UNIT I

Fundamental Principle of Aerodynamics

INTRODUCTION TO AERODYNAMICS.
Aerodynamics is a sub-field of fluid dynamics and gas dynamics, and many aspects of
aerodynamics theory are common to these fields. The term aerodynamics is often used
synonymously with gas dynamics, the difference being that "gas dynamics" applies to the study
of the motion of all gases, and is not limited to air.

Aerodynamics is the study of the interaction of air with a solid body where there is some
relative motion between them.

Aerodynamics is primarily concerned with the forces of drag and lift, which are caused by air
passing over and around solid bodies. Engineers apply the principles of aerodynamics to the
designs of many different things, including buildings, bridges and even soccer balls; however, of
primary concern is the aerodynamics of aircraft and automobiles.
Aerodynamics comes into play in the study of flight and the science of building and operating an
aircraft, which is called Aeronautics. Aeronautical engineers use the fundamentals of
aerodynamics to design aircraft that fly through the Earth's atmosphere.
(for detailed information: Refer FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS –
JOHN.D.ANDERSON)

NEED FOR STUDY OF AERODYNAMICS

Aerodynamics is the way objects move through air. The rules of aerodynamics explain how an
airplane is able to fly. Anything that moves through air is affected by aerodynamics, from a rocket
blasting off, to a kite flying. Since they are surrounded by air, even cars are affected by
aerodynamics.
Studying the motion of air around an object allows us to measure the forces of lift, which allows
an aircraft to overcome gravity, and drag, which is the resistance an aircraft “feels” as it moves
through the air. Everything moving through the air (including airplanes, rockets, and birds) is
affected by aerodynamics.

APPLICATION OF AERODYNAMICS: INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL

AERODYNAMICS

Aerodynamics is an applied science with many practical applications in engineering. No matter

how elegant an aerodynamic theory may be, or how mathematically complex a numerical
solution may be, or how sophisticated an aerodynamic experiment may be, all such efforts are
usually aimed at one or more of the following practical objectives;

1. Internal Aerodynamics: is the study of flow of air through passages in solid (duct, pipe, or
enclosed system). That is; determination of flows moving internally through ducts like
the flow in the wind tunnel, Combustion Chamber.

2. External Aerodynamics: Is the study of flow of air around solid objects of various shapes.
(e.g flow around aircraft, Automobile etc)

AERODYNAMICS IN DIFFERENT FIELDS OF ENGINEERING

Aerodynamics is important in a number of applications other than aerospace engineering.

1. It is a significant factor in any type of vehicle design, including automobiles.
2. It is important in the prediction of forces and moments acting on sailing vessels.
3. It is used in the design of mechanical components such as hard drive heads.
4. Structural engineers also use aerodynamics, and particularly aero-elasticity, to calculate
wind loads in the design of large buildings and bridges.
5. Urban aerodynamics seeks to help town planners and designers improve comfort in
outdoor spaces, create urban microclimates and reduce the effects of urban pollution.
6. The field of environmental aerodynamics describes the ways atmospheric circulation and
flight mechanics affect ecosystems.
7. The aerodynamics of internal passages is important in heating/ventilation, gas piping, and in
automotive engines where detailed flow patterns strongly affect the performance of the
engine.
 AERODYNAMICS DEFINITIONS.

AIRFOILS
An airfoil is any surface, such as a wing or rotor blade, designed to produce lift when air passes
over it. Air passing over the upper surface of a foil produces two-thirds of a foil's lift by creating
a lower pressure.
One third of the foil's lift is produced by the higher pressure of air on the foil's under surface.
Relative wind is the air flowing opposite and parallel to the direction of airfoil motion. When an
aircraft is at rest, relative wind does not exist, only wind created by nature. Relative wind,
shown in figure 1, is created by the motion of the aircraft traveling through the air using its own
power to reach its desired speed.

Figure 1.1: Relative Wind.

An airfoil is a surface designed to obtain a desirable reaction from the air through which it
moves. Or an airfoil is a streamlined shape designed to produce lift as it moves through the air.
Thus, we can say that any part of the aircraft which converts air resistance into a force useful
for flight is an airfoil. The blades of a propeller are so designed that when they rotate, their
shape and position cause a higher pressure to be built up behind them than in front of them so
that they will pull the aircraft forward. The model of a wing (Figure 1.2) gives an excellent
example of streamlines around airfoil

Figure 1.2: Streamlines around airfoil

Although the top surface of the conventional wing profile has greater curvature than the lower
surface, the principal thing is the larger density of streamlines above the wing. The larger
density of streamlines means the greater velocity of air.
According to Bernoulli’s principle an increase in the speed of the fluid occurs simultaneously
with a decrease in pressure or a decrease in the fluid's potential energy. This is equivalent to
the principle of conservation of energy. This states that in a steady flow the sum of all forms of
mechanical energy in a fluid along a streamline is the same at all points on that streamline.
According Bernoulli’s principle the product 𝑃 × 𝑉 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡.
That is; if the wing area is doubled, all other variables remaining the same, the lift and drag
created by the wing is doubled. If the area is tripled, lift and drag are tripled .

TYPES OF AIRFOIL
There are three types of airfoils: Positively cambered, symmetric and negatively cambered.
Positively cambered airfoils have the mean camber line above the chord line. A positively
cambered airfoil produces lift at zero angle of attack.
A symmetric airfoil has zero camber, which indicates that the mean camber line and the chord
line are the same. A symmetric airfoil produces no lift at zero angle of attack.
A negatively cambered airfoil has the mean camber line below the chord line and will produce
negative lift at zero angle of attack.
An asymmetrical airfoil is designed to have unequal cambers. This type of airfoil has the
characteristic of a rapid movement of center-of-pressure travel.

