence in devices like light meters and streetlights.
Remote controls and IR communication systems.
Detecting the presence of position of objects.
Pulse detection in health care.

1.16.3 Photoconductive Cell

A photoconductive cell, also known as a photoresistor or light-dependent
resistor (LDR), is a passive electronic component that changes its electrical resistance
based on the intensity of light falling on its surface.

THEORY  28
 CdS
Electrode

(a) Photoconductive cell (b) Symbol

Fig.1.21 Photoconductive Cell

Working Principle
Photoconductive cell is made of semiconductors such as cadmium sulfide (CdS)
or cadmium selenide (CdSe).
These materials exhibit a significant change in electrical conductivity when
exposed to light.

AM
In darkness or low light, the photoconductive cell has high resistance (in the

G
range of megaohms). PA
When exposed to light, photons excite electrons in the material, reducing
resistance as more charge carriers (electrons and holes) are generated. The
IP

resistance decreases proportionally with increasing light intensity.

TH

Applications
PA

Automatic streetlights.
Nightlamps that turn on in the dark.
L
KA

Camera light meters.

Toys with light-based features.
Optical encoders and object detection.
Flame and smoke detectors.
Light-to-sound converters in sound synthesis

1.16.4 Photovoltaic Cells

A photovoltaic (PV) cell is commonly known as a solar cell. It is a
semiconductor device that converts sunlight directly into electrical energy through the
photovoltaic effect. Photovoltaic (PV) cells are widely used in sensors to detect light
intensity or convert light energy into electrical signals for specific applications. When
integrated into sensor systems, photovoltaic cells operate without an external power
source, using the electrical current they generate under illumination.

THEORY  29
 Light energy
Nickel plating
Anti-reflecting
coating

N-type Silicon
Load

P-type Silicon

Fig.1.22 Photovoltaic Cell

Working principle

AM
Photovoltaic cell is made of silicon semiconductor material. It consists of layers,
including a p-n junction, where the photovoltaic effect occurs.

G
PA
PV cells detect light intensity by generating a current or voltage proportional to
the amount of light striking their surface.
IP

This capability is useful for light-measuring devices or energy-harvesting systems.

TH

Small PV cells can act as both the sensor and power source, providing energy
PA

to microelectronics in low-power systems.

L

Applications
KA

Measuring illumination levels in lux meters.

Automatic lighting systems
Weather stations and solar power monitoring.
Detecting light interruption or patterns in optical encoders.
Detecting reflected light in Infrared (IR) systems.
Heart rate monitoring in health care.
Sensing specific wavelengths of light emitted by flames in fire detection.

1.16.5 Bar code reader

A barcode reader (or barcode scanner) is an electronic device used to scan
and decode barcodes printed on various surfaces.

THEORY  30
 1010101011
1110001110
0011100101

Scanner Barcode Binary Code

Fig.1.23 Barcode Reader

Working Principle
The scanner emits a light source, usually LED or laser, to illuminate the barcode.
The light reflects off the barcode and is captured by a sensor.
The scanner interprets the reflected light as binary data based on the pattern of
black-and-white bars or QR patterns.
The decoded data is sent to a connected system, like a computer, point-of-sale
(POS) terminal, or database.

AM
Applications

G
PA
Scanning items at checkout counters in retail shops.
Tracking inventory and shipments in logistics
IP

Managing patient records and medications in healthcare

TH

Keeping records of books in library system.

PA

Validating event or travel tickets.

L

1.17 Shaft Encoders

KA

A shaft encoder is an electromechanical device that converts the position,

rotation, or motion of a shaft into an electronic signal. This signal can then be
processed by control systems to determine position, speed, direction, or angular
displacement.

Types of shaft encoders

1) Incremental encoders: Provide relative position information.
2) Absolute encoders: Provide a unique digital code for each shaft position.
3) Optical encoders: Use a light source and a photodetector to read patterns on
a rotating disk.
4) Magnetic encoders: Use magnetic fields to detect rotation.

THEORY  31
1.17.1 Optical Shaft Encoder
Optical shaft encoder is a device used to measure the rotation of a shaft and
translate it into a digital signal. This information is used in motion control systems to
monitor or control the position, speed, and direction of a rotating object.

Light
source

A
B Optical
detector
Fig.1.24 Optical Shaft Encoder

AM
Components
Rotating disk: A disk with a series of alternating transparent and opaque segments.

G
PA
Light source: An LED, which shines light through or reflects light off the
rotating disk.
IP

Optical sensor: A photodetector which detects the pattern of light passing

TH

through or reflecting from the disk.

Encoder circuit: Converts the detected light patterns into digital signals.
PA

Types of Optical Shaft Encoder

L
KA

1) Incremental Encoders
Provide relative position data.
Generate pulses as the shaft rotates, counting the pulses to determine motion.
Require a reference point for absolute positioning.

2) Absolute Encoders
Provide a unique code for every shaft position.
Do not need a reference point, as they give the exact position at all times.

Working Principle
As the disk rotates, the photodetector generates an electrical signal
corresponding to the pattern of light and dark sections (pulses). The number of
pulses per second indicates the speed.

THEORY  32
 Incremental encoders use two output channels (A and B) that produce signals
90° out of phase. If A leads B, it indicates clockwise rotation. If B leads A, it
indicates counterclockwise rotation.

Applications
Tracking the movement of robotic joints and arms for precise positioning.
Measuring the position and speed of conveyor belts for material handling and
sorting systems.
Providing feedback for controlling motors in various industrial machines.
Tracking the position of cutting, milling, or drilling tools for high-accuracy
machining.
Determining the exact position of the lift relative to floors.

1.17.2 Photoelectric Tachometer

AM
Photoelectric tachometer is a non-contact device used to measure the
rotational speed of a rotating object.

G
Light sensor
PA
Electronic
counter
IP

Light source
TH

Display
device
PA

Disc with Shaft

L

equidistance holes
KA

Fig.1.25 Photoelectric Tachometer

Working Principle
A light-emitting diode (LED) or laser emits a beam of light towards the rotating
object.
A reflective strip or tape is placed on the rotating object. Alternatively, slots or
holes in the rotating object interrupt the light beam.
The sensor detects the reflected or interrupted light.
Each detection corresponds to one rotation
The sensor produces electrical pulses corresponding to the number of rotations
or interruptions.
The frequency of these pulses is proportional to the rotational speed.
The pulse frequency is converted into a speed reading using a microcontroller.

THEORY  33
Applications
Measuring and monitoring the speed of motors, pumps, or fans.
Monitor the rotational speed for performance and safety in turbines and generators.
Measure the speed of wheels or actuators for precise motion control in robots.
Measuring the rotational speeds during mechanical testing.

1.18 Arduino
Arduino is an open-source electronics platform based on easy-to-use
hardware and software. It is designed to make it easier for anyone, to create
interactive electronic projects. Arduino boards can read inputs (like light on a sensor,
a button press, or a Twitter message) and turn them into outputs (like activating a
motor, turning on an LED, or sending a message).

AM
G
PA
IP
TH
PA
L
KA

Fig.1.26 Arduino UNO Microcontroller Board

Features of Arduino
Microcontroller Board: Arduino boards are built around microcontrollers
like the ATmega328, ATmega2560, or other ARM-based chips.
Open Source: The hardware and software are open-source, meaning they
are freely available for use and modification.

THEORY  34
 Beginner-Friendly: Arduino uses a simple programming environment
(Arduino IDE), making it accessible for beginners.
Wide Compatibility: Compatible with a variety of sensors, actuators, and
modules for different projects.
Active Community: A large community provides tutorials, libraries, and
support for almost any project.

Popular Arduino Boards

Arduino Uno: The most popular board, great for beginners.
Arduino Mega: More input/output pins and memory for complex projects.
Arduino Nano: A compact version for space-constrained applications.
Arduino Leonardo: Includes built-in USB functionality for emulating devices
like keyboards or mice.

AM
Arduino MKR Series: Designed for IoT projects, with built-in communication
modules like Wi-Fi or GSM.

G
PA
Working Principle of Arduino
IP

1) Write the code: Use the Arduino IDE to write a program (called a sketch).
TH

2) Upload the code: Connect the Arduino board to a computer via USB and
upload the code to the board.
PA

3) Run the program: The Arduino executes the code to control connected
L

components like sensors and actuators.

KA

Applications of Arduino
Home automation: Smart lighting, security systems, and energy management.
Robotics: Building autonomous robots and vehicles.
IoT Projects: Connecting devices to the internet to create smart systems.
Prototyping: Developing and testing electronic circuits and systems.
Education: Teaching electronics and programming concepts.

ARDUINO IDE SOFTWARE DOWNLOAD LINK

https://www.arduino.cc/en/software

THEORY  35
1.18.1 Arduino-Compatible Voltage Sensor
An Arduino-compatible voltage sensor measures the voltage of a signal and
sends that information to an Arduino for processing. Many voltage sensor modules
designed for Arduino come pre-calibrated and have an easy-to-use analog output
pin. They consist of a voltage divider circuit and sometimes include a built-in
operational amplifier for scaling.

Example
Consider a voltage sensor module with a 5:1 voltage divider ratio. It can
measure up to 25V.
D11

D1
D13
D12

D10

D5

D3
D2
GND

D9
D8

D7
D6

D4

D0
AREF

AM

GND
VCC
G
ARDUINO

PA Voltage sensor

S (Vout)
GND
+ NC
IP
TH
PA
RESET

GND2
GND1
L
VIN
KA

A0
A1
A2
A3
A4
A5
3V
5V

Fig.1.27 Arduino-Compatible Voltage Sensor

Wiring the voltage sensor module

VCC → Connect to the positive terminal of the voltage source to be measured.
GND → Connect to the ground of the voltage source.
S (Signal) → Connect to Arduino's analog input pin A0.
− (GND) → Connect to Arduino's GND.

THEORY  36
Arduino Code

// Define the pin connected to the sensor's output

const int sensorPin = A0;

// Voltage divider ratio (change based on your sensor module's ratio)

const float dividerRatio = 5.0;

// Arduino's ADC resolution (10-bit ADC = 0 to 1023 for 0 to 5V)

const float adcResolution = 5.0 / 1023.0;

void setup() {
Serial.begin(9600); // Start the serial communication
Serial.println("Voltage Sensor Module Example");

AM
}

G
void loop() { PA
// Read the analog value from the voltage sensor module
int sensorValue = analogRead(sensorPin);
IP
TH

// Convert the analog value to voltage (0-5V range)

float outputVoltage = sensorValue * adcResolution;
PA

// Calculate the input voltage based on the voltage divider ratio

L
KA

float inputVoltage = outputVoltage * dividerRatio;

// Display the calculated voltage on the Serial Monitor

Serial.print("Analog Value: ");
Serial.print(sensorValue);
Serial.print("\tOutput Voltage: ");
Serial.print(outputVoltage, 2); // Print output voltage with 2 decimal places
Serial.print(" V\tInput Voltage: ");
Serial.print(inputVoltage, 2); // Print input voltage with 2 decimal places
Serial.println(" V");

delay(1000); // Wait for 1 second before the next reading

}

THEORY  37
Explanation
Analog Reading: The analogRead() function will return a value between 0
and 1023 (for a 10-bit ADC), corresponding to the voltage between 0 and 5V.
Output Voltage Calculation: The value is converted to voltage using the formula
5.0
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝐴𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 ×
1023
Input Voltage Calculation: Since the module reduces the input voltage by
the divider ratio, the input voltage is:
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 = 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 × 𝐷𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜
Divider Ratio: Adjust the dividerRatio constant based on the sensor module
(e.g., 5.0 for a 5:1 divider).

Serial Monitor Output

Analog Value: 512 Output Voltage: 2.50 V Input Voltage: 12.50 V

AM
Applications of Voltage Sensors

G
Tracking battery voltage to determine charge levels.
PA
Measuring the output voltage of power supplies.
IP

Monitoring the voltage of solar panels or batteries.

TH

Measuring voltage from various sensors that output analog signals.

PA

Monitoring voltage across resistive loads in circuits.

1.18.2 Arduino-Compatible Current Sensor

L
KA

Arduino-compatible current sensor is used to measure the amount of electrical

current flowing through a circuit.

Common Types of Arduino-Compatible Current Sensors

1) Hall Effect Current Sensors
These sensors use the Hall Effect to detect the magnetic field generated by the
current flowing through a conductor.
Popular models: ACS712, ACS703, INA219, etc.

2) Shunt Resistor-Based Sensors

This method measures the voltage drop across a known low-resistance shunt
resistor. The current is then calculated using Ohm’s law.
These sensors are commonly used in custom circuits or when very precise
current measurements are needed.

THEORY  38
3) Current Transformer (CT) Sensors
Used mainly for AC current measurements. They work by detecting the
magnetic field around the conductor and producing a proportional output.

Example

D11

D1
D13
D12

D10

D5

D3
D2
GND

D9
D8

D7
D6

D4

D0
AREF

Load
ARDUINO

+
_
Current sensor

GND

VCC
OUT
AM
G
RESET

GND2
GND1
VIN

PA
A0
A1
A2
A3
A4
A5
3V
5V

IP
TH

Fig.1.28 Arduino-Compatible Current Sensor

PA

The ACS712 is one of the most common current sensors for Arduino projects.
It is used for measuring DC current or small AC currents.
L
KA

Wiring the ACS712 to Arduino

VCC → 5V on Arduino
GND → GND on Arduino
OUT → Analog Pin (e.g., A0) on Arduino

Arduino Code for ACS712

const int currentPin = A0; // Analog input pin for ACS712 sensor
float voltage = 0; // Voltage measured by the sensor
float current = 0; // Current calculated from the voltage
float offset = 2.5; // 2.5V is the center point for zero current
float sensitivity = 0.185; // Sensitivity for ACS712

THEORY  39
 void setup() {
Serial.begin(9600); // Start the serial communication
}

void loop() {
// Read the sensor value (0-1023) and convert it to voltage (0-5V range)
voltage = analogRead(currentPin) * (5.0 / 1023.0);

// Calculate the current using the formula:

// I = (Vout - Vref) / Sensitivity
current = (voltage - offset) / sensitivity;

Serial.print("Current: ");
Serial.print(current); // Output current in amperes

AM
Serial.println(" A");

G
delay(500); // Wait for half a second before the next reading
PA
}
IP

Explanation
TH

The offset value: The ACS712 outputs 2.5V when no current flows through it.
This is the "zero current" voltage reference. For DC, 2.5V should be subtracted
PA

from the measured value to get the actual voltage drop caused by the current.
The sensitivity value: This determines how much the output voltage changes
L
KA

per unit of current. For the ACS712, the sensitivity is 185 mV per amp for the
±5A model.

Applications of Arduino-Compatible Current Sensors

Monitoring the current flow of battery-powered systems.
Measuring the current in power supplies, solar panels, or electrical circuits.
Monitor the current drawn by motors in robotic systems or automation projects.
Tracking current consumption of household appliances.

1.18.3 LM35 sensor

The LM35 is a popular temperature sensor that provides a linear output
voltage, which is proportional to the temperature in Celsius. The LM35 produces an
analog output voltage that increases by 10 mV per °C of temperature.

THEORY  40
 D11

D1
D13
D12

D10

D5

D3
D2
GND

D9
D8

D7
D6

D4

D0
AREF
Current sensor

ARDUINO

GND

VCC
OUT
RESET

GND2
GND1
VIN

A0
A1
A2
A3
A4
A5
3V
5V

AM
Fig.1.29 LM35 Temperature Sensor

G
PA
Wiring LM35 to Arduino
VCC (Pin 1) → 5V on Arduino
IP

VOUT (Pin 2) → Analog Pin (e.g., A0) on Arduino

TH

GND (Pin 3) → GND on Arduino

PA

Arduino Code Example for LM35

L
KA

const int sensorPin = A0; // Pin where LM35 is connected

float temperature = 0; // Variable to store the temperature value
int sensorValue = 0; // Variable to store the raw analog value (0-1023)

void setup() {
Serial.begin(9600); // Start serial communication
}

void loop() {
sensorValue = analogRead(sensorPin); // Read the analog value from LM35
// Convert to temperature in Celsius
temperature = (sensorValue * (5.0 / 1023.0)) * 100;

THEORY  41
 Serial.print("Temperature: ");
Serial.print(temperature); // Output the temperature in Celsius
Serial.println(" °C");

delay(1000); // Wait for a second before taking another reading

}

Explanation of the Code

analogRead(sensorPin): Reads the voltage from the LM35 sensor (returns a
value between 0 and 1023).
Convert the raw value to voltage: The formula (sensorValue * (5.0 /
1023.0)) converts the raw analog reading to a voltage between 0V and 5V.
Temperature Calculation: The output of the LM35 is 10 mV per °C, so for

AM
each 1°C increase in temperature, the output increases by 10 mV. For example,
at 25°C, the output will be 250 mV (0.25V).

G
PA
Applications of LM35
Measuring outdoor or indoor temperatures for weather monitoring systems.
IP

Used it in HVAC systems to control room temperature.

TH

Battery-powered temperature sensing.

PA

Monitoring equipment temperature to prevent overheating and failure.

Monitor and control the temperature of motors, circuits, or environments.
L
KA

1.18.4 Arduino-Compatible Ultrasonic Sensor

Arduino-compatible ultrasonic sensor is commonly used for distance
measurement. It works on the principle of sonar, sending out ultrasonic waves and
measuring the time it takes for the waves to reflect back from an object. The sensor
then calculates the distance based on the speed of sound in air.

Example
The HC-SR04 is the most popular and widely used ultrasonic sensor for
Arduino. It consists of two main components:
Trigger pin: Sends a pulse to trigger the sensor.
Echo pin: Receives the reflected signal (echo) and measures the time it takes.

THEORY  42
Working principle
A trigger pulse is sent for at least 10 microseconds to the Trig pin.
The sensor sends out a series of ultrasonic sound waves (typically 40 kHz).
The waves travel through the air and bounce back when they hit an object.
The sensor measures the time taken for the waves to travel to the object and
back. This time is sent out as a pulse on the Echo pin.
The distance is calculated by using the following formula:
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 × 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 =
2
The speed of sound in air is approximately 343 meters per second (m/s) at
room temperature (20°C), or 0.0343 cm/µs.