Shape of the Airfoil

Figure 1.3: Airfoil types
The shape of a wing (Figure 1.3) consequently affects the efficiency of the wing. Airfoil section
properties differ from wing or aircraft properties because of the effect of the wing planform. A
wing may have various airfoil sections from root to tip, with taper, twist, and sweepback. The
resulting aerodynamic properties of the wing are determined by the action of each section
along the span.
Efficiency of a wing is measured in terms of the lift over drag (L/D) ratio. This ratio varies with
the angle of attack but reaches a definite maximum value for a particular angle of attack. At this
angle, the wing has reached its maximum efficiency. The shape of the airfoil is the factor which
determines the angle of attack at which the wing is most efficient; it also determines the
degree of efficiency. Research has shown that the most efficient airfoils for general use have
the maximum thickness occurring about one-third of the way back from the leading edge of the
wing. High-lift wings and high-lift devices for wings have been developed by shaping the airfoils
to produce the desired effect. The amount of lift produced by an airfoil will increase with an
increase in wing chamber. Camber refers to the curvature of an airfoil above and below the
chord line surface. Upper chamber refers to the upper surface, lower camber to the lower
surface, and mean camber to the mean line of the section. Camber is positive when departure
from the chord line is outward, and negatives when it is inward. Thus, high-lift wings have a
large positive camber on the upper surface and a slight negative camber on the lower surface.
AIRFOILS PROPERTIES
1. The mean camber line (MCL) is a line halfway between the upper and lower surface of
an airfoil. The most forward and rearward points of the mean camber line are the
leading edges and trailing edges, respectively. The major design characteristic of an
airfoil is the mean camber line.
2. The chord line of an airfoil is an infinitely long, straight line which passes through its
leading and trailing edges.
3. Chord is an imaginary line from the leading edge to the trailing edge of an airfoil or is the
precise measurement between the leading and trailing edges measured along the chord
line. Chord will typically vary from the wingtip to the wing root.
4. The root chord (𝐶𝑅 ) is the chord at the wing centerline
5. Tip chord (𝐶𝑇 ) is measured at the wingtip
6. The average chord (c) is the average of every chord from the wing root to the wingtip.
7. The camber of an airfoil is the maximum distance between the mean camber line and
the chord line, measured perpendicular to the chord line.

Figure 1.4 Airfoil

ANGLE OF ATTACK
The angle of attack is the angle at which an airfoil passes through the air. This angle is
measured between the chord of the airfoil and the relative wind, as shown in figure 5.
Increasing the angle of attack deflects the airstream and causes an upward pressure on the
underside of the airfoil. This in turn increases the speed of the airflow over the topside of the
airfoil. As air-flow-speed increases, pressure on the foil's top side is further reduced. The
upward pressure on the foil's underside and pressure reduction on the top side combine to
furnish lift.
Figure.1.5 Angle of Attack
The angle of attack and angle of incidence are measured angles.
Angle of incidence (fixed-wing aircraft) is the angle between the airfoil chord line and the
longitudinal axis or other selected reference plane of the aircraft.
Angle of incidence (rotary-wing aircraft) is the angle between the chord line of a main or tail
rotor blade and the plane of rotation (tip path plane). It is usually referred to as the blade pitch
angle.
For fixed airfoils, such as vertical fins or elevators, the angle of incidence is the angle between
the chord line of the airfoil and a selected reference plane of the helicopter.

EFFECT OF ANGLE OF ATTACK

STALL
As the angle of attack is increased, lift is also increased up to a certain angle. Beyond this angle
airflow can no longer follow the contour of the airfoil's upper surface, as shown in the
sequences in figure 6. After the burble point the airfoil goes full stall.
Figure 1. 6: Stall Angle

DIHEDRAL ANGLE
Dihedral angle is the angle between the span wise inclination of the wing and the lateral axis.
More simply, it is the upward slope of the wing when viewed from the front, that is; the upward
inclination of the wing to the plane through the lateral axis

Figure 1.7: Dihedral angle

ANHEDRAL ANGLE
The downward inclination of the wing to the plane through the lateral axis

Figure 1. 8: Anhedral angle

THE FORCES ACTING IN FLIGHT

As the air flows over the upper surface of an airfoil, its speed or velocity increases and its
pressure decreases. An area of low pressure is thus formed. There is an area of greater pressure
on the lower surface of the airfoil, and this greater pressure tends to move the wing upward.
This difference in pressure between the upper and lower surfaces of the wing is called lift.
Three-fourths of the total lift of an airfoil is the result of the decrease in pressure over the
upper surface. The impact of air on the under surface of an airfoil produces the other one-
fourth of the total lift. An aircraft in flight is acted upon by four forces (Fig. 1. 9):
1. Gravity, or weight, the force that pulls the aircraft toward the earth;
2. Lift, the force that pushes the aircraft upward;
3. Thrust, the force that moves the aircraft forward;
4. Drag, the force that exerts a braking action

Figure 1.9: Lift/Weight and Thrust/Drag pitching moments

What Is Weight?
Gravity is a force that pulls everything down to Earth. Weight is the amount of gravity
multiplied by the mass of an object. Weight is also the downward force that an aircraft must
overcome to fly.

What Is Lift?
Lift is the push that lets something move up. It is the force that is the opposite of weight.
Everything that flies must have lift. For an aircraft to move upward, it must have more lift than
weight.
A hot air balloon has lift because the hot air inside is lighter than the air around it. Hot air rises
and carries the balloon with it.
A helicopter's lift comes from the rotor blades. Their motion through the air moves the
helicopter upward.
Lift for an airplane comes from its wings.

How Do an Airplane's Wings Provide Lift?

The shape of an airplane's wings is what makes it possible for the airplane to fly. Airplanes'
wings are curved on top and flatter on the bottom. That shape makes air flow over the top
faster than under the bottom. As a result, less air pressure is on top of the wing. This lower
pressure makes the wing, and the airplane it's attached to, move up. Using curves to affect air
pressure is a trick used on many aircraft. Helicopter rotor blades use this curved shape. Lift for
kites also comes from a curved shape. Even sailboats use this curved shape. A boat's sail is like a
wing. That's what makes the sailboat move.

What Is Drag?
Drag is a force that pulls back on something trying to move. Drag provides resistance, making it
hard to move. For example, it is more difficult to walk or run through water than through air.
Water causes more drag than air. The shape of an object also affects the amount of drag.
Round surfaces usually have less drag than flat ones. Narrow surfaces usually have less drag
than wide ones. The more air that hits a surface, the more the drag the air produces.

What Is Thrust?
Thrust is the force that is the opposite of drag. It is the push that moves something forward.
For an aircraft to keep moving forward, it must have more thrust than drag. A small airplane
might get its thrust from a propeller. A larger airplane might get its thrust from jet engines.
A glider does not have thrust. It can only fly until the drag causes it to slow down and land.