AM
D11

D1
D13
D12

D3
D2
GND

D10
D9
D8

D7
D6
D5

D0
D4
AREF

Ultrasonic sensor

G
PA

ECHO
ARDUINO

TRIG
GND

VCC
IP
TH
PA
L
KA RESET

GND2
GND1
VIN

A0
A1
A2
A3
A4
A5
3V
5V

Fig.1.30 Arduino-Compatible Ultrasonic Sensor

Wiring the HC-SR04 to Arduino

VCC → 5V on Arduino
GND → GND on Arduino
Trig Pin → Digital Pin D3 on Arduino
Echo Pin → Digital Pin D4 on Arduino

THEORY  43
Arduino Code for HC-SR04

#define TRIG_PIN 3 // Trigger pin connected to digital pin 3

#define ECHO_PIN 4 // Echo pin connected to digital pin 4
#define SOUND_SPEED 0.0343 // Speed of sound in cm/µs

long duration;
float distance;

void setup() {
Serial.begin(9600); // Start the serial communication
pinMode(TRIG_PIN, OUTPUT); // Set the trigger pin as an output
pinMode(ECHO_PIN, INPUT); // Set the echo pin as an input
}

AM
void loop() {
// Send a 10-microsecond pulse to the trigger pin

G
digitalWrite(TRIG_PIN, LOW); // Ensure the trigger is low initially
PA
delayMicroseconds(2);
IP

digitalWrite(TRIG_PIN, HIGH); // Send the pulse

TH

delayMicroseconds(10);
digitalWrite(TRIG_PIN, LOW); // Stop sending the pulse
PA

// Read the time it takes for the echo to return

L

duration = pulseIn(ECHO_PIN, HIGH); // Get the duration of the high pulse

KA

// Calculate the distance (duration * speed of sound) / 2

distance = (duration * SOUND_SPEED) / 2;

// Output the distance to the Serial Monitor

Serial.print("Distance: ");
Serial.print(distance); // Print the calculated distance
Serial.println(" cm");

delay(500); // Wait half a second before the next reading

}

THEORY  44
Explanation
digitalWrite(TRIG_PIN, LOW): Ensures that the trigger pin is initially low.
digitalWrite(TRIG_PIN, HIGH): Sends the ultrasonic pulse.
pulseIn(ECHO_PIN, HIGH): Measures the time taken by the pulse to return
to the Echo pin.
Applications of Ultrasonic Sensors
Used in robotics for obstacle avoidance and mapping.
For accurate distance sensing in industrial applications.
Monitoring liquid levels in tanks or bins.
Used in parking assist systems in vehicles.
Measuring distance for environmental monitoring systems.

1.18.5 Arduino-Compatible Force Sensor

AM
An Arduino-compatible force sensor is a device used to measure the amount
of force or pressure applied to an object.

G
PA
D11

D1
D13
D12

D3
D2
GND

D10
D9
D8

D7
D6
D5

D0
D4
AREF

IP
Force sensor
TH
ARDUINO

PA
L
KA
RESET

GND2
GND1
VIN

A0
A1
A2
A3
A4
A5
3V
5V

10KΩ

Fig.1.31 Arduino-Compatible Force Sensor

Example
The FSR402 is one of the most popular force sensor compatible with Arduino,
offering a simple interface for measuring force. It works by changing its resistance
when pressure is applied to its surface. The more pressure applied, the lower the
resistance.

THEORY  45
Wiring the FSR402 to Arduino
One terminal is connected to 5V (VCC) on Arduino.
The other terminal is connected to Analog Pin A0 on Arduino, along with a
pull-down resistor (typically 10kΩ) to GND.

Working Principle
When no force is applied, the resistance of the FSR is high. When pressure is
applied, the resistance decreases. By reading the voltage from the analog pin, the
force can be calculated. The relationship between resistance and force is not linear,
but it can be calibrated for specific measurements.

Arduino Code for FSR402

const int sensorPin = A0; // The analog pin where the FSR is connected
int sensorValue = 0; // Variable to store the sensor value

AM
void setup() {

G
PA
Serial.begin(9600); // Start serial communication
}
IP
TH

void loop() {
sensorValue = analogRead(sensorPin); // Read the analog value from the FSR
PA

Serial.print("Sensor Value: ");

Serial.println(sensorValue); // Print the raw sensor value
L
KA

delay(500); // Wait for half a second before taking another reading

}

Explanation
analogRead(sensorPin): Reads the value from the FSR sensor. The output is
a value between 0 and 1023, which corresponds to a voltage range of 0 to 5V.
Force Calculation: The raw value is used to represent the force. However,
for more accurate force readings, a calibration process would be required to
convert this value into a measurable force, such as in grams or newtons.

Applications of force sensors

Weight Measurement in electronic scales.
Tactile sensing in robots.

THEORY  46
 Pressure-sensitive applications, like detecting whether an object is sitting on a
surface.
Detecting force in interactive projects such as pressure-sensitive buttons or
touch sensors.

1.18.6 Arduino-Compatible Moisture Sensors

An Arduino-compatible moisture sensor is a device used to measure the water
content (humidity) in soil or other materials. These sensors are used in agricultural
and gardening projects to monitor soil moisture levels for automated irrigation
systems or to track environmental conditions.

Types
1) Capacitive soil moisture sensor: Measures soil moisture by detecting changes
in capacitance. The capacitance is influenced by the amount of water in the soil.

AM
2) Resistive soil moisture sensor: Measures soil moisture by measuring the
resistance between two probes. The resistance decreases as the soil becomes wetter.

G
PA
D11

D1
D13
D12

D3
D2
GND

D10
D9
D8

D7
D6
D5

D0
D4
AREF

IP
TH
PA
ARDUINO

GND

VCC

Moisture sensor
D0
A0
L
KA
RESET

GND2
GND1
VIN

A0
A1
A2
A3
A4
A5
3V
5V

Fig.1.32 Arduino-Compatible Moisture Sensor

Example
The YL-69 is one of the most commonly used resistive soil moisture sensors for
Arduino. It consists of two probes that are inserted into the soil to measure its resistance.
The sensor produces an analog signal that corresponds to the moisture level.

THEORY  47
Wiring the YL-69 Soil Moisture Sensor to Arduino
VCC: Connect to 5V on the Arduino.
GND: Connect to GND on the Arduino.
A0 (Analog Output): Connect to an analog input pin (e.g., A0) on Arduino
D0 (Digital Output): Connect to an digital output pin (e.g., D0) on Arduino

Working Principle
The YL-69 uses two probes to detect the resistance of the soil. When the soil
is moist, its resistance is low. When the soil is dry, its resistance is high. The analog
output from the sensor corresponds to this resistance and can be used to determine
the moisture content in the soil.

Arduino Code for YL-69 Soil Moisture Sensor

const int sensorPin = A0; // The analog pin where the sensor is connected

AM
int sensorValue = 0; // Variable to store the sensor value
int moistureLevel = 0; // Variable to store the moisture level in percentage

G
void setup() {
PA
Serial.begin(9600); // Start serial communication
IP

}
TH

void loop() {
sensorValue = analogRead(sensorPin); // Read the analog value from the sensor
PA

// Map the sensor value to percentage

moistureLevel = map(sensorValue, 0, 1023, 0, 100);
L
KA

Serial.print("Sensor Value: ");

Serial.print(sensorValue); // Print the raw sensor value
Serial.print("\t Moisture Level: ");
Serial.print(moistureLevel); // Print the moisture level percentage
Serial.println(" %");

delay(1000); // Wait for a second before taking another reading

}

Explanation of the Code

analogRead(sensorPin): Reads the value from the moisture sensor (returns
a value between 0 and 1023).
map(sensorValue, 0, 1023, 0, 100): This maps the raw sensor value to a
moisture level percentage (0% for dry and 100% for fully wet).
THEORY  48
Applications of Soil Moisture Sensors
Automated watering systems
Monitoring and optimizing irrigation in fields.
Environmental research to track soil moisture levels.
Monitoring soil moisture in greenhouse environments.

1.18.7 Arduino-Compatible Gas Sensor

Arduino-compatible gas sensor is used to detect the presence and
concentration of gases in the environment, such as toxic or combustible gases.

Types of Gas Sensors

1) MQ series gas sensors: Used for detecting gases like carbon monoxide,
methane, LPG, smoke, alcohol vapors, and more. These sensors work by using
a metal oxide semiconductor (MOS) that changes its resistance when exposed
to gas. The resistance change is proportional to the concentration of the gas.

AM
2) CCS811: This sensor detects the concentration of carbon dioxide and total

G
volatile organic compounds (TVOCs) in the air. It is used for air quality monitoring.
PA
3) MiCS-5524: This is an advanced multi-gas sensor that can detect carbon
monoxide, ammonia, nitrogen dioxide, and ozone gases.
IP

4) Figaro TGS Series: These sensors are used to detect gases like carbon
TH

monoxide, methane, and alcohol vapours.

PA

Example
The MQ-2 sensor is widely used for detecting smoke and various gases like
L

LPG, methane, carbon monoxide, and propane.

KA

Working Principle
The MQ-2 sensor consists of a heating element and a metal oxide
semiconductor. The heating element is heated to a certain temperature to allow gases
to interact with the semiconductor material. The presence of gases like methane,
carbon monoxide, smoke, or propane changes the resistance of the material. The
sensor converts the resistance into an analog or digital signal. The higher the gas
concentration, the lower the resistance, and thus the sensor output increases.

Wiring the MQ-2 Gas Sensor to Arduino

VCC → 5V on Arduino)
GND → GND on Arduino)
A0 → Analog Pin A0 on Arduino
DO →Digital Pin D0 on Arduino

THEORY  49
 Gas sensor

D11

D1
GND
D13
D12

D10

D3
D2
D9
D8

D7
D6
D5

D0
AREF

D4
ARDUINO

GND

VCC
D0
A0
RESET

GND2
GND1
VIN

A0
A1
A2
A3
A4
A5
3V
5V

AM
G
Fig.1.33 Arduino-Compatible Moisture Sensor
PA
Arduino Code Example for MQ-2 Gas Sensor
IP

const int sensorPin = A0; // Analog pin connected to MQ-2

int sensorValue = 0; // Variable to store sensor value
TH

void setup() {
PA

Serial.begin(9600); // Start serial communication

}
L
KA

void loop() {
sensorValue = analogRead(sensorPin); // Read analog value from sensor
Serial.print("Sensor Value: ");
Serial.println(sensorValue); // Print the raw sensor value

delay(1000); // Wait for 1 second before taking another reading

}

Explanation of the code

analogRead(sensorPin): Reads the analog output from the MQ-2 gas sensor,
which corresponds to the gas concentration.
Serial.print(): Outputs the sensor value to the Serial Monitor.
sensorValue: This value represents the gas concentration; a higher value
indicates higher gas concentration.

THEORY  50
Applications of Gas Sensors
Detecting gas leaks in homes and buildings.
Monitoring air quality for controlling pollutants.
Ensuring safety in industrial settings by detecting hazardous gases.
Monitoring environmental pollution levels.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1) Define sensor. Give its classification.

2) Briefly explain the various elements of measurement system.
3) Explain the working principle of bellows with a sketch. State its applications.
4) Explain the working of Bourdon tube with a neat sketch.
5) Explain the use of potentiometer with a circuit diagram. Give its advantages.
6) What are load cells? Explain the strain gauge load cell with a sketch.

AM
7) Explain the working of LVDT. Mention its applications and advantages.

G
8) Explain the working of RVDT with a sketch. State its applications.
PA
9) Explain the AC and DC type of tachogenerator.
10) Explain the principle of capacitive sensors. Write its applications.
IP

11) Explain the working of Hall effect sensor with a circuit diagram.
TH

12) What are the common types of temperature sensors? Explain thermocouple with
PA

a simple sketch.
13) What is RTD? Explain its working principle. Give its applications.
L

14) What are NTC thermistor and PTC thermistor? Explain the various forms of
KA

thermistors.
15) What are IR thermometers? Give its applications and advantages.
16) State the common types of proximity sensors? Explain inductive proximity
sensor with simple sketch.
17) Explain the principle of working of capacitive proximity sensor. Mention its
applications.
18) Explain the three types of photoelectric proximity sensors. State its applications.
19) Explain the working principle of ultrasonic proximity sensor. Give its
applications.
20) What is reed switch? Explain its working principle.
21) What are the common types of light sensors? Explain photodiode.
22) Explain: (a) Phototransistor (b) Photoconductive cell

THEORY  51
23) Explain: (a) Photoconductive cell (b) Barcode reader
24) List out the types of shaft encoders? Explain the optical shaft encoder with
sketch.
25) Explain the working of photoelectric tachometer with a sketch.
26) What is Arduino? Explain its features.
27) Explain how a voltage sensor is interfaced with Arduino to measure the voltage.
Write the Arduino Code for this process.
28) List out the types of Arduino compatible current sensors. Explain any one
sensor with Arduino Code.
29) State the use of LM35 sensor. Explain how it is interfaced with Arduino.
30) Explain the working of Arduino compatible ultrasonic sensor. Write the Arduino
code to interface the sensor with Arduino to find the distance.
31) Explain how the force is measured by interfacing a force sensor with Arduino.

AM
32) Explain any one type of moisture sensor compatible with Arduino.
33) Write the Arduino Code and explain the process of detecting gas leakages using

G
Gas sensor. PA
 
IP
TH
PA
L
KA

THEORY  52
 Unit – II
ACTUATORS
2.1 Electrical actuators
Electrical actuators are devices that convert electrical energy into mechanical
motion. They are commonly used in various applications to automate processes,
control systems, or enable precise movement.

Types of Electrical Actuators

1) Linear actuators: Produce motion in a straight line. Commonly used in
systems like adjustable beds, robotic arms, and industrial machinery. Examples
include screw-driven, belt-driven, and electromagnetic linear actuators.
2) Rotary actuators: Produce rotational motion. Commonly used in valves, servo
systems, and robotic joints. Examples include electric motors and stepper motors.

AM
3) Piezoelectric actuators: Use piezoelectric materials that deform when an electric

G
field is applied. Commonly used in micropositioning and precision instruments.
PA
4) Solenoid actuators: Generate linear motion when an electric current is
applied to a coil, creating a magnetic field. Common in applications like locks,
IP

switches, and relays.

TH

2.2 Switching devices

PA

Switching devices are essential components in electrical and electronic

circuits, used to control the flow of electricity by turning it on, off, or redirecting it.
L
KA

Types of Switching Devices

1) Mechanical Switching Devices
Switches: Manually operated devices that can interrupt or redirect electrical circuits.
Examples include toggle switch, push button, rotary switch, limit switch, etc.
Relays: Electromechanical devices that use a small control signal to switch larger
electrical currents. Examples include general-purpose relays and reed relays.
Contactors: High-power switches used in industrial applications to control
heavy loads.

2) Solid state switches

Diodes: Allow current to flow in one direction, effectively acting as a switch in
rectification.

THEORY  53
 Transistors: Semiconductor devices that can act as electronic switches or
amplifiers. Examples include BJT, FET, etc.
Thyristors: Used for high-power applications. Examples include SCRs, triacs, etc.

2.3 Mechanical switches

Mechanical switches are manually or physically operated devices that control
the flow of electrical current in a circuit by making or breaking the connection. They
are among the simplest and most common types of switching devices, widely used in
everyday appliances, industrial equipment, and electronic systems.

2.3.1 Push button

A push button switch is a type of mechanical switch designed to control an
electrical circuit by pressing a button. When the button is pressed, it either completes
or interrupts the circuit, depending on its design.
Button cap

AM
Return spring

G
PA
NC Terminal NC Terminal
IP

NO Terminal NO Terminal
TH
PA

Fig.2.1 Normally Closed Bush Button

Types of Push Button Switches

L

Momentary Push Button Switch: The circuit is active only while the button
KA

is pressed. Releasing the button returns it to its default state.

Latching Push Button Switch: Pressing the button changes its state (on/off)
and remains in the new state until pressed again.
Illuminated Push Button Switch: Includes an LED or other light source for
visibility or status indication.
Emergency Stop Push Button: Large, red button designed for immediate
shutdown in emergencies.

Components
Button: The part pressed by the user, made of plastic, metal, or rubber.
Spring mechanism: Returns the button to its default position in momentary
switches.
Contacts: Metallic components that make or break the circuit.

THEORY  54
Working Principle
In the default state, the circuit may be open (Normally Open - NO Switch) or
closed (Normally Closed – NC Switch ).
Pressing the button moves an internal actuator or mechanism. This action
causes the internal contacts to change their state. In an NO switch, contacts
close, and allows current to flow. In an NC switch, contacts open and stops
current flow.
For momentary switches, releasing the button restores the contacts to their
default state using a spring mechanism. For latching switches, the button
remains in its new position until pressed again.

Applications
Power and reset buttons in computers, remotes, and appliances.
Start/stop controls and emergency shutdown systems.

AM
Dashboard controls, door openers, and horn activators.

G
ATM and vending machine buttons. PA
2.3.2 SPST (Single Pole Single Throw) switch
IP

SPST switch is one of the simplest types of switches.

TH

Features
PA

Single Pole: Refers to the fact that the switch controls a single circuit.
Single Throw: Means it has only one position to either connect or disconnect
L
KA

the circuit.

Operation
It works like a basic ON/OFF switch. When the switch is closed (ON), the
circuit is complete, and current flows. When the switch is open (OFF), the circuit is
broken, and no current flows.

Applications
Household light switches.
Basic electrical circuits for powering devices.
Low-voltage systems, like doorbells or battery-powered projects.

THEORY  55
 LED 1

LED LED 2
SPST Switch SPDT Switch

Battery Battery

Fig.2.2 SPST Switch Fig.2.3 SPDT Switch

2.3.3 SPDT (Single Pole Double Throw) switch

SPDT (Single Pole Double Throw) switch is a type of electrical switch that has

AM
one input terminal (pole) and two output terminals (throws). It allows the user to
connect the single input to one of the two outputs at a time. This type of switch is

G
commonly used in applications where you need to control or toggle between two
PA
different circuits or functions.
IP

Features
TH

Single Pole: Only one input line or circuit is switched.

Double Throw: It can connect to two output lines, but only one at a time.
PA
L

Applications
KA

Switching between two power sources.

Sending a signal to one of two devices.
Reversing the polarity of a DC motor for changing its direction.
Selecting between different input/output channels.

2.3.4 Limit switch

COM NC NO

Fig.2.4 Limit Switch

THEORY  56
 A limit switch is an electromechanical device designed to detect the presence
or absence of an object, or to measure its movement within a defined physical
range. It operates by making or breaking an electrical connection when the
actuator of the switch is triggered by an object or force.
Limit switch has an actuator. It is mechanically moved by physical contact with
the object. It can come in various forms, such as levers, rollers, or plungers.
Limit switches have three terminals:
Common (COM): The input terminal.
Normally Open (NO): For circuits that need to activate on trigger.
Normally Closed (NC): For circuits that need to deactivate on trigger.

Working Principle
When an object moves into the path of the limit switch actuator, it moves and
triggers the internal contacts.

AM
The switch either completes or interrupts the circuit, sending a signal to control
a process or stop machinery.

G
PA
Applications
To detect the position of machinery components.
IP

To prevent machinery from moving beyond safe limits.