ARRANGEMENT OF THE FOUR FORCES

The aircraft is designed so the four forces are arranged to make it reasonably stable. In
straight and level flight at constant speed with no turning moments the aircraft is said to be
in equilibrium.
This means
THRUST = DRAG and WEIGHT = LIFT.
Each pair is equal and opposite in direction.

Nevertheless, they are not usually opposite in position. For straight and level flight is
adjusted by the pilot to make the lift equal to the weight, if it is greater the aircraft will
climb. If lift is less than weight the aircraft will descend. The engine thrust is adjusted by the
throttles to make it equal to the drag, if it is greater the aircraft will increase airspeed - if it
is less the aircraft's airspeed will decrease

AXES OF AN AIRCRAFT

Whenever an aircraft changes its attitude in flight, it must turn about one or more of three axes. Fig.
1. 10. Shows the three axes, which are imaginary lines passing through the center of the aircraft.
The axes of an aircraft can be considered as imaginary axles around which the aircraft turns like a
wheel. At the center, where all three axes intersect, each is perpendicular to the other two. The axis
which extends lengthwise through the fuselage from the nose to the tail is called the longitudinal
axis. The axis which extends crosswise, from wing tip to wing tip, is the lateral axis. The axis which
passes through the center, from top to bottom is called the vertical axis.

Figure 1. 10: Motion of an aircraft about its axes

Motion about the longitudinal axis resembles the roll of a ship from side to side. In fact, the
names used in describing the motion about an aircraft’s three axes were originally nautical
terms. They have been adapted to aeronautical terminology because of the similarity of
motion between an aircraft and a ship. Thus, the motion about the longitudinal axis is called
roll; motion along the lateral (cross-wing) axis is called pitch.

Finally, an aircraft moves about its vertical axis in a motion which is termed yaw. This is a
horizontal movement of the nose of the aircraft. Roll, pitch, and yaw - the motions an
aircraft makes about its longitudinal, lateral, and vertical axes - are controlled by three
control surfaces. Roll is produced by the ailerons.

AERODYNAMIC FORCES AND MOMENTS

The only mechanisms nature has for communicating a force to a body moving through a
fluid are pressure and shear stress distributions on the body surface. Pressure acts normal
(perpendicular) to the body while sheer stress acts tangential to the surface. When
integrated over the entire surface, the resultant vector is the aerodynamic force. The
aerodynamic force (AF) is the net force that results from pressure and shear stress
distribution over an airfoil, and can be broken down into two components, lift and drag
Lift (L) is the component of the aerodynamic force acting perpendicular to the relative wind.

Figure 1.11 Aerodynamic Forces

Drag
Drag (D) is the component of the aerodynamic force acting parallel to and in the same
direction as the relative wind. Aerodynamic force can be expressed as the product of
dynamic pressure (q), surface area (S) of the airfoil, and a coefficient of aerodynamic force
(CF). This coefficient represents the shape and orientation of the surface area with respect
to the relative wind.
The equation is:
𝐴𝐹 = 𝑞𝑆𝐶𝐹 = 1⁄2 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆𝐶𝐹
Because lift and drag are components of aerodynamic force, they are also functions of
dynamic pressure, surface area and a coefficient that represents the shape and orientation
of the surface area. They are expressed as:
𝐿 = 𝑞𝑆𝐶𝐿 = 1⁄2 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆𝐶𝐿
𝐷 = 𝑞𝑆𝐶𝐷 = 1⁄2 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆𝐶𝐷
Where:
𝐶𝐿 = Coefficient of Lift
𝐶𝐷 = Coefficient of Drag

LIFT
𝐿 = 𝑞𝑆𝐶𝐿 = 1⁄2 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆𝐶𝐿
As stated above, pressure and sheer stress are the only two aerodynamic forces that can act
on a body. Because lift is the component of the resultant force in the perpendicular
direction and because the pressure on the surface, at reasonable angles of attack, acts
mainly in the lift direction

Bernoulli’s equation stated that for incompressible flow, 𝑃𝑠 + ½ 𝜌𝑉 2 is constant. Therefore,

as velocity increases, static pressure decreases. This is called the Bernoulli Effect. Finally,
because the lower static pressure over the top surface of the airfoil is less than the static
pressure on the lower surface, the airfoil experiences a lift force in the upward direction
(Figure 2-3).

FACTORS AFFECTING LIFT

𝐿 = 𝑞𝑆𝐶𝐿 = 1⁄2 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆𝐶𝐿

There are eight factors that affect lift: density (ρ), velocity (V), surface area (S),
compressibility, aspect ratio (AR), viscosity (μ), angle of attack (α), and camber.
Compressibility, aspect ratio, viscosity, angle of attack, and camber are accounted for in the
coefficient of lift. When an airfoil is exposed to greater dynamic pressure (q), it encounters
more air particles and thus produces more lift. Therefore, lift is dependent upon the density
of the air (i.e the altitude) and the velocity of the airflow. An increase in density or velocity
will increase lift. Since lift is produced by pressure, which is force per unit area, it follows
that a greater area produces a greater force. Therefore, an increase in wing surface area
produces greater lift.

DRAG
Drag is the component of the aerodynamic force that is parallel to the relative wind, and
acts in the same direction. The drag equation is the same as the aerodynamic force
equation, except that that the coefficient of drag (CD) is used.
𝐷 = 𝑞𝑆𝐶𝐷 = 1⁄2 𝜌𝑉 2 𝑆𝐶𝐷

AIRFOIL BASIC GEOMETRY

The leading edge is the point at the front of the airfoil that has maximum curvature. The
trailing edge is defined similarly as the point of maximum curvature at the rear of the airfoil.
The chord line is a straight line connecting the leading and trailing edges of the airfoil. The
chord length, or simply chord is the length of the chord line and is the characteristic
dimension of the airfoil section

Expressions for N, A, L, D (Detailed notes given in the class – derivation)

Figure Resultant aerodynamic force and moment on the body.

 Figure1.12 Resultant aerodynamic force and the components into which it splits

Figure 1.12, illustrates the geometrical relationship between the resultant aerodynamic
force, 𝑅 , and its components. The lift, 𝐿 , is perpendicular to the freestream flow direction.
The drag, 𝐷 , is parallel to the freestream flow direction. Therefore, by resolving 𝑁 and 𝐴
into their components along these directions. 𝑉∞ is the relative wind, defined as the flow
velocity far ahead of the body. That is; the flow far away from the body called freestream
and hence, 𝑉∞ is the freestream velocity.
A = Axial force L = Lift
N = Normal force D = Drag
α = Angle of attack Y
L
N

α
D
X
α

Adj
cosα = Hyp
L
cosα = N
L = Ncosα
Opp
sinα = Hyp
 L
Sinα = A
L = Asinα

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝐿
L = Ncosα − Asinα
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝐷
D = Nsinα + Acosα
Considering the given figure, the resolution of the differential pressure and shear stress forces
into vertical (normal force) and horizontal (axial force) components respectively.

𝐴𝐼 = 𝐴𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛

𝑁 = 𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑛

Upper body surface(u)

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑁𝑢′
𝑁𝑢′ = −𝑝𝑢 𝑠𝑢 cos 𝜃 − 𝜏𝑢 𝑠𝑢 sin 𝜃
𝑑𝑁𝑢′ = −𝑝𝑢 𝑑𝑠𝑢 cos 𝜃 − 𝜏𝑢 𝑑𝑠𝑢 sin 𝜃
And
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝐴′𝑢
𝐴′𝑢 = −𝑝𝑢 𝑠𝑢 sin 𝜃 + 𝜏𝑢 𝑠𝑢 cos 𝜃
𝑑𝐴′𝑢 = −𝑝𝑢 𝑑𝑠𝑢 sin 𝜃 + 𝜏𝑢 𝑑𝑠𝑢 cos 𝜃
Lower body Surface (l)
at point A on the upper surface. A similar procedure gives
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑁𝑙′
 𝑁𝑙′ = 𝑝𝑙 𝑠𝑙 cos 𝜃 − 𝜏𝑙 𝑠𝑙 sin 𝜃
𝑑𝑁𝑙′ = 𝑝𝑙 𝑑𝑠𝑙 cos 𝜃 − 𝜏𝑙 𝑑𝑠𝑙 sin 𝜃
And
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝐴′𝑙
𝐴′𝑙 = 𝑝𝑙 𝑠𝑙 sin 𝜃 + 𝜏𝑙 𝑠𝑙 cos 𝜃
𝑑𝐴′𝑙 = 𝑝𝑙 𝑑𝑠𝑙 sin 𝜃 + 𝜏𝑙 𝑑𝑠𝑙 cos 𝜃
for the differential normal and axial forces respectively at point B on the lower surface. Therefore,
by integration from the leading edge to the trailing edge, the total normal force is obtained as

dNl = upper surface + Lower suface

𝑇𝐸 𝑇𝐸
𝑁 ′ = − ∫𝐿𝐸 (𝑝𝑢 cos 𝜃 + 𝜏𝑢 sin 𝜃)𝑑𝑠𝑢 + ∫𝐿𝐸 (𝑝𝑙 cos 𝜃 − 𝜏𝑙 sin 𝜃)𝑑𝑠𝑙

and the total axial force is obtained as

dAl = upper surface + Lower suface

𝑇𝐸 𝑇𝐸
𝐴′ = ∫𝐿𝐸 (−𝑝𝑢 sin 𝜃 + 𝜏𝑢 cos 𝜃)𝑑𝑠𝑢 + ∫𝐿𝐸 (𝑝𝑙 sin 𝜃 + 𝜏𝑙 cos 𝜃)𝑑𝑠𝑙

The following geometric relations are obtained from the diagram on the right.
The dimensionless force and moment coefficients are defined as follows:
Dynamic pressure: 𝑞∞ = 1/2𝜌∞ 𝑉 2
𝐿
Lift coefficient: 𝐶𝐿 = 𝑞
∞𝑆

𝐷
Drag coefficient: 𝐶𝐷 = 𝑞
∞𝑆

𝑁
Normal force coefficient: 𝐶𝑁 = 𝑞
∞𝑆

𝐴
Axial force coefficient: 𝐶𝐴 = 𝑞
∞𝑆

𝑀
Moment coefficient: 𝐶𝑀 = 𝑞
∞𝑆

The following geometric relations are obtained from the diagram on the right.
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑠 cos 𝜃
𝑑𝑦 = −(𝑑𝑠 sin 𝜃)
𝑆 = 𝑐(1)
Furthermore, the coefficients of normal and axial forces are respectively defined as
 𝑁′
𝑐𝑛 ≡
𝑞∞ 𝑐
and
𝐴′
𝑐𝑎 ≡ 𝑞
∞𝑐

Similarly, the coefficients of pressure and skin-friction are respectively defined as

𝑝 − 𝑝∞
𝐶𝑝 ≡
𝑞∞
and
𝜏
𝑐𝑓 ≡ 𝑞
∞

Therefore,
𝑁′
𝑐𝑛 =
𝑞∞ 𝑐
1 𝑇𝐸 𝑝𝑢 − 𝑝∞ 𝜏𝑢 1 𝑇𝐸 𝑝𝑙 − 𝑝∞ 𝜏𝑙
=− ∫ ( cos 𝜃 + sin 𝜃) 𝑑𝑠𝑢 + ∫ ( cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃) 𝑑𝑠𝑙
𝑐 𝐿𝐸 𝑞∞ 𝑞∞ 𝑐 𝐿𝐸 𝑞∞ 𝑞∞

1 𝑇𝐸 𝑝𝑢 − 𝑝∞ 𝜏𝑢 𝑑𝑦𝑢 1 𝑇𝐸 𝑝𝑙 − 𝑝∞ 𝜏𝑙 𝑑𝑦𝑙
=− ∫ ( − ) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ ( + ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑐 𝐿𝐸 𝑞∞ 𝑞∞ 𝑑𝑥 𝑐 𝐿𝐸 𝑞∞ 𝑞∞ 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑇𝐸 1 𝑇𝐸 𝑑𝑦𝑢 𝑑𝑦𝑙
= 𝑐 ∫𝐿𝐸 (𝐶𝑝,𝑙 − 𝐶𝑝,𝑢 )𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐 ∫𝐿𝐸 (𝑐𝑓,𝑢 + 𝑐𝑓,𝑙 ) 𝑑𝑥.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Similarly,
𝐴′
𝑐𝑎 =
𝑞∞ 𝑐
1 𝑇𝐸 𝑝𝑢 − 𝑝∞ 𝜏𝑢 1 𝑇𝐸 𝑝𝑙 − 𝑝∞ 𝜏𝑙
= ∫ (− sin 𝜃 + cos 𝜃) 𝑑𝑠𝑢 + ∫ ( sin 𝜃 + cos 𝜃) 𝑑𝑠𝑙
𝑐 𝐿𝐸 𝑞∞ 𝑞∞ 𝑐 𝐿𝐸 𝑞∞ 𝑞∞