TH

To detect when items reach specific points.

PA

To ensure the door is closed.

L

2.3.5 Solenoid switch / Relays

KA

Coil
Coil Terminals

NO

NC
Pole

Fig.2.5 SPDT Solenoid / Relay

A solenoid switch is an electromechanical device that uses the electromagnetic

effect of a solenoid to control the opening or closing of an electrical circuit. A relay is
a solenoid switch to control a circuit using a low-power electrical signal, which can
open or close high-power circuits.

THEORY  57
Components
Coil: Generates a magnetic field when energized.
Armature: Movable part that connects/disconnects the contacts.
Contacts: The electrical terminals that open or close based on the plunger's
movement.
Spring: Returns the armature to its default position when de-energized.

Working Principle
A solenoid is a coil of wire that creates a magnetic field when current flows
through it.
When the solenoid is energized, the magnetic field pulls a plunger or armature
inside the coil.
This mechanical movement either makes or breaks electrical contacts, enabling
or disabling the flow of current in a separate circuit.

AM
Applications

G
Used in starter systems to connect the battery to the starter motor.
PA
Controls motors, valves, or heavy-duty machinery.
Controls water flow in washing machines or dishwashers.
IP

Operates valves in heating or cooling systems.

TH

2.4 Solid state switches

PA

Solid-state switches are electronic devices that use semiconductor

L

components (like transistors, diodes, and thyristors) to switch electrical circuits on or

KA

off without any moving parts.

2.4.1 Diodes
A diode is a two-terminal electronic component that allows current to flow in
one direction only, acting as a one-way valve for electrical current. Diodes are essential
in various electronic circuits for rectification, protection, and signal modulation.

Rectifier Zener Schottky Varactor Light Emitting Photo

Diode Diode Diode Diode Diode (LED) Diode

Fig.2.6 Different Types of Diodes

THEORY  58
Types of diodes
1) Rectifier Diode: Converts AC to DC in power supplies.
2) Zener Diode: Allows reverse current flow at a specific voltage for voltage
regulation.
3) Schottky Diode: Low forward voltage drop and fast switching speeds.
4) Varactor Diode: Acts as a variable capacitor controlled by voltage.
5) Light-Emitting Diode (LED): Emits light when forward-biased.
6) Photodiode: Generates current when exposed to light.

Working Principle
1) Forward Bias:
When the anode is connected to a positive voltage and the cathode to a
negative voltage, the diode conducts current.
The voltage required to start conduction (forward voltage) depends on the

AM
material: Silicon: ~0.7V and Germanium: ~0.3V

G
2) Reverse Bias: PA
When the anode is connected to a negative voltage and the cathode to a
positive voltage, the diode blocks current.
IP

If the reverse voltage exceeds a certain limit (breakdown voltage), the diode
TH

may fail or conduct.

PA

Applications
Converting AC to DC in power supplies.
L
KA

Using Zener diodes to maintain a stable voltage.

Clipping, clamping, or demodulating signals.
Preventing reverse polarity damage in circuits.
LEDs for display and illumination.

2.4.2 Transistor
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electronic
signals and electrical power. It is one of the fundamental building blocks of modern
electronic devices. It has three terminals.
Base (B): Control terminal.
Collector (C): Main current input or output.
Emitter (E): Main current output or input.

THEORY  59
 C Collector D Drain D Drain

B
Base G G
Gate Gate
E Emitter S Source S Source
PNP N-Channel N-Channel

C Collector D Drain D Drain

B
Base G G
Gate Gate
E Emitter S Source S Source
NPN P-Channel P-Channel

(a) Bipolar (b) FET (c) MOSFET

AM
Fig.2.7 Different Types of Transistors

Types of Transistors

G
1) Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT): Current-controlled device with two types:
PA
NPN: Current flows from the collector to the emitter when a small current
IP
flows into the base.
PNP: Current flows from the emitter to the collector when a small current
TH

flows out of the base.

PA

2) Field-Effect Transistor (FET): Voltage-controlled device with high input

impedance. The types include the following:
L

Junction FET (JFET): Simple design, controlled by voltage at the gate.

KA

Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor FET (MOSFET):

 Enhancement Mode: Off by default; requires voltage to turn on.
 Depletion Mode: On by default; requires voltage to turn off.
3) Darlington Transistor: Combines two BJTs for higher current gain.
4) Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT): Combines MOSFET input with
BJT output characteristics.
5) Photo-Transistor: Light-sensitive transistor.

Working Principle
As a switch: When a control signal is applied to the base (or gate), the
transistor allows current to flow between the collector and emitter (or drain and
source).

THEORY  60
 As an amplifier: A small input current or voltage at the base (or gate) controls
a larger current flow through the collector-emitter (or drain-source) path.

Applications of Transistors
Used in digital circuits, like microprocessors.
Boosting audio, RF, and other signals.
Creating stable frequencies in communication systems.
Used in power supplies and voltage regulators.

2.4.3 Thyristor

(a) Diac (b) SCR (c) Triac (d) GTO

AM
Fig.2.8 Different Types of Thyristors

G
A thyristor is a four-layer semiconductor device with three terminals, designed
PA
to act as a switch for controlling high voltage and high current. It conducts
current in one direction when triggered.
IP

It has a four-layer structure with alternating layers of P-N-P-N semiconductor

TH

material. The three terminals in a thyristor are:

PA

Anode (A): Positive terminal.

Cathode (K): Negative terminal.
L

Gate (G): Control terminal for triggering.

KA

Working Principle
Forward blocking mode: When the anode is positive relative to the cathode
and no gate signal is applied, the thyristor remains off.
Forward conducting mode: When a small current is applied to the gate, the
thyristor becomes forward-biased, turning on and allowing current to flow from
anode to cathode.
Reverse blocking mode: If the cathode is made positive relative to the
anode, the thyristor blocks current flow, regardless of the gate signal.

Types of Thyristors
Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR): Most common type, used for
rectification and switching.

THEORY  61
 Triac: Bidirectional thyristor used in AC power control.
Diac: Bidirectional thyristor without a gate, often used with triacs.
GTO (Gate Turn-Off Thyristor): Can be turned on and off via the gate terminal.
IGCT (Integrated Gate-Commutated Thyristor): Enhanced version of
GTO, used in high-power industrial applications.

Applications of Thyristors
Light dimmers, heater controls, motor speed controllers.
Converting AC to DC in power supplies.
Inverters and converters in renewable energy systems.
Overvoltage protection in power systems.

2.5 DC Motors
A DC motor (Direct Current motor) is an electric motor that converts electrical

AM
energy (from a DC source) into mechanical energy through electromagnetic principles.
It is widely used in applications requiring variable speed and torque control.

G
PA Poles
Yoke
N Brush
IP
TH

S S
PA
L

Commutator
KA

N Shaft
Armature

Fig.2.9 DC Motor
Components
Stator: The stationary part of the motor.
Rotor (Armature): The rotating part that produces mechanical output.
Commutator: A rotary switch that reverses the current direction in the rotor
windings to maintain rotation.
Brushes: Conduct electricity between the stationary power supply and the
rotating commutator.
Windings: Coils of wire in the stator that generate magnetic fields when current
flows through them.

THEORY  62
Working Principle
The brushes transfer the electrical current from an external circuit to the
armature through the commutator.
When current flows through the armature windings, it interacts with the
magnetic field from the stator.
This interaction produces a force that causes the rotor to rotate.
The commutator reverses the current direction in the armature windings
periodically so that the torque always acts in the same rotational direction. Thus
the rotor rotates continuously.

Types of DC Motors
1) Brushed DC Motor: Uses brushes and a commutator for current transfer.
2) Brushless DC Motor (BLDC): No brushes. It uses electronic commutation.
3) Series DC Motor: Field windings are connected in series with the armature.

AM
4) Shunt DC Motor: Field windings are connected parallel to the armature.

G
5) Compound DC Motor: Combines series and shunt field windings.
PA
Applications
IP

Fans, toys, and household appliances.

TH

Windshield wipers, electric windows, and starters.

PA

Machine tools, robotics, and conveyors.

Electric trains and trams.
L
KA

2.6 AC motors
An AC motor operates on the principle of converting alternating current (AC)
electrical energy into mechanical energy through electromagnetic induction.

Slip ring
Rotor Armature

AC Source

Stator Shaft

Fig.2.10 AC Motor

THEORY  63
Components
Stator: The stationary part that generates the RMF. Contains windings
connected to the AC supply.
Rotor: The rotating part where the torque is developed.
Slip Rings and Brushes: Used in wound-rotor motors for external control.

Working Principle of AC Motor

When an alternating current flows through the stator windings, it generates a
rotating magnetic field (RMF). The speed of this magnetic field depends on the
frequency of the AC supply and the number of poles in the stator.
The RMF induces an electromagnetic force (EMF) in the rotor .
This induced EMF causes a current to flow in the rotor, creating its own
magnetic field.
The interaction between the stator's RMF and the rotor's magnetic field

AM
produces a torque. It causes the rotor to rotate.
The rotor continuously tries to "catch up" with the RMF but typically lags

G
behind. It results in a relative motion that maintains torque generation.
PA
Types of AC Motors
IP

1) Synchronous motors
TH

The rotor speed is synchronized with the stator's RMF speed.

PA

There is no slip between the rotor and the RMF.

Requires an external DC supply to magnetize the rotor.
L
KA

2) Asynchronous motors (Induction motors)

The rotor speed is less than the stator's RMF speed.
Slip is essential for torque generation.
Subtypes include Single-phase induction motors and three-phase induction motors

Applications of AC Motors
Large compressors
Power generation systems
Pumps
Fans and blowers
Conveyors and lifts
Washing machines
HVAC systems

THEORY  64
2.7 Stepper motor
+A

-B +D

6 2

-C +C

5 3

-D +B

+A
Stator Magnetic rotor

Fig.2.11 Stepper Motor

AM
Stepper motors are electromechanical devices that convert electrical pulses

G
into discrete mechanical movements. They are widely used in applications requiring
PA
precise positioning, speed control, and rotation without feedback mechanisms.
Components
IP

Stator: The stationary part with multiple coils (electromagnets) arranged in phases.
TH

Rotor: The rotating part, which can be a permanent magnet or made of soft
PA

magnetic material.
L

Working Principle
KA

When a current flows through a stator coil, it generates a magnetic field.

The rotor aligns with this magnetic field due to magnetic attraction.
By sequentially energizing the coils, the rotor is forced to move step by step.
A controller circuit is used to send electrical pulses in a specific sequence to the
stator coils.

Types of Stepper Motors

1) Permanent Magnet (PM) Stepper Motors: Rotor has a permanent magnet.
2) Variable Reluctance (VR) Stepper Motors: Rotor has no magnet. It moves
by minimizing reluctance.
3) Hybrid Stepper Motors: Combines features of PM and VR motors.

THEORY  65
Applications
CNC machines.
3D Printers
Robotics.
Precision instruments.
Automotive gauges.

2.8 Servo motors

Reduction gear
Output shaft

Potentiometer
DC Motor

Amplifier Error Reference

signal output signal
Input to

AM
DC motor
Reference
input signal

G
PA
Fig.2.12 Servo Motor
Servo motors are specialized motors designed for precise control of angular
IP

or linear position, velocity, and acceleration. They are commonly used in applications
TH

requiring high performance and accuracy.

PA

Components
Motor: Provides the rotational force. Can be DC, AC, or brushless DC.
L

Feedback Sensor: Measures the motor's position or speed. Typically a

KA

potentiometer or encoder.
Controller/Driver Circuit: Processes the feedback signal and adjusts power
to the motor to maintain accuracy.

Working Principle
Servo motors work based on a closed-loop feedback control system.
A control signal (typically Pulse Width Modulation, PWM) is sent to the motor's
driver circuit. This signal specifies the desired position, speed, or torque.
The controller compares the motor's actual position with the desired position
(from the input signal).
If there's a difference (error), the controller adjusts the motor's operation to
minimize the error.
The motor moves accordingly, achieving precise positioning or speed.

THEORY  66
Applications
Robotics
CNC machines
3D printers.
Stabilization systems.
Aircraft and automotive controls.

2.9 Pneumatic actuators

Pneumatic actuators are devices that convert compressed air energy into
mechanical motion, providing controlled linear or rotary motion. They are widely
used in industrial automation, process control, and machinery.

Types of Pneumatic Actuators

1) Linear actuators: Generate linear motion. Example: Double-acting cylinders

AM
and single-acting cylinders.
2) Rotary Actuators: Generate rotational motion. Example: Rotary motors.

G
PA
2.10 Components of a pneumatic system
IP

The components of a pneumatic system work together to generate, regulate,

TH

and utilize compressed air for mechanical motion. The important components are:
1) Air Generation Components: These components produce and prepare
PA

compressed air for use in the system.

Air compressor: Converts electrical or mechanical energy into compressed
L
KA

air. Types include reciprocating, rotary screw, and centrifugal compressors.

Air receiver: Stores compressed air and smoothens pressure fluctuations.
Air dryer: Removes moisture from compressed air to prevent corrosion and
damage.
Filters: Remove contaminants such as dust, oil, and water droplets from the air.
Pressure regulator: Maintains consistent air pressure in the system.
2) Air Distribution Components: These deliver and control compressed air flow
throughout the system.
Pipes and hoses: Transport compressed air from the compressor to actuators
and tools.
Valves: Control the airflow to different parts of the system. Examples include
directional control valves, flow control valves, pressure relief valves, etc.

THEORY  67
3) Actuators: Convert compressed air energy into mechanical motion.
Linear actuators: Provide straight-line motion. Examples include single-
acting and double-acting cylinders.
Rotary actuators: Provide rotational motion. Examples include rack-and-
pinion actuators , rotary motors, etc.
Grippers: Use compressed air to grip or release objects in automation systems.
4) Control Components: Manage and optimize system performance.
Controllers: Use signals to operate valves and actuators.
Sensors: Detect parameters like pressure, flow, and position. Send feedback
to controllers for precise operation.

2.11 Single Acting Pneumatic Cylinder

Piston Piston seal Spring

AM
Piston rod

G
Extension stroke
PA Return stroke
IP

Vent port
TH

Pressure port
Fig.2.13 Single Acting Cylinder
PA

A single-acting cylinder is a type of pneumatic linear actuator that uses

L

compressed air to generate force in one direction. It uses a spring or external force to
KA

return it to its initial position.

Construction of a Single-Acting Cylinder

Cylinder body: A hollow tube that houses the piston and provides the
pathway for its motion.
Piston: The moving part inside the cylinder that compresses air and generates force.
Piston rod: Connected to the piston and extends out of the cylinder to
transmit motion.
Spring: Returns the piston to its original position when the air supply is stopped.
End caps: Seal the ends of the cylinder, with ports for air entry/exit.
Port: Allows compressed air to enter and push the piston.

THEORY  68
Working Principle

1) Power Stroke
Compressed air enters through the port on one side of the cylinder.
The air pressure acts on the piston, pushing it in the direction of motion.
The piston rod extends out of the cylinder, performing work.

2) Return Stroke
When the air supply is cut off and the port is vented, the spring inside the
cylinder pushes the piston back to its original position.
The piston rod retracts into the cylinder.

Advantages
Simple design and easy to operate.
Fewer components

AM
Cost-effective.

G
Low maintenance PA
Applications
IP

Holding parts in place during machining or assembly.

TH

Pushing items off conveyor belts or out of molds.

Lightweight lifting operations.
PA

Simple linear motion for positioning parts or tools.

L

2.12 Double Acting Cylinder

KA

A double-acting cylinder is a type of pneumatic linear actuator that uses

compressed air to generate force in both directions.
Piston Piston seal
Rod Rod

Pump flow Return flow Return flow Pump flow

(a) Extension stroke (b) Return stroke

Fig.2.14 Double Acting Cylinder

THEORY  69
Construction of a Double-Acting Cylinder
Cylinder body: Houses the piston and provides the path for its motion.
Piston: A movable component inside the cylinder that separates the two air
chambers.
Piston rod: Attached to the piston. It extends outside the cylinder to transmit
mechanical motion.
End caps: Seal the ends of the cylinder and include ports for air entry/exit.
Ports: Two ports, one on each side of the piston. It allows air to enter or exit
(one for extension, one for retraction).

Working Principle
1) Extension Stroke:
Compressed air is supplied to one side of the piston through the first port.
The air pressure pushes the piston, causing the piston rod to extend outward.

AM
Air from the opposite side of the piston is vented through the second port.

G
2) Retraction Stroke: PA
Compressed air is supplied to the opposite side of the piston through the second port.
The air pressure pushes the piston in the opposite direction, retracting the piston rod.
IP

Air from the initial side is vented through the first port.
TH

Advantages
PA

Provides controlled motion in both directions.

Capable of handling longer stroke lengths.
L
KA

Generates consistent force during both extension and retraction.

Suitable for a wide range of industrial applications.

Applications
Moving, lifting, or clamping components on assembly lines.
Controlling grippers, arms, or other bidirectional movements in robots.
Sealing, cutting, or positioning in packaging industry.
Controlling doors or other actuating mechanisms in vehicles.

2.13 Air motors

Air motors, also known as pneumatic motors, are mechanical devices that use
compressed air to produce rotary or linear motion. They are widely used in industrial
applications where electric motors may not be suitable due to safety concerns or
environmental conditions.
THEORY  70
Types of Air Motors
1) Piston Air Motors: Use reciprocating pistons to generate motion.
2) Vane Air Motors: Feature a rotor with slots housing sliding vanes.
3) Turbine Air Motors: Use a turbine wheel driven by compressed air.

Advantages of Air Motors

Safe for use in explosive or hazardous environments.
Lightweight and compact.
More durable.
Variable speed and torque.
Speed and torque can be easily adjusted by regulating air pressure or flow.
Can stall under load without damage.

Applications of Air Motors

AM
Powering drills, grinders, wrenches, and screwdrivers in manufacturing.

G
Driving conveyors, mixers, and other machinery.
PA
Used in vehicles for hazardous environments (e.g., mining).
Providing motion in environments unsuitable for electric motors.
IP

Used in damp or submerged conditions where electric motors might fail.

TH

2.13.1 Piston type air motor

PA

Piston air motors are mechanical devices that convert compressed air energy
L

into rotary motion.

KA

Cylinder block
Rotor

Piston
Rotary valve

Air outlet

Air inlet

Fig.2.15 Piston Motor

THEORY  71
Components
Cylinder block: Houses the pistons and forms the chamber where
compressed air operates.
Pistons: The primary moving parts that convert the energy of compressed air
into mechanical motion.
Crankshaft: Converts the reciprocating motion of the pistons into rotary motion.
Air Inlet and Distribution System: Directs compressed air to the pistons in
a controlled sequence.
Exhaust ports: Release used air after it has moved the pistons.