1 𝑇𝐸 𝑝𝑢 − 𝑝∞ 𝑑𝑦𝑢 𝜏𝑢 1 𝑇𝐸 𝑝𝑙 − 𝑝∞ 𝑑𝑦𝑙 𝜏𝑙
= ∫ ( + ) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (− + ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑐 𝐿𝐸 𝑞∞ 𝑑𝑥 𝑞∞ 𝑐 𝐿𝐸 𝑞∞ 𝑑𝑥 𝑞∞
1 𝑇𝐸 𝑑𝑦𝑢 𝑑𝑦𝑙 1 𝑇𝐸
𝑐𝑛 = 𝑐 ∫𝐿𝐸 (𝐶𝑝,𝑢 − 𝐶𝑝,𝑙 ) 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐 ∫𝐿𝐸 (𝑐𝑓,𝑢 + 𝑐𝑓,𝑙 )𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
 DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
Dimensional analysis is the study of the relationship between physical quantities with the help of
dimensions and units of measurement. Dimensional analysis is a fundamental aspect of
measurement and is applied in real-life physics.

Physical quantities Fundamental Units Dimensional Units

Mass Kg M

Length M L

Time S T

Temperature K θ

Electric Current A I

Importance of Dimensional Analysis

1. To check the consistency of a dimensional equation
2. To derive the relation between physical quantities in physical phenomena
3. To change units from one system to another
Limitations of Dimensional Analysis
Some limitations of dimensional analysis are:
1. It doesn’t give information about the dimensional constant.
2. The formula containing trigonometric function, exponential functions, logarithmic function,
etc. cannot be derived.
3. It gives no information about whether a physical quantity is a scalar or vector.

Buckingham π Theorem
The Buckingham π theorem shows that the validity of the laws of physics is not dependent on a
particular unit system. The implication of this theorem is that any law of physics can be
represented as an identity that contains only dimensionless combinations of the variables
associated by law; for example, volume and pressure are inversely related by Boyle’s Law.

If the values of dimensionless combinations change with the systems of units, the equation will
not be an identity, and the Buckingham theorem will not be stable. This theorem helps to find a
set of independent dimensionless quantities. Suppose that there are a certain number (n) of
variables in a physical problem, including m independent dimensions. So, the number of
independent, dimensionless quantities is:

p=n−m

If we show each of the dimensionless groups with πi, the final equation is obtained as follows:

π1=f (π2, π3,…,πn−m)

(For detailed information: Refer to Handwritten PDF)

The π groups are independent of each other. For experimental purposes, different systems that
have the same dimensionless quantities are equivalent.

Common Dimensionless Numbers

Here are some common applications of similarity laws and associated dimensionless numbers:

Reynolds Number

The Reynolds number (Re) helps us to identify the flow regime of a specific physical problem.
The fluid flows are considered laminar (sheet-like) flow at low Reynolds numbers, but at high
Reynolds numbers, the turbulence is the dominant flow regime. This dimensionless number is
defined as:

𝜌𝑣𝑙
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇
3
where, ρ, v, L, and μ are fluid density (kg/m ), flow velocity (m/s), characteristic length (m), and
fluid viscosity (m2/s), respectively. As can be seen from the above definition, this parameter
represents the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces.

Pressure Coefficient
In fluid dynamics, the pressure coefficient describes the relative pressures in a flow field. This
dimensional number is used in aerodynamics and hydrodynamics. It is a parameter for
analyzing both incompressible and compressible fluids and is expressed as:
 𝑃−𝑃
𝐶𝑝 = 1/2𝜌𝑉∞2

In this equation, p and p∞ are static pressure at a given point of the flow and the free stream
static pressure. Also, v∞ is the fluid velocity of the free stream.

Froude Number

The Froude number (Fr) is defined as the ratio of the inertia to the external field (usually simply
due to gravity). The Froude number is expressed by the following equation:

𝑈
𝐹𝑟 =
√𝑔𝐿

where u, g, and L are the local flow velocity, the local external field, a characteristic length,
respectively.

The Froude number is an important parameter where a partially submerged object moves
through the water.

Weber Number

The Weber number (We) is often applied where there is an interface between two different
fluids, particularly for multiphase flows with curved surfaces. It is defined as:

𝜌𝑉 2 𝐿
𝑊𝑒 = 𝜎

In this relation, σ is surface tension (in N/m).

The Weber number can be considered as a ratio of fluid inertia to its surface tension.

Prandtl Number

The Prandtl number (Pr) is defined as the ratio of momentum diffusivity to thermal diffusivity.
This dimensionless group is expressed as:

𝐶𝑝 𝑢
𝑃𝑟 = 𝑘
where cp and k are fluid specific heat (J/kg.K) and thermal conductivity (W/m.K). This
dimensionless number can be used to find the thermal conductivity of a gas at high
temperatures, especially where it is tricky to determine experimentally due to the formation of
convection flows.

Heat Capacity Ratio

In thermodynamics, the heat capacity ratio (γ) is defined as the ratio of cp (the heat capacity at
constant pressure) to cv (the heat capacity at constant volume).

𝐶𝑝
𝛾=
𝐶𝑣

Examples of this dimensionless number applications include thermodynamically reversible

processes, especially for ideal gases, and finding the speed of sound.

Mach number

Mach number (Ma) is a dimensionless parameter in fluid dynamics which is defined as the ratio
of flow velocity to the local speed of sound. It is expressed as:

𝑢
𝑀𝑎 = 𝑐

c is the sound speed in the medium. The Mach number depends on the gas (medium)
temperature.
 FLOW SIMILARITY

Flow similarity in aerodynamics refers to the similarity between different flows conditions,
where certain dimensionless parameters remain constant.
The most common form of flow similarity is Reynolds number similarity. Reynolds number is a
dimensionless quantity that characterizes the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces in a fluid
flow. When two flows have the same Reynolds number, they are considered similar, and their
flow patterns are expected to be alike.

The principle of similarity flow is closely connected to the concepts used in dimensional
analysis. The need for similarity is a concept that always arises when testing sub-scale
engineering models in the laboratory or the wind tunnel.

A sub-scale model application is said to have similarity with the actual (real) application if the
two applications share the same geometric, kinematic, and dynamic similarities. In general,
geometric similarity focuses on the scaling of dimensions, kinematic similarity on the scaling of
displacements and velocities, and dynamic similarity on the scaling of integrated values such as
forces.

Similarity flow can be achieved by matching the values of the similarity parameters between
two different circumstances, e.g., in two or more separate experiments or at model scale and
full scale, which may be challenging to achieve in practice. If the values of the similarity
parameters are the same, then the physics of both situations will be correctly scaled, so both
will have the correct physical similarity.

The critical aerodynamic similarity parameters are the Reynolds and Mach numbers.

The Mach number is defined as the ratio of the fluid velocity to the speed of sound in the fluid,
in simple words, it is the ratio of the speed of a body to the speed of sound in the surrounding
medium.

𝐿𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝑀=
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑚

𝑉 𝑈
𝑀 = 𝛼 𝑂𝑟 𝑀 = 𝐶

Mach Number is dimensionless

The Reynolds number is defined as the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces.
 𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑅𝑒 =
𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝜌𝑣𝑙
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇
𝑅𝑒 = 𝑅𝑒𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
𝜌 = 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑙 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝜇 = 𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝐷𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑)

Reynolds number is dimensionless

SIMILARITY CRITERIA

The following formal criteria are required to achieve flow similarity between the model or sub-
scale test article and the eventual or actual application:

Geometric similarity: This means that the sub-scale model is scaled correctly and has the same
geometrical shape as the actual application, i.e., a single scaling parameter can be used to
relate the two geometries.

The scaled model has the same shape as the application. More precisely, the model can be
obtained from the actual case with a uniform scaling (enlarging or reducing).
Figure: flow similarity about two bodies is that the geometries on the bodies be scaled by a
single scaling factor.

For example, all circles are geometrically similar to each other. The same goes for all squares
and all equilateral triangles. On the other hand, ellipses are not all similar to each other, as well
as all rectangles and even isosceles triangles. If the two angles of a triangle are equal to the two
angles of another triangle, these triangles are similar to each other.

Kinematic similarity: This means that displacements and velocities of both the sub-scale model
and actual application must be the same.

Kinematic similarity means that the velocity at any point in the flow of the model is
proportional to the velocity at the homologous point in the prototype by a constant scale
factor. Thus, it maintains the same flow streamline pattern. This is a necessary condition for
complete similarities between the model and the prototype. In other words, the kinematic
similarity refers to the similarity of motion of the fluid. As motions can be expressed in terms of
distance and time, it means the similaritf lengths (geometrical similarity) and the time intervals
similarity.

To obtain kinematic similarity in a scaled model, dimensionless groups are considered the field
of fluid dynamics. For example, in many analyses, the Reynolds number of the model and the
prototype must be equal. There are other dimensionless numbers to consider, which we will
discuss in more detail in the following sections.
Figure; Overview of the concept of kinematic similarity in maintaining flow streamline pattern
(Reference: en.wikiversity.org)

Dynamic similarity: This means that the ratios of all forces and moments in the sub-scale model
and the actual application are the same, i.e., the inertial forces, gravitational forces, viscous
forces, pressure forces, elastic forces, surface forces, etc., are all the same. If dynamic similarity
is obtained, it implies that geometric and kinematic similitude conditions have also been met.

In the field of fluid mechanics, dynamic similarity means that when there are two geometrically
similar items with the same shapes and different sizes, the same boundary conditions, and
equal dimensionless numbers, then the fluid flows will be the same. From examining the basic
Navier-Stokes equation, with geometrically similar bodies and equal dimensionless numbers,
the distribution of velocity and pressure fields for any variation of flow can be obtained.

Therefore, in summary, it can be stated that the flows about two bodies will be dynamically
similar if:

I. The body shapes are geometrically similar, i.e., the model and full-scale shapes are
related by a single scaling factor.
II. All similarity parameters have the same values, such as Reynolds number, Mach number,
and any other relevant similarity parameters.

In the case of aerodynamic problems, if it can be formally established that the flow similarity
parameters have the same values for both flows at both scales and that the flows are
dynamically similar, then:
 I. The streamline patterns of both bodies will be geometrically similar. This means the flow
patterns about both bodies will be the same.
II. The flow distributions of non-dimensional velocity, pressure coefficient, etc., will be the
same when plotted against a common non-dimensional length coordinate, i.e., a length
scale non-dimensionalized by a characteristic length such as a chord.
III. The force coefficients (e.g., lift and drag coefficients) and moment coefficients (about the
same non-dimensional reference point) will be the same.

The similarity parameters Mach number and Reynolds number, which have already been
introduced, are the most significant similarity parameters used in aerodynamics. Remember
that Reynolds number is always based on some characteristic length, e.g., chord, mean chord,
diameter, etc., and should be qualified as such. Other similarity parameters may be necessary
for specific problems, especially when other than aerodynamics are involved. However, the
effects of Mach number and Reynolds number inevitably come up in all aerospace flight vehicle
problems in one form or another.

CONCEPTUAL BASICS OF SIMILARITY (WIND TUNNEL TESTING)

The concept of dynamic flow similarity is a fundamental issue in wind tunnel testing of sub-
scale models. Suppose a sub-scale model of an actual (full-size) aircraft will be tested in a wind
tunnel. In that case, the basic idea is to simulate the conditions of free flight, i.e., to simulate
the actual flight conditions in the wind tunnel. In this case, the flow produced will give the same
non-dimensional pressure distributions, as well as lift, moments, and drag coefficients, as on
the actual aircraft during a free flight. However, this outcome can only be true if the Reynolds
and Mach numbers attained in the wind tunnel test are the same as for free flight. Scaled
models in a wind tunnel can help verify the aircraft design before tooling and construction
begin, and in most cases, it is a critical step in the development process of a new aircraft.