Working Principle
Compressed air enters the motor through an inlet port. The air is directed into
the working chambers of the pistons through a rotary valve or sliding valve.
The motor contains pistons arranged radially or axially within a cylinder block.

AM
Compressed air pushes against the pistons, forcing them outward in their

G
cylinders. PA
This reciprocating motion is converted into rotary motion through a crankshaft.
After pushing the piston, the compressed air is released through an exhaust port.
IP

The motor uses rotary valve to direct compressed air to specific pistons.
TH

Types of Piston Air Motors

PA

1) Radial Piston Motors: Pistons are arranged radially around a central crankshaft.
L

2) Axial Piston Motors: Pistons are aligned parallel to the motor’s axis.
KA

Advantages
More durable
Compact and lightweight
High starting torque
Can operate in both forward and reverse directions
Ideal for explosive or flammable environments.

Applications
Pneumatic drills, grinders, and screwdrivers.
Conveyors, hoists, and winches.
Packaging, food processing, and chemical equipment.
Paint spraying and assembly operations.

THEORY  72
2.13.2 Vane Air Motor
Inlet

Housing

Rotor
Vanes

Outlet

Fig.2.16 Vane Air Motor

A vane air motor is a type of air-powered rotary motor that uses the energy
of compressed air to generate rotational motion.

AM
Components

G
Rotor: The central rotating component of the motor.
PA
Vanes: The vanes slide in and out of the rotor slots, creating sealed chambers
IP

between the rotor and the inner wall of the housing.

TH

Housing: Encloses the rotor and vanes.

Inlet port: Allows compressed air to enter the motor.
PA

Exhaust port: Releases the expanded air after it has done its work.
L

Working principle
KA

The motor consists of a cylindrical rotor fitted with several vanes. The rotor is
housed in an eccentric chamber.
Compressed air enters the chamber through an inlet port.
The high-pressure air pushes the vanes. It forces the rotor to turn.
As the rotor turns, the vanes extend outward due to centrifugal force or spring
action, maintaining contact with the inner wall of the housing.
This creates sealed compartments between the rotor and the housing.
The compressed air expands within the sealed compartments. It exerts force on
the vanes and causing the rotor to rotate.
The expansion process converts the energy of the compressed air into
mechanical energy.
After the air has expanded, it exits through an exhaust port.
The continuous intake and exhaust of air ensure smooth rotation.
THEORY  73
Advantages
Can be used in harsh environments.
No risk of electrical sparks.
Low maintenance costs.
Performs efficiently at varying loads and speeds.

Applications
Pneumatic drills, grinders, sanders, and screwdrivers.
Conveyors, mixers, and pumps.
Actuation in pneumatic robots.
Tire changers and paint sprayers.

2.13.3 Turbine motor

AM
Housing
Inlet

G
Turbine
PA
Bearing
IP
TH
PA
L
KA

Fig.2.17 Turbine Motor

A turbine air motor is a type of air-powered rotary motor that uses compressed
air to drive a turbine.

Components
Turbine rotor: Consists of multiple blades.
Housing: Encloses the turbine rotor and directs airflow.
Inlet Port: Supplies compressed air to the turbine.
Exhaust Port: Releases the expanded air after it passes through the rotor.
Bearings: Support the turbine rotor.

THEORY  74
Working Principle
Compressed air enters the motor through an inlet port.
The high-pressure air is directed onto the blades or vanes of the turbine. It
causes the rotor to rotate.
As the air flows through the turbine, its pressure decreases while imparting
kinetic energy to the blades.
This energy conversion generates rotational motion in the turbine rotor.
The rotational motion of the turbine rotor is transferred to an output shaft.
After passing through the turbine, the expanded air exits through the exhaust port.

Advantages
High speed operation
Compact and Lightweight: The design is simple and space-efficient.
More durable

AM
Low maintenance costs

G
More efficiency PA
Applications
IP

Dental drills, grinders, and cutting tools.

TH

Conveyors, fans, and high-speed spindles.

Turbochargers and auxiliary power units.
PA

Small-scale power generation.

L

2.14 Hydraulic actuators

KA

Hydraulic actuators are mechanical devices that convert hydraulic energy into
mechanical force or motion. They are widely used in industries requiring high force
and precise control, such as construction machinery, aerospace, robotics, and
industrial automation.

Types of Hydraulic Actuators

1) Linear Hydraulic Actuators: Convert hydraulic pressure into linear motion.
Examples include single acting cylinders and double acting cylinders.
2) Rotary Hydraulic Actuators: Convert hydraulic pressure into rotational
motion or torque. Examples include hydraulic motors such as gear motors,
vane motors, piston motors, etc.

THEORY  75
2.15 Hydraulic Power Supply
A hydraulic power supply, also known as a hydraulic power unit (HPU), is a
system that generates, controls, and distributes hydraulic energy to power hydraulic
actuators and other hydraulic components.
Double Acting Cylinder
(Actuator)

Flow
Control
Valve (FCV)

AM
G
Valve Actuator PA
IP

Motor
TH

Directional
Control
Valve (DCV)
Pump
PA
L
KA

Pressure
Filter Regulator

Breather
Reservoir (Storage Tank)

Fig.2.18 Components of Hydraulic System

Components
Reservoir (Tank): Stores hydraulic fluid.
Hydraulic Pump: Converts mechanical energy into hydraulic energy by
pressurizing the fluid. Types include gear pumps, vane pumps and piston pumps.
Electric Motor: Provides mechanical power to drive the hydraulic pump.
Accumulator: Stores hydraulic energy to meet sudden demands or smooth
out pressure fluctuations.

THEORY  76
 Control Valves: Direct and regulate the flow and pressure of hydraulic fluid.
Types include directional control valves, pressure relief valves, flow control
valves, etc.
Filters: Remove contaminants from the hydraulic fluid to prevent wear and damage.
Pressure gauge: Monitors the system's pressure to ensure it operates within
safe limits.
Hoses and Pipes: Transport hydraulic fluid between components.

Working Principle
The hydraulic pump draws fluid from the reservoir and pressurizes it.
Pressurized fluid flows through control valves, which direct it to the appropriate
hydraulic actuators or devices.
The fluid powers the actuators (cylinders or motors) to perform tasks like lifting,
pushing, rotating, or clamping.

AM
The fluid returns to the reservoir through return lines, completing the cycle.

G
2.16 Single Acting Hydraulic Cylinder
PA
A single-acting cylinder is a type of hydraulic linear actuator that uses
IP

pressurized hydraulic fluid to generate force in one direction. It uses a spring or

TH

external force to return it to its initial position.

PA

Piston Piston seal Spring

Piston rod
L
KA

Power stroke
Return stroke

Vent port
Pressure port
Fig.2.19 Single Acting Hydraulic Cylinder
Construction
Cylinder body: A hollow tube that houses the piston and provides the
pathway for its motion.
Piston: The moving part inside the cylinder that pressurize hydraulic fluid and
generates force.
Piston rod: Connected to the piston and extends out of the cylinder to
transmit motion.

THEORY  77
 Spring: Returns the piston to its original position when the hydraulic fluid
supply is stopped.
End caps: Seal the ends of the cylinder, with ports for air entry/exit.
Port: Allows pressurized hydraulic fluid to enter and push the piston.

Working Principle
1) Power Stroke:
Pressurized hydraulic fluid enters through the port on one side of the cylinder.
The fluid pressure acts on the piston, pushing it in the direction of motion.
The piston rod extends out of the cylinder, performing work.
2) Return Stroke:
When the fluid supply is cut off and the port is vented, the spring inside the
cylinder pushes the piston back to its original position.

AM
The piston rod retracts into the cylinder.

G
Advantages PA
Simple design
Cost effective
IP

Low energy consumption

TH

Lightweight
PA

More durable
Ideal for Vertical Applications
L
KA

Applications
Dump trucks and tilting mechanisms.
Hydraulic presses and small lifting tools.
Vertical hoists and load elevators.
Agricultural machinery like sprayers or plows.

2.17 Double Acting Hydraulic Cylinder

A double-acting cylinder is a type of hydraulic linear actuator that uses
pressurized hydraulic fluid to generate force in both directions.

Construction
Cylinder body: Houses the piston and provides the path for its motion.
Piston: A movable component inside the cylinder that separates the two chambers.

THEORY  78
 Piston rod: Attached to the piston. It extends outside the cylinder to transmit
mechanical motion.
End caps: Seal the ends of the cylinder and include ports for fluid entry/exit.
Ports: Two ports, one on each side of the piston. It allows air to enter or exit
(one for extension, one for retraction).

Piston Piston seal

Rod Rod

Pump flow Return flow Return flow Pump flow

(a) Extension stroke (b) Retraction stroke

AM
Fig.2.20 Double Acting Hydraulic Cylinder

G
Working Principle
PA
1) Extension Stroke:
IP

Pressurized hydraulic fluid is supplied to one side of the piston through the first port.
TH

The fluid pressure pushes the piston, causing the piston rod to extend outward.
PA

Fluid from the opposite side of the piston is vented through the second port.
L

2) Retraction Stroke:
KA

Pressurized hydraulic fluid is supplied to the opposite side of the piston through
the second port.
The fluid pressure pushes the piston in the opposite direction, retracting the piston rod.
Fluid from the initial side is vented through the first port.

Applications
Excavators, cranes, and bulldozers for lifting and moving loads.
Press machines, material handling systems, and robotic arms.
Tractors, harvesters, and plows.
Aircraft landing gear and flight control systems.
Hydraulic presses for car manufacturing.

THEORY  79
Advantages
Force in both directions
Accurate control of speed, position, and force.
Increased efficiency
Wide range of applications
Flexibility in mounting

2.18 Example Mechanisms Driven by Hydraulic Cylinders

Hydraulic cylinders are versatile actuators used in a wide range of
mechanisms to perform various tasks. The following are some examples of
mechanisms driven by hydraulic cylinders:
1) Lifting mechanisms
Scissor lifts: Cylinders expand or contract the scissor-like arms to raise or

AM
lower platforms in material handling or maintenance equipment.
Elevators: Hydraulic cylinders lift the elevator car by pushing from below.

G
2) Steering mechanisms
PA
Hydraulic steering systems: Cylinders assist in turning the wheels of vehicles
IP

like tractors, forklifts, and ships, providing smooth and controlled steering.
TH

3) Pressing mechanisms
Hydraulic presses: Cylinders apply high force to compress or shape
PA

materials, commonly used in metal forming, forging, and molding.

L

4) Dumping and tilting mechanisms

KA

Dump trucks: Cylinders lift the truck bed, allowing materials to be dumped.
Tipping mechanisms: Used in trailers and loaders for tilting to unload goods.
5) Excavation mechanisms
Excavators: Cylinders control the movement of the boom, arm, and bucket
for digging and material handling.
Backhoe loaders: Cylinders operate the front loader and backhoe for digging
and lifting.
6) Clamping and holding mechanisms
Hydraulic clamps: Used in industrial automation and machining centers to
hold workpieces securely during operations.
Injection molding machines: Cylinders clamp and release molds during the
production of plastic components.

THEORY  80
7) Opening and closing mechanisms
Hydraulic doors: Cylinders open and close heavy doors, such as those on
aircraft hangars or industrial facilities.
Dam gates: Used to control water flow in dams and canals by raising or
lowering gates.
8) Rotational mechanisms
Rotating platforms: Cylinders in conjunction with levers or linkages can
create rotational motion for platforms or machinery.
Crane booms: Cylinders extend and retract sections of a boom arm to position
loads.
9) Agricultural mechanisms
Plows and harrows: Hydraulic cylinders raise and lower agricultural tools
during operation.

AM
Sprayers: Control the extension of arms for even distribution of liquids.
10)Braking Mechanisms

G
Hydraulic brakes: Cylinders apply force to brake pads or drums in vehicles,
PA
providing stopping power.
IP

11)Robotic and automated mechanisms

TH

Robotic arms: Cylinders drive the linear or rotary motion of robotic arms for
assembly and material handling.
PA

Pick-and-place systems: Use cylinders for accurate movement and

placement of objects.
L
KA

12) Aircraft systems

Landing gear: Cylinders extend and retract landing gear during takeoff and landing.
Flight controls: Operate flaps, rudders, and other control surfaces.

2.19 Hydraulic motors

Hydraulic motors are devices that convert hydraulic energy (pressurized fluid)
into mechanical energy (rotational motion).

Types of hydraulic motors

1) Gear Motors: Consists of interlocking gears. Fluid pressure drives one gear,
which rotates the other.
2) Vane Motors: It consists of a rotor with vanes that slide outward to maintain
contact with the housing. It creates chambers for fluid flow.

THEORY  81
 3) Piston Motors: Uses pistons within a cylinder block. Pressurized fluid moves
the pistons to generate rotation. Types include axial piston motors and radial
piston motors
4) Orbital (Gerotor or Geroler) Motors: Consists of an internal and external
gear set. Pressurized fluid moves the gears to create rotation.
Components of a Hydraulic Motor
Housing: Encloses the internal components and directs fluid flow. Protects the
motor from contaminants and damage.
Rotor and shaft: Converts fluid pressure into rotational motion. Transfers
torque to the external load.
Valves: Control the flow of hydraulic fluid into and out of the motor.
Seals and bearings: Prevent fluid leakage and ensure smooth operation.
Designed to withstand high pressures and reduce friction.

AM
Inlet and outlet ports: Allow hydraulic fluid to enter and exit the motor.

G
Cylinder block PA
Rotor
IP

Piston
TH

Rotary valve
PA
L

Fluid outlet
KA

Fluid inlet
Fig.2.21 Hydraulic Motor
Working Principle
Pressurized hydraulic fluid is directed into the motor through the inlet port.
The fluid applies force to the motor’s internal components (gears, pistons, or
vanes), causing them to move.
This internal motion is converted into rotational motion of the output shaft,
which can be used to drive mechanical systems.
The fluid exits the motor through the outlet port and returns to the reservoir for
reuse.

THEORY  82
Advantages
Large amount of torque and power
Variable speed control
High torque at low speeds
More durability and reliability
Overload protection
Compact and lightweight
Versatile mounting options
High energy efficiency
Wide range of applications

Applications
Excavators, cranes, bulldozers, concrete mixers, etc.
Conveyors, Injection molding machines, presses, rotary tables, etc.

AM
Harvesters, tractors, saws, grapples, log loaders, etc.
Drill rigs, conveyors, hydraulic shovels, loaders, etc.

G
Hydraulic drives for vehicles, railway equipment, aircraft systems, etc.
PA
Wind turbines, hydroelectric power plants, oil and gas exploration, etc.
IP

Compactors, recycling machinery, etc.

TH

Manipulators, material handling systems, etc.

PA
L
KA

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1) What is electrical actuator? Give its types.

2) What is the purpose of switching devices? State the common types of switching
devices.
3) Explain the working of push button with a simple sketch.
4) Explain: (a) SPST switch (b) SPDT switch.
5) State the purpose of limit switch. Explain its working principle.
6) Explain the working of solenoid valve with sketch. List out its applications.
7) What is diode? Explain its working principle.
8) What are the types of transistors? Write its applications.
9) What is thyristor? Explain its working principle
10) Explain the working of DC motor with a suitable sketch.

THEORY  83
11) Explain the working of AC motor. State its applications.
12) Explain the working principle of stepper motor. List out its applications.
13) What is the use of servomotor? Explain its working principle.
14) Explain the various components in a pneumatic system.
15) Explain the construction and working of a single acting pneumatic cylinder.
16) Explain the construction and working of a double acting pneumatic cylinder.
17) What is air motor? Give its applications and advantages.
18) Explain the working of piston type air motor with a sketch.
19) Explain the working of vane air motor with a sketch.
20) What is turbine motor? Explain its components and working principle.
21) Explain the various components in a hydraulic power system.
22) Explain the working of single acting hydraulic cylinder with a sketch.
23) Explain the working of double acting hydraulic cylinder with a sketch.

AM
24) List out the various mechanisms driven by hydraulic cylinders.

G
25) Explain the components and working of hydraulic motor.
PA
 
IP
TH
PA
L
KA

THEORY  84
 ONE MARK QUESTIONS
AND ANSWERS FOR MCQ
Unit – I
SENSORS
1. _____ are devices that detect and respond to physical stimuli and
convert them into measurable signals.
Ans: Sensors or transducers
2. Thermistor is an example of _____ sensor.
Ans: resistive

AM
3. Touch sensors are examples of _____ sensors.
Ans: capacitive

G
4. LVDT is an example of _____ sensor.
PA
Ans: inductive
IP

5. Photodiodes are examples of _____ sensors.

TH

Ans: optical
PA

6. Hall effect sensors are examples of _____ sensors.

Ans: magnetic
L
KA

7. Strain gauges are ____ sensors.

Ans: pressure
8. Rotary encoders are examples of _____ sensors.
Ans: position
9. Tachometers are _____ sensors.
Ans: motion.
10. _____ sensors provide continuous output signals proportional to the
input.
Ans: Analog
11. _____ sensors provide discrete output.
Ans: Digital

1 MARK QUESTIONS & ANSWERS  85

12. _____ sensors generate their own output signal from the measured
quantity.

Ans: Active
13. _____ sensors require an external power source to function.
Ans: Passive
14. In a measurement system, _____ element directly interacts with the
physical quantity to produce a response.
Ans: primary sensing
15. In a measurement system, _____ element modifies the raw signal from
the transducer to make it suitable for measurement
Ans: signal conditioning
16. In a measurement system, _____ element transmits the conditioned

AM
signal to the next stage without significant loss
Ans: signal transmission

G
PA
17. Bellows is used to measure _____.
Ans: pressure.
IP

18. Bourdon tube is a mechanical sensor used to measure _____.

TH

Ans: pressure.
PA

19. _____ is a type of variable resistor.

L

Ans: Potentiometer
KA

20. Potentiometer is used to adjust _____ in a circuit.

Ans: electrical resistance
21. Potentiometers can be used as _____ sensors.
Ans: position
22. Load cells are used to measure _____.
Ans: force.
23. Load cells measure force by measuring _____.
Ans: displacement.
24. Strain gauge is used to measure _____.
Ans: strain.

1 MARK QUESTIONS & ANSWERS  86

25. A load cell consists of _____ strain gauges.
Ans: four
26. The four strain gauges in a load cell are mounted at _____ degrees to
each other.
Ans: 90
27. LVDT stands for______.
Ans: Linear Variable Differential Transformer.
28. LVDT is used to measure ______.
Ans: linear displacement.
29. The number of secondary coils in LVDT is _____.
Ans: two.
30. RVDT stands for_____.

AM
Ans: Rotary Variable Differential Transformer.