Figure1.13 A scaled model for testing an airplane (a sub-scale model) inside a wind tunnel
(Reference: en.wikiversity.org)
Unfortunately, it is difficult to obtain the proper scaling of both the Reynolds number and the
Mach number in wind tunnel tests mainly because the test article in the wind tunnel is usually a
smaller (i.e., sub-scale) version of the actual aircraft. While the issues can be prevented using a
wind tunnel big enough to test the full-scale flight vehicle, this is rarely practical. The biggest
wind tunnel is the National Full-Scale Aerodynamics Testing Facility at NASA Ames Research
Center, which has a test section 120 ft (36.6 m) wide and 80 ft (24.4 m) high. It can even
accommodate actual aircraft with their engines running. However, it can only test at flow
speeds up to about 120 knots. Therefore, most wind tunnel tests are performed with smaller
or sub-scale models.
(For detailed information: Refer to Handwritten PDF)

FLUID STATICS: BUOYANCY FORCE

Fluid statics is the part of fluid mechanics that deals with fluids when there is no relative motion
between the fluid particles. Typically this includes two situations: when the fluid is at rest and
when it moves like a rigid solid. It includes investigating the pressure fluids exert and the forces
they experience when not moving. Pascal’s Law states that a fluid transmits pressure equally in
all directions, and the hydrostatic equation, which connects a fluid’s pressure to its depth and
gravity acceleration, are two important concepts in fluid statics.

Fluid statics is an important field of study with numerous applications in various fields such as
hydraulic systems, civil engineering, aerospace engineering, biomedical engineering,
environmental engineering, and marine engineering. It is used to design and analyze systems
that involve the transmission of force and energy using fluid power, as well as to study the
movement of fluids in the environment and blood flow in the human body. Fluid statics
principles are also used to calculate the buoyancy of objects in fluids and to analyze the stability
of structures subjected to hydrostatic loads.

In aerodynamics, we are concerned about fluids in motion, and the resulting forces and
moments on bodies due to such motion. However, in this section, we consider the special case
of no fluid motion (i.e., fluid statics).
A body immersed in a fluid will still experience a force even if there is no relative motion
between the body and the fluid.
To begin, we must first consider the force on an element of fluid itself. Consider a stagnant fluid
above the xz plane, as shown in Figure 1.38.
Figure: Forces on a fluid element in a stagnant fluid.
The vertical direction is given by y. Consider an infinitesimally small fluid element with sides of
length dx, dy, and dz. There are two types of forces acting on this fluid element: pressure forces
from the surrounding fluid exerted on the surface of the element, and the gravity force due to
the weight of the fluid inside the element. Consider forces in the y direction. The pressure on
the bottom surface of the element is p, and hence the force on the bottom face is p(dx dz) in
the upward direction, as shown in Figure . The pressure on the top surface of the element will
be slightly different from the pressure on the bottom because the top surface is at a different
location in the fluid.

DERIVATION THE HYDROSTATIC EQUATION

Considering an infinitesimal cubical fluid
element in a static fluid as illustrated in the
figure on the right, the net pressure force in
the vertical direction is obtained as
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
= 𝑝(𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧)
𝑑𝑝
− (𝑝 + 𝑑𝑦) (𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧)
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑝
= − 𝑑𝑦 (𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧)

The force of gravity acting on the fluid

element is its weight that is obtained as
 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = −(𝑑𝑚)𝑔
= −𝜌(𝑑𝑉)𝑔
= −𝜌(𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧)𝑔
Since the fluid element is static, it means the forces cancel out in all directions Thus, in the vertical
direction, we have
𝑑𝑝
− 𝑑𝑦 (𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧) − 𝜌(𝑑𝑦𝑑𝑥𝑑𝑧)𝑔 = 0

or
𝑑𝑝 = −𝑔𝜌𝑑𝑦
This is the hydrostatic equation. It can be integrated between two points 1 and 2 (separated by
a vertical distance as illustrated in the figure) as
𝑝2 ℎ2
∫ 𝑑𝑝 = −𝜌𝑔 ∫ 𝑑𝑦
𝑝1 ℎ1

𝑝2 − 𝑝1 = −𝜌𝑔(ℎ2 − ℎ1 ) = 𝜌𝑔∆ℎ
where the change in height is
∆ℎ = (ℎ2 − ℎ1 ).
Alternatively, the integrated hydrostatic equation can be written as

𝑝2 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ2 = 𝑝1 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ1
or
𝑝 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
(For detailed information: Refer FUNDAMENTALS OF AERODYNAMICS – JOHN.D.ANDERSON,
Practices Example 1.9 and Example 1.10)
 TYPES OF FLOW
What is a Fluid?
A fluid is a liquid, gas, or other material that may continuously move and deform (flow) under
an applied shear stress, or external force. Fluids, which can include liquids and gases, exhibit
different flow patterns depending on factors such as velocity, pressure, and viscosity.
In aerodynamics, fluid typically refers to air. The study of fluids in aerodynamics involves
understanding how air behaves and interacts with objects such as airplane or vehicles as they
move through it. The properties of the air, such as density, pressure, and temperature, play
crucial roles in aerodynamics of flying objects.

Types of Fluid Flow

Types of Fluid Flow refer to the various classifications and characteristics that define the
behavior and movement of fluids.

Laminar Flow

Laminar flow is a smooth and orderly type of fluid flow characterized by parallel layers of fluid
particles moving without significant mixing. In laminar flow, the particles move in a predictable
manner, following well-defined streamlines. It occurs at low velocities, high viscosities, and in
the absence of obstructions, creating an organized and predictable flow pattern.

Figure 1. 14 Laminar flow pattern

Turbulent Flow

Turbulent Flow is a dynamic and chaotic type of fluid flow characterized by irregular motion and
the formation of eddies, vortices, and fluctuations in velocity and pressure. It occurs at high
velocities, low viscosity, and in the presence of disturbances or obstacles, playing a significant
role in many natural and engineered systems.
Figure: Turbulent flow

Transitional Flow

Transitional flow is a type of fluid flow that occurs between laminar and turbulent flow regimes.
It exhibits a mixture of laminar and turbulent characteristics, with the flow pattern oscillating
between the two states. Transitional flow is influenced by factors such as flow velocity, fluid
viscosity, and pipe roughness, making it a transitional phase in fluid behavior analysis.

Steady Flow

Steady flow refers to a condition in fluid dynamics where the properties of the flowing fluid,
such as velocity, pressure, and temperature, remain constant at any given point within the flow
field over time. It implies a consistent and unchanging flow rate, allowing for simplified analysis
and prediction of fluid behavior in a wide range of engineering and scientific applications.