G
31. RVDT is used to measure _____. PA
Ans: angular displacement.
IP

32. Tachogenerator is used to measure _____.

TH

Ans: rotational speed.

33. The working principle of a Tachogenerator is based on _____.
PA

Ans: electromagnetic induction.

34. The ability of a system to store electrical charge is known as _____.
L
KA

Ans: capacitance.
35. Capacitive sensors work on the principle of _____.
Ans: capacitance.
36. A capacitive sensor consists of a pair of conductive plates with a
_____ material them.
Ans: dielectric
37. When a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the current, the
moving charge carriers experience a force called _____.
Ans: Lorentz force.
38. The deflection of charge carriers creates a potential difference across
the material, known as _____.
Ans: Hall voltage.

1 MARK QUESTIONS & ANSWERS  87

39. The Hall voltage is proportional to the strength of the _____.
Ans: magnetic field
40. A thermocouple measures temperature differences based on the _____
effect.
Ans: Seebeck
41. When two dissimilar metals or alloys are joined at two junctions and
exposed to different temperatures, a _____ is generated.
Ans: voltage
42. RTD stands for _____.
Ans: Resistance Temperature Detector.
43. RTD measures temperature ____ with temperature.
Ans: resistance.

AM
44. The resistance of RTD _____ as the temperature increases.

G
Ans: increases PA
45. _____ is a type of resistor whose resistance changes significantly with
temperature.
IP

Ans: Thermistor
TH

46. In thermistors, NTC stands for _____.

PA

Ans: Negative Temperature Coefficient

L

47. In thermistors, PTC stands for _____.

KA

Ans: Positive Temperature Coefficient

48. In NTC thermistors, resistance _____ as temperature increases.
Ans: decreases
49. In PTC thermistors, resistance _____ as temperature increases.
Ans: increases
50. IR thermometer measures the temperature by measuring _____.
Ans: infrared radiation.
51. Proximity sensors are used to detect _____.
Ans: the presence or absence of an object.
52. Inductive proximity sensor detects objects by sensing changes in _____.
Ans: electromagnetic field.

1 MARK QUESTIONS & ANSWERS  88

53. Capacitive proximity sensor detects objects by sensing changes in _____.
Ans: capacitance.
54. _____ sensor detects only metallic objects.
Ans: Inductive proximity
55. _____ sensor detects both metallic and non-metallic objects.
Ans: Capacitive proximity
56. Photoelectric proximity sensor uses _____ to detect objects.
Ans: light
57. In _____ sensors, the emitter and receiver are placed opposite to each
other.
Ans: through beam
58. In _____ sensors, the sensor has both the emitter and receiver in the

AM
same housing.

G
Ans: Retro-reflective PA
59. Ultrasonic proximity sensors use sound waves to _____.
IP

Ans: detect objects or measure distances.

TH

60. _____ is used in sensors to detect the presence or absence of a

magnetic field.
PA

Ans: Reed switch

L

61. Photodiode converts light into _____.

KA

Ans: electrical current.

62. Photodiodes are made of _____.
Ans: semiconductor materials
63. _____ is a combination of photodiode and transistor.
Ans: Phototransistor
64. LDR stands for _____.
Ans: Light Dependent Resistor.
65. Photoconductive cell changes its electrical resistance based on the _____.
Ans: intensity of light falling on its surface.
66. _____ converts sunlight directly into electrical energy.
Ans: Photovoltaic Cell

1 MARK QUESTIONS & ANSWERS  89

67. _____ is commonly known as a solar cell.
Ans: Photovoltaic (PV) cell
68. Photovoltaic cell is made of _____ material
Ans: silicon semiconductor
69. _____ is used to scan and decode barcodes.
Ans: Barcode reader
70. Optical shaft encoder is used to measure _____.
Ans: rotation of shaft.
71. In encoders, _____ provide relative position data.
Ans: incremental encoders
72. In encoders, _____ provide a unique code for every shaft position.
Ans: absolute encoders

AM
73. Photoelectric tachometer is used to measure _____.
Ans: rotational speed

G
74. Arduino is _____ platform.
PA
Ans: an open-source electronics
IP

75. The program code in Arduino is called _____.

TH

Ans: sketch.
PA

76. ACS712 is an example of _____.

Ans: Arduino compatible current sensor.
L
KA

77. LM35 is an example of _____.

Ans: Temperature sensor.
78. ______ is the most popular ultrasonic sensor for Arduino.
Ans: HC-SR04
79. FSR402 is popular _____ compatible with Arduino
Ans: force sensor
80. _____ is one of the most commonly used resistive soil moisture
sensors for Arduino.
Ans: YL-69
81. MQ-2 is an example of _____ sensor.
Ans: gas sensor

1 MARK QUESTIONS & ANSWERS  90

 Unit – II
ACTUATORS
1. _____ are devices that convert electrical energy into mechanical motion.
Ans: Electrical actuators
2. _____ are used to control the flow of electricity by turning it on or off.
Ans: Switching devices
3. The devices that use a small control signal to switch larger electrical
currents are known as _____.
Ans: relays.
4. _____ are high-power switches used to control heavy loads.
Ans: Contactors

AM
5. _____ allow current to flow in one direction.

G
Ans: Diodes PA
6. _____ can act as electronic switches or amplifiers.
IP

Ans: Transistors
TH

7. In _____ push button, the circuit is active only while the button is
pressed.
PA

Ans: momentary
L

8. In _____ push button, pressing the button changes its state and
KA

remains in the new state until pressed again.

Ans: latching
9. In switches, NO stands for _____.
Ans: Normally Open
10. In switches, NC stands for _____.
Ans: Normally Closed
11. In switches, SPST stands for _____.
Ans: Single Pole Single Throw
12. In switches, SPDT stands for _____.

Ans: Single Pole Double Throw

1 MARK QUESTIONS & ANSWERS  91

13. _____ is used to detect the presence or absence of an object.
Ans: Limit switch
14. Solenoid switch uses the _____ effect to control the opening or closing
of an electrical circuit.
Ans: electromagnetic
15. Solenoid creates a _____ when current flows through it.
Ans: magnetic field
16. The diode conducts current when the anode is connected to _____
voltage.
Ans: positive
17. The diode blocks current when the anode is connected to _____
voltage.

AM
Ans: negative
18. BJT stands for ______.

G
Ans: Bipolar Junction Transistor
PA
19. In BJT, current flows from the collector to the emitter in _____
IP

configuration.
TH

Ans: NPN
PA

20. In BJT, current flows from the emitter to the collector in _____
configuration.
L

Ans: PNP
KA

21. FET stands for _____.

Ans: Field Effect Transistor.
22. JFET stands for _____.
Ans: Junction Field Effect Transistor.
23. Thyristor is a _____ layer semiconductor device.
Ans: four
24. SCR stands for ______.
Ans: Silicon Controlled Rectifier.
25. Bidirectional thyristor is called as ______.
Ans: Triac.

1 MARK QUESTIONS & ANSWERS  92

26. Bidirectional thyristor without a gate is called as ______.
Ans: Diac.
27. The stationary part of electrical motor is _____.
Ans: stator.
28. The rotating part that produces mechanical output is _____.
Ans: rotor or armature.
29. A rotary switch that reverses the current direction is _____.
Ans: commutator.
30. _____ transfer the electrical current from an external circuit to the
armature.
Ans: Brushes
31. AC motor works on the principle of _____.

AM
Ans: electromagnetic induction.
32. In _____ motors, the rotor speed is equal to the stator speed.

G
Ans: synchronous
PA
33. In induction motors, the rotor speed is _____ the stator speed.
IP

Ans: less than

TH

34. _____ motors are used for discrete mechanical movements.

PA

Ans: Stepper
35. In _____ motors, rotor has no magnet.
L
KA

Ans: Variable Reluctance (VR) Stepper

36. Servo motor works based on a _____.
Ans: closed-loop feedback control system.
37. In control systems, PWM stands for _____.
Ans: Pulse Width Modulation
38. _____ are devices that convert compressed air energy into mechanical
motion.
Ans: Pneumatic actuators
39. Double acting cylinder is an example of _____.
Ans: linear actuator.
40. Rotary motor is an example of _____.
Ans: Rotary actuator

1 MARK QUESTIONS & ANSWERS  93

41. In single acting cylinder, _____ is used to return the piston to its initial
position.
Ans: spring or external force
42. In single acting cylinder, compressed air is used to generate force in
_____ direction.
Ans: one
43. In double acting cylinder, compressed air is used to generate force in
_____ directions.
Ans: both
44. Piston air motors use _____ to generate motion.
Ans: reciprocating pistons
45. In _____ motors, sliding banes are used to generate motion.

AM
Ans: vane air
46. Turbine air motors use _____ to generate motion.

G
Ans: turbine wheel
PA
47. In _____ motors, pistons are arranged radially around a crankshaft.
IP

Ans: radial vane

TH

48. In axial vane motors, pistons are arranged _____ to the motor axis.
PA

Ans: parallel
L

49. In vane air motors, the vanes slide in and out of the _____.
KA

Ans: rotor slots.

50. In vane motors, the rotor is housed in an _____ chamber.
Ans: eccentric
51. _____ convert hydraulic energy into mechanical force or motion.
Ans: Hydraulic actuators
52. In hydraulic system, _____ is used to store hydraulic energy.
Ans: accumulator.
53. In hydraulic system, _____ are used to direct and regulate the flow and
pressure of hydraulic fluid.
Ans: control valves

1 MARK QUESTIONS & ANSWERS  94

54. _____ are devices that convert hydraulic energy into mechanical energy.
Ans: Hydraulic motors
55. In hydraulic cylinders, _____ are used to seal the ends of the cylinder.
Ans: end caps
56. In hydraulic cylinders, _____ allows pressurized hydraulic fluid to
enter and push the piston.
Ans: port
57. _____ motor consists of an internal and external gear set.
Ans: Orbital

 

AM
G
PA
IP
TH
PA
L
KA

1 MARK QUESTIONS & ANSWERS  95

 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
USING THERMISTOR

Thermistor R1 R2
R
REF RTH R V Operational
Amplifier

R3 R4 Output
V

AM
RF CAL
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

G
PA
NOTE
The circuit diagram may vary based on the manufacturer of trainer kit.
IP

Hence follow the circuit diagram provided in trainer kit manual

TH
PA
L
KA

PRACTICAL  96
 PRACTICAL EXERCISES
Ex.No. 1(A) Date:_____________

TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
USING THERMISTOR
AIM
1) To construct a circuit to measure temperature of liquid using thermistor.
2) To find the graphical relationship between input and output.

APPARATUS REQUIRED

AM
1) Temperature Measurement Trainer Kit
2) Thermistor

G
3) Thermometer PA
4) Electrical Water Kettle
IP

5) Multimeter
TH

6) Connecting wires
PA

PROCEDURE
1) Connect the output terminals of the thermistor to the corresponding input
L

terminals in the trainer kit.

KA

2) Interconnect the components in the trainer kit as per the circuit diagram using
connecting wires.
3) Fill the electrical water kettle with sufficient water.
4) Turn ON the trainer kit. Select the THERMISTOR module using selector switch.
5) Immerse the thermistor and thermometer in water inside the kettle.
6) Note down the temperature in thermometer. Set this temperature as minimum
temperature in the trainer kit by turning the corresponding potentiometer knob.
7) Switch ON the electrical water kettle and allow the water to boil.
8) Note down the temperature in thermometer. Set this temperature as maximum
temperature in the trainer kit by turning the corresponding potentiometer knob.
9) Switch OFF the electrical water kettle and allow the water to cool.

PRACTICAL  97
TABULATION

Thermometer Reading from Trainer Kit

Sl.No. Reading Temperature Resistance
(° C) (° C) (Ohms)

AM
G
PA
IP
TH
PA
L
KA

PRACTICAL  98
10) For every 5° C decrease, note down the temperature readings in thermometer
and digital display of trainer kit.
11) Also note down the resistance values (in ohms) from digital display by switching
the corresponding knob in the kit. Otherwise, connect a multimeter to the
corresponding terminals in the kit and measure the resistance values.
12) Plot the graph between Temperature (X-axis) and Output Resistance (Y-axis).

MODEL GRAPH

Resistance (Ohms)
Therimistor's

AM
G
PA
IP

Temperature (°C)
TH

RESULTS
PA

1) A circuit to measure the temperature of liquid using thermistor is constructed.

2) A graph is plotted to find the graphical relationship between input (temperature)
L
KA

and output (resistance).

PRACTICAL  99
 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
USING THERMOCOUPLE

Thermocouple

R9
V
V
D Op.
R1 Amp
R7 R8 Op.
R3 Amp Output
V
COLD R10 V
JUNCTION R4 R6
COMPENSATION R2

R5
+5 V

AM
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

G
PA
IP
TH
PA
L
KA

PRACTICAL  100
Ex.No. 1(B) Date:_____________

TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
USING THERMOCOUPLE
AIM
1) To construct a circuit to measure temperature of liquid using thermocouple.
2) To find the graphical relationship between input and output.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1) Temperature Measurement Trainer Kit
2) Thermocouple
3) Thermometer

AM
4) Multimeter
5) Electrical Water Kettle

G
6) Connecting Wires PA
IP

PROCEDURE
1) Connect the output terminals of the thermocouple to the corresponding input
TH

terminals in the trainer kit.

PA

2) Interconnect the components in the trainer kit as per the circuit diagram using
connecting wires.
L
KA

3) Fill the electrical water kettle with sufficient water.

4) Turn ON the trainer kit. Select the THERMOCOUPLE module using selector
switch.
5) Immerse the thermocouple and thermometer in water inside the kettle.
6) Note down the temperature in thermometer. Set this temperature as minimum
temperature in the trainer kit by turning the corresponding potentiometer knob.
7) Switch ON the electrical water kettle and allow the water to boil.
8) Note down the temperature in thermometer. Set this temperature as maximum
temperature in the trainer kit by turning the corresponding potentiometer knob.
9) Switch OFF the electrical water kettle and allow the water to cool.

PRACTICAL  101
TABULATION

Thermometer Reading from Trainer Kit

Sl.No. Reading Temperature Voltage
(° C) (° C) (mV)

AM
G
PA
IP
TH
PA
L
KA

PRACTICAL  102
10) For every 5° C decrease, note down the temperature readings in thermometer
and digital display of trainer kit.
11) Also note down the voltage values (in mV) from digital display by switching the
corresponding knob in the kit. Otherwise, connect a multimeter to the
corresponding terminals in the kit and measure the voltage values.
12) Plot the graph between Temperature (X-axis) and Output Voltage (Y-axis).

MODEL GRAPH
Output Voltage (mV)

AM
G
PA
Temperature (°C)
IP
TH

RESULTS
PA

1) A circuit to measure temperature of liquid using thermocouple is constructed.

L

2) A graph is plotted to find the graphical relationship between input (temperature)

KA

and output (voltage).

PRACTICAL  103
 TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT USING
RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTOR (RTD)

V
R V
Op.
R1 VR R2 Amp Output
SPAN Op.
R R1 Amp
REF
V
RTD V
R3 RF

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

AM
G
PA
IP
TH
PA
L
KA

PRACTICAL  104
Ex.No. 1 (C) Date:_____________

TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT USING

RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTOR
(RTD)
AIM
1) To construct a circuit to measure temperature of liquid using resistance
temperature detector (RTD).
2) To find the graphical relationship between input and output.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1) Temperature Measurement Trainer Kit

AM
2) Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
3) Thermometer

G
4) Multimeter
PA
5) Electrical Water Kettle
IP

6) Connecting Wires
TH

PROCEDURE
PA

1) Connect the output terminals of the thermocouple to the corresponding input

terminals in the trainer kit.
L
KA

2) Interconnect the components in the trainer kit as per the circuit diagram using
connecting wires.
3) Fill the electrical water kettle with sufficient water.
4) Turn ON the trainer kit. Select the RTD module using selector switch.
5) Immerse the RTD and thermometer in water inside the kettle.
6) Note down the temperature in thermometer. Set this temperature as minimum
temperature in the trainer kit by turning the corresponding potentiometer knob.
7) Switch ON the electrical water kettle and allow the water to boil.
8) Note down the temperature in thermometer. Set this temperature as maximum
temperature in the trainer kit by turning the corresponding potentiometer knob.
9) Switch OFF the electrical water kettle and allow the water to cool.

PRACTICAL  105
TABULATION

Thermometer Reading from Trainer Kit

Sl.No. Reading Temperature Resistance
(° C) (° C) (Ohms)

AM
G
PA
IP
TH
PA
L
KA

PRACTICAL  106
10) For every 5° C decrease, note down the temperature readings in thermometer
and digital display of trainer kit.
11) Also note down the resistance values (in Ohms) from digital display by switching
the corresponding knob in the kit. Otherwise, connect a multimeter to the
corresponding terminals in the kit and measure the resistance values.
12) Plot the graph between Temperature (X-axis) and Output Resistance (Y-axis).

MODEL GRAPH
Resistance (Ohms)

AM
G
PA
Temperature (°C)
IP

RESULTS
TH

1) A circuit to measure temperature of liquid using resistance temperature detector

PA

(RTD) is constructed.
2) A graph is plotted to find the graphical relationship between input (temperature)
L

and output (resistance).

KA

PRACTICAL  107
BEHAVIOUR OF PROXIMITY SENSORS
NO
Sensor Buzzer
6 5 4 3
Relay

7 8 1 2

Output

DC Power

AM
Supply

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

G
PA
IP
TH
PA
L
KA

PRACTICAL  108
Ex.No. 2 Date:_____________

BEHAVIOUR OF PROXIMITY SENSORS

AIM
1) To observe the behaviour of inductive proximity sensor and capacitive
proximity sensor for different material samples.
2) To interface relay and buzzer with sensor to test the output.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1) Proximity sensors (inductive and capacitive).
2) 24 V DC Power Supply

AM
3) 24 V DC Relay with 8 Pin
4) 12 V Buzzer

G
5) Connecting Wires PA
IP

TESTING MATERIALS
TH

Various materials such as Cast Iron, Stainless Steel, Aluminium, Copper,

Plastic, Rubber, Wood, Bottle with Water,
PA

PROCEDURE
L

To observe the behaviour of inductive proximity sensor

KA

1) Connect the inductive sensor to a power source.

2) Place various samples (metallic and non-metallic) near the sensor.
3) Observe the sensor's response (LED indicator)
4) The sensor detects metallic objects. No response to non-metallic materials.

To observe the behaviour of capacitive proximity sensor

5) Connect the capacitive sensor to a power source.
6) Place various samples (both metallic and non-metallic) near the sensor.
7) Observe the response (LED indicator)
8) The sensor detects both metallic and non-metallic objects.