Unsteady Flow

Unsteady flow, also known as transient flow, refers to fluid motion where the properties, such
as velocity, pressure, and temperature, vary with time at different points in the flow field. It
occurs during start-up or shutdown processes, sudden changes in flow conditions, or any
situation where fluid properties change dynamically, highlighting the time-dependent nature of
the flow behavior.

Compressible Flow

Compressible flow is the fluid flow in which the density of fluid does not remain constant during
the process of flow. That is; the density of the fluid changes from points to points in
compressible flow.

Incompressible Flow

Incompressible flow is the fluid in which the density of the flowing fluid is constant during the
process of flow.

Incompressible Flow refers to the behavior of fluids, typically liquids, where the density remains
constant regardless of changes in pressure. This type of flow is commonly assumed in low-
speed and low-pressure systems, where the volume of the fluid remains constant, allowing for
simplified analysis and calculations of fluid behavior and flow patterns.

Viscous Flow

A viscous Flow is the Fluid flow in which the effects of Viscosity is significant. Viscous fluid is a
real fluid that flows with some resistance in the opposite direction of its flow. For example flow
near the boundary walls where the effects of viscosity is maximum
Viscous flow refers to the motion of a fluid in which the velocity of the fluid particles varies
continuously from point to point, and the fluid has a tendency to resist flow. This resistance to
flow is due to the internal friction within the fluid, known as viscosity. Viscous flow is commonly
observed in liquids such as honey, syrup, and motor oil, where the flow is slow and the fluid
deforms continuously under an applied shear stress.
Figure1. 15 Examples of viscous-dominated flow.

Inviscid flow or Non viscous flow.

Inviscid flow is a theoretical concept in aerodynamics that assumes a fluid has zero viscosity.
That is; there is no internal friction or resistance within the fluid.

Irrotational Flow

Irrotational flow is a type of fluid motion where fluid particles do not rotate as they move. It is
characterized by the conservation of angular momentum and is often observed in idealized
fluid systems. Irrotational flow has important applications in fields such as aerodynamics,
hydrodynamics, and the study of potential flow.

Multiphase Flow

Multiphase Flow refers to the simultaneous movement of two or more phases, such as gases,
liquids, or solids, within a system. This complex fluid behavior is encountered in numerous
industries, including oil and gas production, chemical processing, and environmental
engineering. Understanding and analyzing Multiphase Flow is crucial for optimizing processes,
designing efficient systems, and ensuring the safe and reliable transportation of multiple phases
within a single system.

Using Reynolds Number to Determine Flow Pattern

Reynolds number is an important dimensionless parameter that identifies the behavior of fluid
based on attributes like viscosity or velocity of the fluid. Accordingly, the value of Reynolds
number (Re) can be expressed as:

The Reynolds number is defined as the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces.
𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑅𝑒 =
𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝜌𝑣𝑙
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇
𝑅𝑒 = 𝑅𝑒𝑦𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑑𝑠 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
𝜌 = 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑙 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝜇 = 𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 (𝐷𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑)

Reynolds number is dimensionless

We determine the type of flow based on Reynold’s number:

i. If the value of Re is less than 2000 then the fluid flow is laminar.
ii. If the value of Re is more than 4000 then the fluid flow is turbulent
iii. If the value of Re is between 2000-4000 then that fluid flow is known as transition.

Mach number Regimes

Mach number
Mach number is defined as the velocity of the object (aircraft’s speed) compared with the
speed of sound in air, the speed of sound which is approximately 330 m/s. It is dependent on a
variety of factors, especially the temperature of the surrounding area.

𝑉
𝑀=
𝐶

𝑉 = 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑠

𝐶 = 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑖𝑟

Types of Flow Based on Mach number

The following are the types of flow based on Mach number:

Type of Flow (Regime)

Mach Number Range Definition / Example

Below 0.8 Subsonic In this type the features of an

aircraft contain a rounded
nose and leading edges.

0.8 – 1.3 Transonic In this type the aircraft is built

with swept wings.

1.3 – 5.0 Supersonic In this type, the aircraft has a

definite design, with
movement of canards and
very sharp edges.
The planes here have cooled
5.0 – 10.0 Hypersonic titanium nickel wings which
are smaller in size.

For example, US plane X 15.

The planes flying at such high

Greater than 10.0 Hypervelocity speeds, the thermal controls
are an integral part of the
aircraft’s design.
Subsonic Flow

Subsonic flow (𝑀 < 1 everywhere). A flow field is defined as subsonic if the Mach number is
less than 1 at every point. Subsonic flows are characterized by smooth streamlines (no
discontinuity in slope), Commercial aircraft and propeller driven smaller aircraft fly in this
regime. These aircraft have a high aspect ratio and round noses. There is less turbulence and no
shock waves are produced at subsonic speeds.

Figure: Subsonic flow.

Transonic flow

Transonic flow (mixed regions where M < 1 and M > 1); in this range, the Mach number
varies from 0.8 − 1.2. It is called transonic because of the airflow over various parts of
an aircraft shifts between subsonic and supersonic. Swept wings are mostly used in
transonic flights. Weak shock waves are formed in this regime.

Figure: Transonic flow

Supersonic Flow

Supersonic flow (M > 1 everywhere). A flow field is defined as supersonic if the Mach number
is greater than 1 at every point. Supersonic flows are frequently characterized by the presence
of shock waves across which the flow properties and streamlines change discontinuously (in
contrast to the smooth, continuous variations in subsonic flows). Aircraft intended to fly at
supersonic velocities demonstrate huge contrasts in their aerodynamics due to the radical
contrasts in the behavior of flow above Mach 1. Sharp edges, Pointy nose, thin aero foils etc.
are such changes.

Figure: Supersonic flow

Hypersonic Flow

Hypersonic flow (very high supersonic speeds). Objects moving at speeds greater than Mach 5
come under the hypersonic regime. Strong and less distant shock waves are produced. Due to
high viscous forces, the temperature in this regime is very high and chemical properties change
due to excitation or ionization of air molecules. The X-15, at Mach 6.72 is one of the fastest
manned aircraft.

Figure: Hypersonic flow

High Hypersonic; The Mach no. ranges between10 − 25. NASA X-43 is one of the fastest
aircraft with Mach no. reaching 9.6. At this speeds, thermal protection is very important as the
body heats up so much that the atmospheric oxygen starts reacting with the surface of the
aircraft.
 UNIT II

Some Fundamental Principles and Equations