PRACTICAL  109
TABULATION

Behaviour of Sensor
Sl.
Material Inductive Capacitive
No.
Proximity Sensor Proximity Sensor
1. Cast Iron Detects the material Detects the material
2. Plastic No response Detects the material

AM
G
PA
IP
TH
PA
L
KA

PRACTICAL  110
To interface relay and buzzer with sensors
Circuit connection:
1) Connect the +ve terminal of sensor (Brown wire) to +ve terminal of DC power supply.
2) Connect the -ve terminal of sensor (Blue wire) to -ve terminal of DC power supply.
3) Connect the +ve terminal of relay (Terminal 2) to +ve terminal of DC power supply.
4) Connect the -ve terminal of relay (Terminal 7) to -ve terminal of DC power supply.
5) Connect the output of the sensor (Black wire) to the relay input (Terminal 8)
6) Connect one terminal of the buzzer to the NO terminal of the relay (Terminal 6).
7) Connect the other terminal of the buzzer to -ve terminal of DC power supply.

Testing:
8) Switch ON the circuit.

AM
9) Place a sample near the sensor.
10) When the sensor detects the object, the relay triggers and the the buzzer gives

G
sound. It confirms that the interfacing is working correctly.
PA
IP

RESULTS
TH

1) The behaviour of inductive proximity sensor and capacitive proximity sensor

is observed for different material samples.
PA

2) The relay and buzzer are interfaced with sensors. The output is tested.
L
KA

PRACTICAL  111
LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER

RG

Demodulator
R1

Frequency
Generator

Core
Power Op.
Supply R1 Amp
CAL Output
V

LVDT
+ve -ve

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

AM
G
PA
IP
TH
PA
L
KA

PRACTICAL  112
Ex.No. 3 Date:_____________

LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL

TRANSFORMER
AIM
1) To construct a circuit for measurement of linear displacement using LVDT.
2) To find the graphical relationship between input and output.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1) LVDT Trainer Kit
2) LVDT with Micrometer
3) Multimeter

AM
4) Connecting Wires

G
PROCEDURE
PA
1) Connect the trainer kit to a power supply as per the manufacturer’s specifications.
IP

2) Plug in the LVDT sensor’s cable to the kit’s designated input socket.
TH

3) Verify that the primary coil is connected to the AC excitation source within the
PA

trainer, and the secondary coil outputs are wired to the signal conditioning circuitry.
4) Calibrate the trainer kit by setting the displacement to a known reference point
L

(e.g., zero position).

KA

5) Adjust the zero adjust knob on the trainer to ensure the output voltage reads 0 V at
the zero position.
6) Gradually move the core of the LVDT using the displacement mechanism
provided in the trainer.
7) Note down the displacement reading on the display of the trainer kit.
8) Also note down the output voltage values (in mV) from digital display by switching
the corresponding knob in the kit. Otherwise, connect a multimeter to the
corresponding terminals in the kit and measure the voltage values.
9) Take the reading s by moving the core in positive and negative directions.
10) Plot the graph between Linear displacement (X-axis) and Output Voltage (Y-axis).

PRACTICAL  113
TABULATION
Displacement (mm) Output
Sl.
Reading from Reading from Voltage
No.
Micrometer Trainer Kit (mV)

-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1

AM
2
3

G
4
PA
5
IP
TH
PA
L
KA

PRACTICAL  114
MODEL GRAPH

Output Voltage (mV)

5 0 +5
Displacement (mm)

AM
RESULTS

1) A circuit for measurement of linear displacement using LVDT is constructed.

G
PA
2) A graph is plotted to find the graphical relationship between input (linear
displacement) and output (voltage).
IP
TH
PA
L
KA

PRACTICAL  115
 PERFORMANCE OF LIGHT SENSOR

mA

Power V
Supply LDR

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

AM
G
PA
IP
TH
PA
L
KA

PRACTICAL  116
Ex.No. 4(A) Date:_____________

PERFORMANCE OF LIGHT SENSOR

AIM
1) To construct a circuit for obtaining the VI characteristics and response
characteristics of photoconductive cell (LDR).

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1) LDR (Photoconductive Cell).
2) DC Power Supply (0–30 V DC).
3) Resistor
4) Ammeter
5) Voltmeter

AM
6) Light Source (LED or bulb with dimmer or distance adjustment).
7) Lux meter

G
8) Breadboard and connecting wires. PA
THEORY
IP

VI characteristics shows how the current through the LDR varies with the
TH

applied voltage under constant light conditions.

Response characteristics demonstrates how the LDR's resistance changes
PA

with varying light intensity.

L

PROCEDURE
KA

VI Characteristics
1) Connect the LDR in series with a fixed resistor to limit current.
2) Attach this series combination to the adjustable DC power supply.
3) Place an ammeter in series to measure current.
4) Place a voltmeter across the LDR to measure the voltage.
5) Adjust the light source to a fixed intensity.
6) Vary the DC power supply voltage in small increments (e.g., 0.5 V steps).
7) For each voltage value, measure the current through the LDR using the ammeter.
Record the corresponding voltage across the LDR using the voltmeter.
8) Plot the VI curve:
X-axis - Voltage across LDR (V) Y-axis - Current through LDR (I).

PRACTICAL  117
TABULATION: VI CHARACTERISTICS

Fixed DC Voltage Current

Sl.
Luminous Voltage across LDR through LDR
No
Intensity (Lux) (Volts) V (Volts) I (Ams)

AM
G
PA
IP

TABULATION: RESPONSE CHARACTERISTICS

TH

Fixed DC Luminous Voltage Current Resistance

PA

Sl. of LDR
Voltage Intensity across LDR through LDR
No 𝑽
(Volts) (Lux) V (Volts) I (Amp) 𝑹= (𝐎𝐡𝐦𝐬)
L

𝑰
KA

PRACTICAL  118
Response Characteristics:
1) Use the same circuit as for VI characteristics.
2) Place the LDR under a variable light source.
3) Use a lux meter to measure the intensity of light falling on the LDR.
4) Set a constant DC voltage across the LDR.
5) Vary the light intensity by adjusting the distance of the light source or using a
dimmer.
6) For each light intensity, measure the current through the LDR using the ammeter.
Record the corresponding voltage across the LDR using the voltmeter.
7) Calculate the resistance of the LDR using the relation R = V/I.
8) Plot the Response Curve:
X-axis: Light intensity (Lux).

AM
Y-axis: Resistance of the LDR.

G
MODEL GRAPHS
PA
High light intensity
IP
TH
Current (I)

Low light intensity

PA

Resistance (Ohms)
L

Voltage (V)
KA

Light intensity (Lux)

V – I Characteristics Response Characteristics

RESULTS
A circuit for obtaining the VI characteristics and response characteristics of
photoconductive Cell (LDR) is constructed. The following results are obtained:
The LDR exhibits an increasing current with voltage, approximately linear.
The resistance of the LDR decreases exponentially as light intensity increases.
Current through the LDR increases as light intensity increases.

PRACTICAL  119
 AREF
GND
D13
D12
D11
RESET ARDUINO D10
3V D9
5V D8
GND2
KA
L GND1 D7
VIN D6
D5
A0 D4
PA
A1 D3
A2 D2
A3 D1
TH
A4 D0
A5
IP
PA

PRACTICAL  120
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
G
GND
AM
OUT
sensor
Optical

VCC
Motor
SPEED MEASUREMENT USING OPTICAL SENSOR
Ex.No. 4(B) Date:_____________

SPEED MEASUREMENT USING OPTICAL SENSOR

AIM
1) To construct a circuit for measuring the speed of the motor using optical sensor.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1) 12 V DC Motor
2) Optical Sensor: Reflective (TCRT5000) or Slot-Type (H21A1).
3) Encoder Disc or Reflective Tape
4) Microcontroller: Arduino Uno
5) Power Supply: 12V DC for motor and 5V DC for microcontroller.

AM
6) Connecting Wires and Breadboard.

G
THEORY
PA
Motor: The motor operates continuously from a direct power source. It spins
IP

an encoder disc or reflective surface.

TH

Optical Sensor: Detects the motion of the encoder disc or reflective surface.
Outputs a pulse for each revolution or slot detected.
PA

Microcontroller: Counts pulses from the sensor. Calculates the motor's speed
in RPM.
L
KA

CIRCUIT CONNECTION

1) Optical Sensor:
VCC → 5V on Arduino
GND → GND on Arduino
OUT → Digital input pin D2 on Arduino

2) DC Motor:
Connect the motor to a direct power source (12V DC).

PRACTICAL  121
 AM
G
PA
IP
TH
PA
L
KA

PRACTICAL  122
ARDUINO CODE
[Note: While typing the code, neglect the text after // in a same line]

volatile unsigned int pulseCount = 0; // Pulse counter

unsigned long previousMillis = 0; // Last time RPM was calculated
const unsigned long interval = 1000; // Interval for RPM calculation (1 second)
const int sensorPin = 2; // Optical sensor output pin

void setup() {
pinMode(sensorPin, INPUT);
// Count pulses on rising edge
attachInterrupt(digitalPinToInterrupt(sensorPin), countPulse, RISING);
Serial.begin(9600);
}

AM
void loop() {

G
unsigned long currentMillis = millis(); PA
if (currentMillis - previousMillis >= interval) {
IP

previousMillis = currentMillis;
TH
PA

// Calculate RPM: pulses per second * 60 / pulses per revolution

float rpm = (pulseCount * 60.0) / 20.0; // Adjust 20 for pulses per revolution
L

Serial.print("Motor Speed (RPM): ");

KA

Serial.println(rpm);

pulseCount = 0; // Reset pulse count for the next interval

}
}

void countPulse() {
pulseCount++;
}

Note: Adjust the pulses per revolution in the code as follows:

For one reflective tape: 1 pulse/revolution
For a slotted disc with 20 slots: 20 pulses/revolution

PRACTICAL  123
TABULATION

Speed of Motor Error (%)

Sl.No. Using Using
𝐕𝟏 − 𝐕𝟐
Tachometer Optical Sensor × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐕𝟏 (rpm) 𝐕𝟐 (rpm) 𝐕𝟏

AM
G
PA
IP
TH
PA
L
KA

PRACTICAL  124
PROCEDURE
1) Attach reflective tape or a slotted disc to the motor shaft.
2) Position the sensor to detect the encoder or reflective tape.
3) Connect the motor using a separate power source.
4) Connect the optical sensor to Arduino as per the pin diagram.
5) Connect the Arduino to a 5V power source.
6) Connect the Arduino to the computer system using USB cable.
7) Open the Arduino IDE in the computer system.
8) Select the Correct Board: Go to Tools → Board→ Arduino Uno (or the
correct board model).
9) Select the port: Go to Tools → Port and select the port labeled with your
Arduino (COM3)

AM
10) Type the Code and save it with a suitable file name.
11) Verify the Code: Go to Sketch → Verify/Compile. Make corrections, if any.

G
PA
12) Upload the Code to the Arduino: Go to Sketch → Upload
13) Switch ON the DC motor.
IP

14) Open the Serial Monitor in the IDE: Tools → Serial Monitor. It displays the
TH

motor's speed in RPM.

PA

15) Measure the speed of motor using tachometer and compare the results.
16) Repeat the procedure to take multiple readings by adjusting the motor speed.
L
KA

RESULT
1) A circuit for measuring the speed of the motor using optical sensor is
constructed and demonstrated.

PRACTICAL  125
 AREF
GND
D13
D12
D11
RESET ARDUINO D10
3V D9
5V D8
GND2
KA
L GND1 D7
VIN D6
D5
A0 D4
PA
A1 D3
A2 D2
A3 D1
TH
A4 D0
A5
IP
PA

PRACTICAL  126
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
G
AM
GND
ECHO
TRIG
VCC
Ultrasonic sensor
PERFORMANCE OF ULTRASONIC SENSOR
Ex.No. 5(A) Date:_____________

PERFORMANCE OF ULTRASONIC SENSOR

AIM
1) To interface ultrasonic sensor with Arduino and measure the distance of the object.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1) Ultrasonic Sensor: HC-SR04 or similar.
2) Arduino Microcontroller.
3) Breadboard.
4) Jumper Wires.

THEORY

AM
The HC-SR04 is the most popular and widely used ultrasonic sensor for
Arduino. It consists of two main components:

G
• Trigger pin: Sends a pulse to trigger the sensor.
PA
• Echo pin: Receives the reflected signal (echo) and measures the time it takes.
IP

WORKING PRINCIPLE
TH

1) A trigger pulse is sent for at least 10 microseconds to the Trig pin.

PA

2) The sensor sends out a series of ultrasonic sound waves (typically 40 kHz).
3) The waves travel through the air and bounce back when they hit an object.
L

4) The sensor measures the time taken for the waves to travel to the object and
KA

back. This time is sent out as a pulse on the Echo pin.

5) The distance is calculated by using the following formula:
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 × 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 =
2
6) The speed of sound in air is approximately 343 meters per second (m/s) at
room temperature (20°C), or 0.0343 cm/µs.

CIRCUIT CONNECTION FOR SENSOR

VCC → 5V on Arduino
GND → GND on Arduino
Trig Pin → Digital Pin D3 on Arduino
Echo Pin → Digital Pin D4 on Arduino

PRACTICAL  127
 AM
G
PA
IP
TH
PA
L
KA

PRACTICAL  128
ARDUINO CODE

#define TRIG_PIN 3 // Trigger pin connected to digital pin 3

#define ECHO_PIN 4 // Echo pin connected to digital pin 4
#define SOUND_SPEED 0.0343 // Speed of sound in cm/µs

long duration;
float distance;

void setup() {
Serial.begin(9600); // Start the serial communication
pinMode(TRIG_PIN, OUTPUT); // Set the trigger pin as an output
pinMode(ECHO_PIN, INPUT); // Set the echo pin as an input
}

AM
void loop() {

G
// Send a 10-microsecond pulse to the trigger pin
PA
digitalWrite(TRIG_PIN, LOW); // Ensure the trigger is low initially
delayMicroseconds(2);
IP

digitalWrite(TRIG_PIN, HIGH); // Send the pulse

TH

delayMicroseconds(10);
digitalWrite(TRIG_PIN, LOW); // Stop sending the pulse
PA

// Read the time taken for the echo to return

L

// Get the duration of the high pulse

KA

duration = pulseIn(ECHO_PIN, HIGH);

// Calculate the distance (duration * speed of sound) / 2

distance = (duration * SOUND_SPEED) / 2;

// Output the distance to the Serial Monitor

Serial.print("Distance: ");
Serial.print(distance); // Print the calculated distance
Serial.println(" cm");

delay(500); // Wait half a second before the next reading

}

PRACTICAL  129
TABULATION

Distance Measured Error (%)

Sl.No. Using Using
𝐃𝟏 − 𝐃𝟐
Steel Rule Ultrasonic Sensor × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐃𝟏 (cm) 𝐃𝟐 (cm) 𝐃𝟏

AM
G
PA
IP
TH
PA
L
KA

PRACTICAL  130
PROCEDURE
1) Connect the components as per the circuit diagram.
2) Connect the Arduino to a 5V power source.
3) Connect the Arduino to the computer system using USB cable.
4) Open the Arduino IDE in the computer system.
5) Select the Correct Board: Go to Tools → Board→ Arduino Uno (or the
correct board model).
6) Select the port: Go to Tools → Port and select the port labeled with your
Arduino (COM3)
7) Type the Code and save it with a suitable file name.
8) Verify the Code: Go to Sketch → Verify/Compile. Make corrections, if any.
9) Upload the Code to the Arduino: Go to Sketch → Upload

AM
10) Place object at a particular distance in front of the sensor.
11) Open the Serial Monitor in the IDE: Tools → Serial Monitor. It displays the

G
measured distance in cm.
PA
12) Measure the distance manually using a steel rule or measuring tape and
IP

compare the results.

TH

13) Repeat the procedure to take multiple readings by placing the object at different
distance in front of the sensor.
PA
L

RESULT
KA

1) The ultrasonic sensor is interfaced with Arduino and the distance of the object
is measured.

PRACTICAL  131
 AREF
GND
D13
D12
D11
RESET ARDUINO D10
3V D9
5V D8
GND2
GND1 D7
KA
L VIN D6
D5
A0 D4
A1 D3
PA
A2 D2
A3 D1
A4 D0
TH
IP A5

PA

PRACTICAL  132
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
G
GND
AM
D0
A0
VCC
PERFORMANCE OF MOISTURE SENSOR

Moisture sensor
Ex.No. 5(B) `Date:_____________

PERFORMANCE OF MOISTURE SENSOR

AIM
1) To interface moisture sensor with Arduino and measure the moisture content
in the soil.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1) Moisture Sensor: YL-69 or similar.
2) Arduino Microcontroller.
3) Breadboard.
4) Jumper Wires.

AM
THEORY
The YL-69 is one of the most commonly used resistive soil moisture sensors

G
for Arduino. It consists of two probes that are inserted into the soil to measure its
PA
resistance. The sensor produces an analog signal that corresponds to the moisture
IP

level.
TH

CIRCUIT CONNECTION FOR SENSOR

PA

VCC → 5V on Arduino
GND → GND on Arduino
L
KA

A0 (Analog Output) → Analog Input Pin A0 on Arduino

PRACTICAL  133
 AM
G
PA
IP
TH
PA
L
KA

PRACTICAL  134
ARDUINO CODE

const int sensorPin = A0; // The analog pin where the sensor is connected
int sensorValue = 0; // Variable to store the sensor value
int moistureLevel = 0; // Variable to store the moisture level in percentage

void setup() {
Serial.begin(9600); // Start serial communication
}

void loop() {
sensorValue = analogRead(sensorPin); // Read the analog value from the sensor
// Map the sensor value to percentage
moistureLevel = map(sensorValue, 0, 1023, 0, 100);

AM
Serial.print("\t Moisture Level: ");

G
Serial.print(moistureLevel); // Print the moisture level percentage
PA
Serial.println(" %");
IP
TH

delay(1000); // Wait for a second before taking another reading

}
PA

EXPLANATION OF THE CODE

L

analogRead(sensorPin): Reads the value from the moisture sensor (returns

KA

a value between 0 and 1023).

map(sensorValue, 0, 1023, 0, 100): This maps the raw sensor value to a
moisture level percentage (0% for dry and 100% for fully wet).

PRACTICAL  135
TABULATION

Sl.No. Soil Sample Moisture Level (%)

AM
G
PA
IP
TH
PA
L
KA

PRACTICAL  136
PROCEDURE
1) Connect the components as per the circuit diagram.
2) Connect the Arduino to a 5V power source.
3) Connect the Arduino to the computer system using USB cable.
4) Open the Arduino IDE in the computer system.
5) Select the Correct Board: Go to Tools → Board→ Arduino Uno (or the
correct board model).
6) Select the port: Go to Tools → Port and select the port labeled with your
Arduino (COM3)
7) Type the Code and save it with suitable file name.
8) Verify the Code: Go to Sketch → Verify/Compile. Make corrections, if any.
9) Upload the Code to the Arduino: Go to Sketch → Upload

AM
10) Insert the moisture sensor into the soil sample.

G
11) Open the Serial Monitor in the IDE: Tools → Serial Monitor. It displays the
PA
measured moisture level in percentage.
12) Repeat the procedure to take multiple readings by inserting the moisture sensor
IP

into different soil samples.

TH
PA

RESULT
1) The moisture sensor is interfaced with Arduino and the moisture content in soil
L

is measured.
KA

PRACTICAL  137
 ON/OFF CONTROL OF DC MOTOR
+ve
COM NC NO DC
Motor-1 ve
SPST Switch - 1

Limit Switch - 1
NO Push
Button SPDT Switch
+ve
COM NC NO
+ve Power DC
Motor-2 ve
ve Supply
SPST Switch - 2

Limit Switch - 2

AM
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

G
PA
IP
TH
PA
L
KA

PRACTICAL  138
Ex.No. 6(A) Date:_____________

ON/OFF CONTROL OF DC MOTOR USING

PUSH BUTTON, SPST, SPDT AND
LIMIT SWITCH
AIM
1) To construct a circuit for ON/OFF control on DC Motor using Push Button,
SPST, SPDT and Limit Switch.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1) DC Power Supply
2) NO Push Button – 1 No.
3) SPDT Switch – 1 No.

AM
4) SPST Switch – 2 Nos.

G
5) Limit Switch – 2 Nos. PA
6) DC Motor – 2 Nos.
7) Wires and Connectors
IP
TH

PROCEDURE
PA

1) Connect the components as per the circuit diagram.

2) Press the NO Push button to power the circuit.
L

3) Use the SPDT switch to control the direction of flow of current to Motor – 1 or
KA

Motor – 2.
4) Switch ON the SPST Switch – 1 to activate DC Motor – 1.
5) Press the Limit Switch – 1 to temporarily stop DC Motor – 1.
6) Switch OFF the SPST Switch – 1 to stop DC Motor – 1.
7) Switch ON the SPST Switch – 2 to activate DC Motor – 2.
8) Press the Limit Switch – 2 to temporarily stop DC Motor – 2.
9) Switch OFF the SPST Switch – 2 to stop DC Motor – 2.

RESULT
1) A circuit for ON/OFF control on DC Motor is constructed using Push Button,
SPST, SPDT and Limit Switch. The working of the circuit is demonstrated.

PRACTICAL  139
ON/OFF CONTROL OF DC MOTOR USING
TRANSISTOR AND RELAY

+ve
NC NO DC
ve Motor
Diode Relay
COM

C
1K Ω
B NPN
Transistor
NO Push Button E

AM
+ve
ve Power
Supply

G
PA
IP
TH
PA
L
KA

PRACTICAL  140
Ex.No. 6(B) Date:_____________

ON/OFF CONTROL OF DC MOTOR USING

TRANSISTOR AND RELAY

AIM
1) To construct a circuit for ON/OFF control on DC Motor using Transistor and Relay.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1) DC Motor
2) NPN Transistor (BC547, or similar)
3) Relay
4) Push Button Switch

AM
5) Resistor (1kΩ)
6) Diode (1N4007 or similar)

G
7) DC Power Supply
PA
8) Wires and Connectors
IP
TH

THEORY
The relay acts as an electrically controlled switch to turn the motor ON/OFF.
PA

The transistor works as a switch to activate the relay when triggered by a control
signal.
L
KA

CIRCUIT CONNECTION

1) Relay Circuit
1) Connect one end of the relay coil to the positive terminal of the power supply.
2) Connect the other end of the relay coil to the collector of the transistor.
3) Place a diode across the relay coil, with its cathode (striped end) connected to
the positive terminal and the anode to the transistor's collector. This protects
the transistor from back-emf when the relay switches off.

PRACTICAL  141
 AM
G
PA
IP
TH
PA
L
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PRACTICAL  142
2) Transistor Circuit
1) Connect the emitter of the transistor to the negative terminal of the power
supply.
2) Connect the base of the transistor to one terminal of the push button through a
1kΩ resistor.
3) Connect the other terminal of the push button to the positive terminal of the
power supply.

3) Motor Circuit
1) Connect one terminal of the DC motor to the normally open (NO) contact of
the relay.
2) Connect the other terminal of the motor to the power supply's positive terminal.
3) Connect the common (COM) terminal of the relay to the power supply's
negative terminal.

AM
OPERATION

G
1) When the push button is pressed, it sends a small current to the transistor's base
PA
via the resistor, turning it ON.
IP

2) This allows current to flow from the collector to the emitter, energizing the relay coil.
TH

3) The energized relay closes its NO contact, completing the circuit for the motor.
4) The motor starts running as it receives power.
PA

5) Releasing the push button cuts the base current to the transistor, turning it OFF.
L

6) The relay de-energizes, opening the NO contact and turning the motor OFF.
KA

RESULT
1) A circuit for ON/OFF control on DC Motor is constructed using Transistor and
Relay. The working of the circuit is demonstrated.

PRACTICAL  143
FORWARD AND REVERSE CONTROL OF AC MOTOR

1 3 5 Reverse 1 3 5
L1 L2 L3 N 13 21 A1 Contactor
13 21 A1

Contactor
Forward
MCCB MCB
14 22 14 22
A2 A2

L1 L2 L3 N

AM
NC
Overload
Relay 95 96

G
PA Stop Forward Reverse

T1 T2 T3

Push Buttons
IP

3 Phase Motor
TH
PA

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
L
KA

PRACTICAL  144
Ex.No. 7 Date:_____________

FORWARD AND REVERSE

CONTROL OF AC MOTOR
AIM
1) To connect Forward Reverse Control switch to change the direction of rotation
of three phase induction motor.
2) To demonstrate the Forward and Reverse operation of Motor.
3) To measure the No-Load current in each phase using Tongue tester (Clamp Meter).

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1) Three-phase induction motor
2) 3-pole contactors – 2 Nos. (One for forward and one for reverse)

AM
3) Overload relay
4) Push buttons – 3 Nos. (Start-Forward, Start-Reverse, and Stop)

G
5) Power supply
PA
6) Wiring materials (wires, lugs, terminals)
IP
TH

WIRING CONNECTION
1) Connect the three-phase power supply (L1, L2, L3) to the input terminals of
PA

the Forward-Reverse contactors (L1→1, L2→3, L3→5).

2) Connect the output of the forward contactor to the motor windings in the
L
KA

correct phase order (L1→T1, L2→T2, L3→T3).

3) Connect the output of the reverse contactor to the motor windings, by
interchanging two phases (L1→T2, L2→T1, L3→T3).
4) Place an overload relay between the output of the contactors and the motor
terminals.

CONTROL CIRCUIT
1) Power to the Control Circuit:
Use a control transformer if a lower control voltage is required (e.g., 24V or
110V).
2) Push Button Stations:
Connect the Stop button in series with the control circuit to interrupt power
to both contactors.

PRACTICAL  145
 AM
G
PA
IP
TH
PA
L
KA

PRACTICAL  146
 Connect the Forward Start button in series with the Forward contactor coil.
Connect the Reverse Start button in series with the Reverse contactor coil.
3) Interlocking:
Add electrical interlocks to prevent both contactors from being energized
simultaneously. This is done by wiring a normally closed auxiliary contact of
the Forward contactor in series with the Reverse contactor coil (21→A1) and
vice versa.
4) Hold-On Circuit:
Add normally open auxiliary contacts of each contactor (13,14) parallel to
its respective Start button to maintain the circuit after the button is released.

DEMONSTRATION
Forward operation:

AM
1) Press the Forward Start button.
2) The Forward contactor energizes, connecting the phases to the motor in a

G
specific order (e.g., L1→T1, L2→T2, L3→T3).
PA
3) The motor starts rotating in the Forward direction.
IP

4) Once the Forward contactor is energized, its auxiliary normally open (NO)
TH

contact closes, maintaining the circuit even after the Forward Start button is
released.
PA

5) Press the Stop button.

6) This de-energizes the Forward contactor, cutting power to the motor, and it
L

stops.
KA

Reverse operation:
1) Press the Reverse Start button.
2) The Reverse contactor energizes, interchanging two phases.
3) The motor starts rotating in the Reverse direction.
4) Once the Reverse contactor is energized, its auxiliary NO contact closes,
maintaining the circuit even after the Reverse Start button is released.
5) Press the Stop button.
6) This de-energizes the Reverse contactor, cutting power to the motor, and it
stops.

PRACTICAL  147
 AM
G
PA
IP
TH
PA
L
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PRACTICAL  148
MEASURING NO-LOAD CURRENT
1) Ensure the motor is disconnected from any mechanical load. This condition
represents the no-load state.
2) Verify that the power supply to the motor is stable and matches the motor’s
rated voltage and frequency.
3) Ensure the clamp meter is rated for the voltage and current levels of the motor.
4) Turn on the clamp meter.
5) Select the AC current mode and set the appropriate current range.
6) Start the motor without any load attached.
7) Open the motor terminal box or use the cable leads accessible in the control
panel.
8) Clamp the meter around one phase conductor (L1). Note the current reading.
9) Repeat for the other two phase conductors (L2 and L3).

AM
10) Record the current values of all three phases.
11) The readings should be nearly identical in a balanced three-phase system.

G
PA
RESULTS
IP

1) The Forward - Reverse Control Switch is connected to change the direction of

rotation of three phase induction motor.
TH

2) The Forward and Reverse operation of Motor is demonstrated.

PA

3) The No-Load current in each phase is measured using Tongue tester (Clamp
Meter).
L

The NO-Load current in Phase -1 (L1) is ________ Amps

KA

The NO-Load current in Phase -2 (L2) is ________ Amps

The NO-Load current in Phase -3 (L3) is ________ Amps

PRACTICAL  149
 PNEUMATIC CIRCUIT FOR
DOUBLE ACTING CYLINDER

Double Acting Cylinder

A B

P - Pressure Port
E1,E2 - Exhaust Ports P

AM
A, B - Cylinder Ports 5/2 Solenoid Valve
E1 E2
(Lever Operated)

G
PA
IP
TH

Filter Lubricator
Regulator
PA
L

Inline slide valve

KA

Air source

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

PRACTICAL  150
Ex.No. 8 Date:_____________

PNEUMATIC CIRCUIT FOR

DOUBLE ACTING CYLINDER
AIM
1) To construct a pneumatic circuit for double acting pneumatic cylinder using
5/2 solenoid valve.
2) To discuss the behaviour of cylinder as linear actuator.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1) Air compressor 2) Inline slide valve 3) FRL unit
4) 5/2 Solenoid DCV 5) Double acting cylinder 6) Connecting pipes
7) Mounting board

AM
CONNECTION PROCEDURE

G
1)
PA
Inline slide valve, FRL unit, DCV and double acting cylinder are fixed on the board.
2) Air compressor outlet is connected to the inlet port of inline slide valve.
IP

3) The outlet of inline slide valve is connected to the inlet port of FRL unit.
TH

4) The outlet from FRL unit is connected to the inlet pressure port (P) of 5/2 DCV.
PA

5) The outlet port A of DCV is connected to the piston side in double acting cylinder.
6) The outlet port B of DCV is connected to the rod side in double acting cylinder.
L
KA

OPERATION
1) The inline slide valve is closed and compressed air is admitted to enter DCV
through FRL unit.
2) The lever of the DCV is activated to bring the left position into action.
3) Now the pressure port P is connected with cylinder port A and the exhaust port
E2 is connected with cylinder port B. It enables the air to enter in piston side of
the cylinder and moves the piston forward.
4) At the same time, air in the rod side of the cylinder exits to atmosphere through
port E2.
5) Then the lever of the DCV is activated to bring the right position into action.

PRACTICAL  151
 AM
G
PA
IP
TH
PA
L
KA

PRACTICAL  152
 6) Now the pressure port P is connected with cylinder port B and the exhaust port
E1 is connected with cylinder port A. It enables the air to enter in the rod side
of the cylinder and moves the piston backward.
7) At the same time, air in the piston side of the cylinder exits to atmosphere
through port E1.

BEHAVIOUR OF CYLINDER AS LINEAR ACTUATOR

A pneumatic cylinder as a linear actuator transforms the energy of compressed
air into linear motion.

1) Force generation
In extending stroke, higher force is available due to the full piston area.
In retracting stroke, slightly reduced force because the piston rod reduces the
effective area.

AM
2) Speed control: The speed of the cylinder's movement is influenced by
The flow rate of compressed air, controlled using flow control valves.

G
PA
The load attached to the cylinder, where higher loads require slower speeds for
precise operation.
IP

3) Dynamic characteristics
TH

Acceleration and deceleration: Rapid changes in piston movement can cause

PA

pressure spikes or oscillations.

Stick-slip effect: Friction between the piston and the barrel can cause irregular
L

motion at low speeds.

KA

4) Load behaviour
Light loads: The cylinder exhibits high speeds and efficient motion.
Heavy loads: Motion slows, and force requirements increase, demanding
higher air pressure or larger cylinder diameters.
Overload conditions: The cylinder may stall or fail to complete the stroke if the
applied load exceeds its capacity.

RESULT
1) A pneumatic circuit for double acting pneumatic cylinder is constructed using
5/2 solenoid valve and its operation is verified using pneumatic system.
2) The behaviour of cylinder as linear actuator is discussed.

PRACTICAL  153
BEHAVIOUR OF HYDRAULIC MOTOR

Hydraulic Motor

A B

P - Pressure Port P R
R - Return Port 4/3 DCV
(Lever Operated)
A, B - Cylinder Ports

AM
Check
Valve
Pump

G
PA
IP

Pressure
TH

Filter Regulator
PA

Tank
L
KA

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

PRACTICAL  154
Ex.No. 9 Date:_____________

BEHAVIOUR OF HYDRAULIC MOTOR

AIM
1) To construct a hydraulic circuit for controlling hydraulic motor.
2) To observe the behaviour of hydraulic motor.

APPARATUS REQUIRED
1) Hydraulic power pack 2) Check valve 3) 4/3 DCV
4) hydraulic motor 5) Connecting pipes 6) Mounting board

CONNECTION PROCEDURE
1) The components are properly fixed on the board at suitable places as per the circuit.

AM
2) The outlet of the pump is connected to the check valve.

G
3) The outlet of check valve is connected to the inlet pressure port (P) of 4/3 DCV.
PA
4) The outlet port A of DCV is connected to one side of the hydraulic motor.
5) The outlet port B of DCV is connected to another side of the hydraulic motor.
IP
TH

OPERATION
PA

1) The pump is switched ON and the lever of the DCV is activated to bring the left
position into action.
L

2) Now the pressure port P is connected with port A and the return port R is
KA

connected with port B. It enables oil to enter in the left side of the motor and
rotates the motor in forward direction.
3) At the same time, oil in the right side of the motor returns to the tank through
port R.
4) Then the lever of the DCV is activated to bring the right position into action.
5) Now the pressure port P is connected with port B and the return port R is
connected with port A. It enables oil to enter in the right side of the motor and
rotates the motor in reverse direction.
6) At the same time, oil in the left side of the motor returns to the tank through
port R.

PRACTICAL  155
 AM
G
PA
IP
TH
PA
L
KA

PRACTICAL  156
BEHAVIOUR OF HYDRAULIC MOTOR
The behavior of a hydraulic motor depends on the design of the hydraulic
system and the operating conditions.
1) Speed Control: The speed of the hydraulic motor is directly proportional to the
flow rate of the hydraulic fluid.
Increase flow: Higher speed.
Reduce flow: Lower speed.
Speed is typically regulated using a flow control valve or a variable
displacement pump.
2) Torque behaviour: Torque depends on the pressure of the hydraulic fluid and
the motor's displacement:
High Pressure: Higher torque.
Load Impact: If the load increases, the motor may slow down but still maintain
torque output, up to its design limit.

AM
3) Efficiency

G
Mechanical Efficiency: Affected by friction between internal components.
PA
Volumetric Efficiency: Leakage within the motor reduces the effective torque
output.
IP

The motor is most efficient when operating near its rated load and speed.
TH

4) Dynamic behaviour
PA

Acceleration and deceleration: The motor responds quickly to changes in flow

rate, but load inertia can affect response time.
L

Steady-state operation: Runs smoothly at a consistent flow rate, provided the

KA

load remains constant.

5) Load behaviour
No load: The motor spins freely at maximum speed with minimal torque
demand.
Partial load: The motor adjusts speed based on the fluid flow while delivering
the required torque.
Heavy load: The motor speed decreases while torque increases to overcome
the resistance, limited by system pressure.

RESULT
1) A hydraulic circuit for controlling hydraulic motor is constructed and its
operation is verified using hydraulic system.
2) The behaviour of hydraulic motor is observed.

PRACTICAL  157
 AREF
GND
D13
D12
D11
RESET ARDUINO D10
3V D9
KA
L 5V D8
GND2
GND1 D7
VIN D6
D5
PA
A0 D4
A1 D3
TH
A2 D2
A3 D1
IP
A4 D0
A5
PA

PRACTICAL  158
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
G
AM
GND
Signal
VCC
Servomotor
SERVO MOTOR CONTROL WITH AN ARDUINO
Ex.No. 10(A) Date:_____________

SERVO MOTOR CONTROL WITH

AN ARDUINO
AIM
1) To construct an Arduino based circuit for sweeping the shaft of servo motor
back and forth across 180 degree.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED
1) Arduino board
2) Servo motor (SG90 or MG995)
3) External power supply

AM
4) Connecting wires
5) Breadboard

G
CIRCUIT CONNECTION FOR SERVOMOTOR
PA
VCC → 5V on Arduino
IP

GND → GND on Arduino

TH

Signal Pin → Digital Pin D9 on Arduino

PA

ARDUINO CODE
L

#include <Servo.h>
KA

// Create a Servo object

Servo myServo;

void setup() {
myServo.attach(9); // Attach servo to pin 9
}

void loop() {
// Sweep from 0 to 180 degrees
for (int angle = 0; angle <= 180; angle++) {
myServo.write(angle); // Set the servo to the current angle
delay(15); // Wait 15ms for the servo to reach the position
}

PRACTICAL  159
 AM
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PA
IP
TH
PA
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PRACTICAL  160
 // Sweep back from 180 to 0 degrees
for (int angle = 180; angle >= 0; angle--) {
myServo.write(angle); // Set the servo to the current angle
delay(15); // Wait 15ms for the servo to reach the position
}
}

WORKING OF THE CIRCUIT

1) The servo motor is controlled by a PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) signal from
the Arduino.
2) The Arduino's Servo Library generates the required PWM signal to rotate the
servo to specific angles.
3) In the code:
The for loops gradually change the angle of the servo from 0° to 180° and

AM
back to 0°, creating a sweeping motion.

G
The delay(15) function provides time for the servo to move to each position.
PA
PROCEDURE
IP

1) Connect the components as per the circuit diagram.

TH

2) Connect the Arduino to a 5V power source.

PA

3) Connect the Arduino to the computer system using USB cable.

4) Open the Arduino IDE in the computer system.
L

5) Select the Correct Board: Go to Tools → Board→ Arduino Uno (or the
KA

correct board model).

6) Select the port: Go to Tools → Port and select the port labeled with your
Arduino (COM3).
7) Type the Code and save it with suitable file name.
8) Verify the Code: Go to Sketch → Verify/Compile. Make corrections, if any.
9) Upload the Code to the Arduino: Go to Sketch → Upload.
10) Now the servo motor rotates rotates back and forth through 180° .

RESULT
1) An Arduino based circuit for sweeping the shaft of servo motor back and forth
across 180 degree is constructed and operation of motor is demonstrated.

PRACTICAL  161
INTERFACING POTENTIOMETER WITH ARDUINO

D11

D1
D13
D12

D10

D5

D3
D2
GND

D9
D8

D7
D6

D4

D0
AREF

Wiper
GND

VCC
ARDUINO

Potentiometer

GND
Signal

AM
VCC
RESET

GND2
GND1
VIN

Servomotor
A0
A1
A2
A3
A4
A5
3V
5V

G
PA
IP
TH

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
PA
L
KA

PRACTICAL  162
Ex.No. 10(B) Date:_____________

INTERFACING POTENTIOMETER
WITH ARDUINO
AIM
1) To interface potentiometer with Arduino and based on its position to get the
control of servo motor shaft.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED
1) Arduino Board
2) Servo Motor (SG90 or MG995)
3) Potentiometer (10kΩ)
4) Connecting Wires

AM
5) Breadboard

G
CIRCUIT CONNECTIONS
PA
1) Potentiometer:
IP

One end terminal → 5V on Arduino.

TH

Other end terminal → GND on Arduino.

PA

Middle pin (wiper) → Analog Pin A0 on Arduino.

2) Servo motor:
L

VCC → 5V on Arduino
KA

GND → GND on Arduino

Signal Pin → Digital Pin D9 on Arduino

ARDUINO CODE

#include <Servo.h>

// Create a Servo object

Servo myServo;

void setup() {
myServo.attach(9); // Attach the servo to pin 9
}

PRACTICAL  163
 AM
G
PA
IP
TH
PA
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PRACTICAL  164
 void loop() {
int potValue = analogRead(A0); // Read the potentiometer value (0-1023)
int angle = map(potValue, 0, 1023, 0, 180); // Map it to a range of 0-180 degrees
myServo.write(angle); // Set the servo to the calculated angle
delay(15); // Small delay for servo stability
}

WORKING OF THE CIRCUIT

1) The potentiometer acts as a variable voltage divider. Rotating the potentiometer
changes the voltage output at its wiper, which is read as an analog value by the
Arduino.
2) The analogRead(A0) function converts this voltage into a value between 0
and 1023.
3) The map() function converts this range into an angle between 0° and 180°,

AM
corresponding to the servo's range.
4) The Servo.write() function moves the servo to the calculated angle.

G
PA
PROCEDURE
1) Connect the components as per the circuit diagram.
IP

2) Connect the Arduino to a 5V power source.

TH

3) Connect the Arduino to the computer system using USB cable.

PA

4) Open the Arduino IDE in the computer system.

5) Select the correct board: Go to Tools → Board→ Arduino Uno (or the
L

correct board model).

KA

6) Select the port: Go to Tools → Port and select the port labeled with your
Arduino (COM3)
7) Type the Code and save it with suitable file name.
8) Verify the Code: Go to Sketch → Verify/Compile. Make corrections, if any.
9) Upload the Code to the Arduino: Go to Sketch → Upload.
10) Rotate the potentiometer. As the knob is turned, the servo shaft will move
proportionally to the potentiometer's position.
11) Full rotation of the potentiometer results in the servo moving between 0° and
180°.

RESULT
1) The potentiometer is interfaced with Arduino and based on its position the
servo motor shaft is controlled.

PRACTICAL  165
 MODEL QUESTION PAPERS

CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT TEST – 1

PRACTICAL EXAMINATION

Course : IV Semester Mechanical Engineering Time : 2 Hrs.

Subject : Sensors and Actuators Max. Marks : 60

Do any one of the following exercises 1 × 50 = 50 Marks

1) i) Construct a circuit to measure Temperature of Liquid using Thermistor or

Thermocouple or RTD.
ii) Also find the graphical relationship between input and output.

AM
2) i) Observe the behaviour of Inductive proximity sensor and Capacitive

G
Proximity sensor for different material samples.
PA
ii) Interface relay and buzzer with sensors to test the output.
IP

3) i) Construct a circuit for Measurement of Linear Displacement using LVDT.

TH

ii) Find the graphical relationship between input and output.

PA

4) i) Construct a circuit to obtain the VI characteristics and Response

Characteristics of Photoconductive Cell (LDR).
L
KA

ii) Construct a circuit to measure the speed of the motor using Optical Sensor.

5) i) Interface Ultrasonic sensor with Arduino and measure the distance of the
object.
ii) Interface Moisture sensor with Arduino and measure the moisture content in
the soil.

Submission of Practical Documents ............................. 10 Marks

QUESTION PAPERS  166

 CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT TEST – 2
PRACTICAL EXAMINATION

Course : IV Semester Mechanical Engineering Time : 2 Hrs.

Subject : Sensors and Actuators Max. Marks : 60

Do any one of the following exercises 1 × 50 = 50 Marks

1) i) Construct a circuit to get ON/OFF control on DC Motor using Push Button,

SPST, SPDT and Limit Switch.
ii) Construct a circuit to get ON/OFF control on DC Motor using Transistor and
Relay.

2) i) Connect Forward Reverse Control switch to change the direction of rotation

AM
of three phase induction motor.

G
ii) Demonstrate the Forward and Reverse operation of Motor.
PA
iii) Measure the No-Load current in each phase using Tongue tester (Clamp
Meter).
IP
TH

3) i) Construct a Pneumatic Circuit to control double acting pneumatic cylinder

using 5/2 Solenoid Valve.
PA

ii) Discuss the behaviour of cylinder as linear actuator.

L

4) i) Construct a Hydraulic Circuit to control Hydraulic Motor.

KA

ii) Observe the behaviour of Hydraulic Motor.

5) i) Construct an Arduino based circuit to sweeps the shaft of servo motor back
and forth across 180 degree.
ii) Interface potentiometer with Arduino and based on its position get the control
of servo motor shaft.

Submission of Practical Documents ............................. 10 Marks

QUESTION PAPERS  167

 CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT TEST – 3
WRITTEN THEORY EXAMINATION

Course : IV Semester Mechanical Engineering Time : 3 Hrs.

Subject : Sensors and Actuators Max. Marks : 100

PART – A ( 30 × 1 = 30 Marks)

[N.B : (1) Answer all questions by choosing the best answer from the given choices.
(2) Each question carries 1 mark. ]

1. Thermistor is an example of _____ sensor.

a) resistive b) capacitive c) inductive d) thermal

AM
2. Touch sensors are examples of _____ sensors.

G
a) resistive b) capacitive c) inductive
PA d) thermal
3. Rotary encoders are examples of _____ sensors.
IP

a) magnetic b) pressure c) motion d) position

TH

4. _____ sensors provide continuous output signals proportional to the input.

a) Active b) Passive c) Analog d) Digital
PA

5. _____ sensors require an external power source to function.

L

a) Active b) Passive c) Analog d) Digital

KA

6. Potentiometer is a type of _____

a) ammeter b) voltmeter c) variable resistor d) actuator
7. Load cells are used to measure _____.
a) force b) voltage c) current d) resistance
8. A load cell consists of _____ strain gauges.
a) two b) three c) four d) eight
9. LVDT stands for______.
a) Linear Voltage Differential Transducer
b) Linear Variable Differential Transformer
c) Linear Voltage Differential Transformer
d) Linear Variable Differential Transducer

QUESTION PAPERS  168

10. Tachogenerator is used to measure _____.
a) voltage b) current c) resistance d) rotational speed
11. The ability of a system to store electrical charge is known as _____.
a) resistance b) discharge c) inductance d) capacitance
12. When a magnetic field is applied perpendicular to the current, the moving
charge carriers experience a force called _____.
a) Hall force b) Lorentz force
c) electromagnet force d) inductive force
13. A thermocouple measures temperature differences based on the _____ effect.
a) Electromagnetic induction b) Hall effect
c) Zeebeck effect d) Photovoltaic effect
14. In NTC thermistors, resistance _____ as temperature increases.

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a) increases b) decreases c) remains same d) none of the above

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15. Inductive proximity sensor detects _____.PA
a) only metallic objects b) only non-metallic objects
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c) both metallic and non-metallic objects d) none of the above

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16. Photodiode converts light into _____.

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a) voltage b) current c) resistance d) magnetic field

17. LDR stands for _____.
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a) Light Dependent Resistor b) Light Detecting Resistor

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c) Light Differential Resistor d) Light Diode Resistor

18. In encoders, _____ provide relative position data.
a) linear encoders b) rotational encoders
c) incremental encoders d) absolute encoders
19. ACS712 is an example of _____.
a) voltage sensor b) current sensor c) temperature sensor d) force sensor
20. _____ is an example of force sensor.
a) FSR402 b) YL-69 c) MQ-2 d) LM35
21. The devices that use a small control signal to switch larger electrical currents are
known as _____.
a) Relays b) Contactors c) Diodes d) Transistors

QUESTION PAPERS  169

22. _____ allow current to flow in one direction.
a) Relays b) Contactors c) Diodes d) Transistors
23. In switches, SPST stands for _____.
a) Single Phase Single Turn b) Single Pole Single Throw
c) Single Pole Single Turn d) Single Phase Single Throw
24. The diode conducts current when the anode is connected to _____ voltage.
a) Positive b) Negative c) Any one d) None
25. In BJT, current flows from the collector to the emitter in _____ configuration.
a) PNP b) NPN c)NNP d) PPN
26. FET stands for _____.
a) Field Effect Transducer b) Field Effect Transformer
c) Field Effect Transistor d) Field Exit Transistor

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27. Bidirectional thyristor is called as ______.

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a) SCR b) Diac c) Triac d) LDR
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28. A rotary switch that reverses the current direction in motor is _____.
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a) commutator b) starter c) limit switch d) Solenoid switch

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29. In _____ motors, the rotor speed is equal to the stator speed.
a) Servo b) synchronous c) induction c) shunt motor
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30. In axial vane motors, pistons are arranged _____ to the motor axis.
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a) parallel b) perpendicular c) radial d) inclined

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PART – B ( 7 ×10 = 70 Marks)

[N.B : Answer any 7 questions. Each question carries 10 marks. ]

31. Explain the working of LVDT. Mention its applications and advantages.
32. What is RTD? Explain its working principle. Give its applications.
33. What are the common types of light sensors? Explain photodiode.
34. State the common types of proximity sensors? Explain inductive proximity
sensor with simple sketch.
35. List out the types of shaft encoders? Explain the optical shaft encoder with
sketch.

QUESTION PAPERS  170

36. Explain the working of Arduino compatible ultrasonic sensor. Write the
Arduino code to interface the sensor with Arduino to find the distance.
37. Explain the working of solenoid valve with sketch. List out its applications.
38. Explain the working principle of stepper motor. List out its applications.
39. Explain the working of piston type air motor with a sketch.
40. Explain the working of double acting hydraulic cylinder with a sketch.

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QUESTION PAPERS  171

 CONTINUOUS ASSESSMENT TEST – 4
&
END SEMESTER EXAMINATION, OCT / APRIL -

Course : IV Semester Mechanical Engineering Time : 3 Hrs.

Subject : Sensors and Actuators Max. Marks : 100
Do any one of the following exercises 1 × 60 = 60 Marks

1. i) Construct a circuit to measure Temperature of Liquid using Thermistor or

Thermocouple or RTD.
ii) Also find the graphical relationship between input and output.

2. i) Observe the behaviour of Inductive proximity sensor and Capacitive

Proximity sensor for different material samples.

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ii) Interface relay and buzzer with sensors to test the output.

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3. i) Construct a circuit for Measurement of Linear Displacement using LVDT.
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ii) Find the graphical relationship between input and output.
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4. i) Construct a circuit to obtain the VI characteristics and Response

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Characteristics of Photoconductive Cell (LDR).

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ii) Construct a circuit to measure the speed of the motor using Optical Sensor.
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5. i) Interface Ultrasonic sensor with Arduino and measure the distance of the
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object.
ii) Interface Moisture sensor with Arduino and measure the moisture content
in the soil.

6. i) Construct a circuit to get ON/OFF control on DC Motor using Push Button,

SPST, SPDT and Limit Switch.
ii) Construct a circuit to get ON/OFF control on DC Motor using Transistor and
Relay.

7. i) Connect Forward Reverse Control switch to change the direction of rotation of

three phase induction motor.
ii) Demonstrate the Forward and Reverse operation of Motor.
iii) Measure the No-Load current in each phase using Tongue tester (Clamp Meter).

QUESTION PAPERS  172

8. i) Construct a Pneumatic Circuit to control double acting pneumatic cylinder
using 5/2 Solenoid Valve.
ii) Discuss the behaviour of cylinder as linear actuator.

9. i) Construct a Hydraulic Circuit to control Hydraulic Motor.

ii) Observe the behaviour of Hydraulic Motor.

10. i) Construct an Arduino based circuit to sweeps the shaft of servo motor back
and forth across 180 degree.
ii) Interface potentiometer with Arduino and based on its position get the
control of servo motor shaft.

WRITTEN TEST - MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS 30 × 1 = 30 Marks

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[N.B : (1) Answer all questions by choosing the best answer from the given choices.

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(2) Each question carries 1 mark. ] PA
1. LVDT is an example of _____ sensor.
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a) resistive b) capacitive c) inductive d) thermal

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2. Photodiodes are examples of _____ sensors.

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a) resistive b) optical c) inductive d) thermal

3. Tachometers are _____ sensors.
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a) magnetic b) pressure c) motion d) position

4. _____ sensors provide discrete output.
a) Active b) Passive c) Analog d) Digital
5. _____ sensors generate their own output signal from the measured quantity.
a) Active b) Passive c) Analog d) Digital
6. Potentiometer is used to adjust _____ in a circuit.
a) voltage b) current c) resistance d) EMF
7. Load cells measure force by measuring _____.
a) resistance b) voltage c) current d) displacement
8. The four strain gauges in a load cell are mounted at _____ degrees to each other.
a) 30 b) 45 c) 60 d) 90

QUESTION PAPERS  173

 9. RVDT stands for_____.
a) Rotary Voltage Differential Transducer
b) Rotary Variable Differential Transformer
c) Rotating Voltage Differential Transformer
d) Rotary Variable Differential Transducer
10. The working principle of a Tachogenerator is based on _____.
a) Electromagnetic induction b) Hall effect
c) Zeebeck effect d) Photovoltaic effect
11. A capacitive sensor consists of a pair of conductive plates with a _____ between them.
a) conductive b) dielectric c) resistive d) semiconductor

12. The Hall voltage is proportional to the strength of the _____.

a) current b) voltage c) EMF d) magnetic field

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13. When two dissimilar metals or alloys are joined at two junctions and exposed to

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different temperatures, a _____ is generated.
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a) voltage b) current c) resistance d) magnetic field
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14. In PTC thermistors, resistance _____ as temperature increases.
a) increases b) decreases c) remains same d) none of the above
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15. Capacitive proximity sensor detects _____.

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a) only metallic objects b) only non-metallic objects

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c) both metallic and non-metallic objects d) none of the above

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16. Photodiodes are made of _____.

a) metals b) non-metals c) dielectric material d) semiconductor material
17. _____ converts sunlight directly into electrical energy.
a) Photodiode b) LED c) Photovoltaic Cell d) LDR
18. In encoders, _____ provide a unique code for every shaft position.
a) linear encoders b) rotational encoders
c) incremental encoders d) absolute encoders
19. LM35 is an example of _____.
a) voltage sensor b) current sensor c) temperature sensor d) force sensor
20. _____ is an example of gas sensor.
a) FSR402 b) YL-69 c) MQ-2 d) LM35

QUESTION PAPERS  174

21. _____ are high-power switches used to control heavy loads.
a) Relays b) Contactors c) Diodes d) Transistors

22. In switches, NO stands for _____.

a) Not Open b) Normally Open c) Non Operative d) Not Operative

23. In switches, SPDT stands for _____.

a) Single Phase Double Turn b) Single Pole Double Turn
c) Single Phase Double Turn d) Single Pole Double Throw

24. The diode blocks current when the anode is connected to _____ voltage.
a) Positive b) Negative c) Any one d) None

25. In BJT, current flows from the emitter to the collector in _____ configuration.
a) PNP b) NPN c)NNP d) PPN

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26. Thyristor is a _____ layer semiconductor device.

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a) two b) three c) four d) six PA
27. Bidirectional thyristor without a gate is called as ______.
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a) SCR b) Diac c) Triac d) LDR

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28. In motors, _____transfer the electrical current from an external circuit to the
armature.
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a) commutators b) relays c) contactors d) brushes

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29. In induction motors, the rotor speed is _____ the stator speed.
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a) equal to b) less than c) greater than d) None

30. In axial vane motors, pistons are arranged _____ to the motor axis.
a) parallel b) perpendicular c) tangential d) axial

Viva – voice .......................................................................... 10 Marks

QUESTION PAPERS  175

 SENSORS AND ACTUATORS

ANSWERS FOR MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS (MCQ)

Continuous Assessment Test - III Continuous Assessment Test - IV

1. a) 11. d) 21. a) 1. c) 11. b) 21. b)

2. b) 12. b) 22. c) 2. b) 12. d) 22. b)
3. d) 13. c) 23. b) 3. c) 13. a) 23. d)
4. c) 14. b) 24. a) 4. d) 14. a) 24. b)
5. b) 15. a) 25. b) 5. a) 15. c) 25. a)
6. c) 16. b) 26. c) 6. c) 16. d) 26. c)
7. a) 17. a) 27. c) 7. d) 17. c) 27. b)
8. c) 18. c) 28. a) 8. d) 18. d) 28. d)

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9. b) 19. b) 29. b) 9. b) 19. c) 29. b)
10. d) 20. a) 30. 10. a) 20. c) 30. a)

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QUESTION PAPERS  176

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