Mr. Biruk Simaani (M.Sc.

)
Menschen für Menschen Foundation
Agro – Technical and Technology College
Electrical and Electronics Technology Department
I. Course Description:
❑ Fundamentals of Control Systems
❖ Classification : Open-Loop and Closed-Loop control systems.
❖ Components: Sensors, Controllers, Actuators.
❖ Block Diagram Algebra: Simplifies complex system representation.
❖ Signal Flow Graphs: Graphically represents complex control systems to
visualize and determine system model.

❑ Mathematical Modeling: Techniques for modeling control systems.

❑ Analysis Domains:
❖ Stability: Qualitative analysis of control system
❖ Time Domain: Examines response over time.
❖ Frequency Domain: Analyzes system in terms of frequency response.
❑ Controller Design: Techniques for stability and performance enhancement.
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II. Course Objectives: At the end of this course students will be able to:
❑ Electrical Engineering Fundamentals: Enhance knowledge in electrical
engineering system modeling.

❑ Mathematical Tools: Develop skills to analyze and design Linear Time-

Invariant(LTI) control systems.

❑ Stability Analysis: Grasp methods for stability analysis of control systems,

including the Routh-Hurwitz criterion and Nyquist stability criterion.

❑ Time-Domain and Frequency-Domain Analysis: Study Time-Domain

and Frequency-Domain approaches for system response analysis.

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III. Reference and Text Books

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 CHAPTER - ONE
INTRODUCTION TO CONTROL SYSTEMS

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this introductory chapter is to:

❖Define what we mean by control systems
❖Introduce control system elements and their application.

❖Provide the rationale for studying the material that follows in

subsequent chapters.

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 1.1. Introduction
❖ Every activity in our day-to-day life is influenced by some sort of
control systems.

❖ Concept of control system plays an important role in working:

❑ Liquid Level Control
❑ Room Temperature Control
❑ Car Driving(Cruise Control)
❑ Space vehicles System
❑ Missile Launcher.

❖ Control systems are found in a number of practical applications

like Transportation Systems, Power Systems, Industrial Process
Control Systems, Robotics etc.
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1.1.1.Fundamentals of Control system
❖ Control is the study of how to make things do what you want.
❖ A control system must have Input/Desired Signal, Output/Response, Ways
to achieve input and output objectives and Control action.

Figure 1.1: Representation of Control Systems

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1.1.2. Definitions of Basic Terminology
❑A System is anything with Inputs and Outputs.
❑A combination of components that act together and perform a certain objective.

❖ There should ALWAYS be Inputs and Outputs!

Example: Aircraft ▪ If No Inputs: You can’t change anything.
▪ IF No Outputs: Then it doesn’t matter anyway.

❑ Inputs and Outputs depend on what we are

trying to do.
❑ A system may have multiple Inputs and Outputs
❑ But only some of these are relevant to you.
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 Inputs and Actuators
❑ Inputs can be created by Actuators
❑ An Actuator is any mechanism /signal/ communication
which can affect the Outputs.
Example: Force Transducers: Servos/Motors

Sensors, Outputs and Feedback Fig: Actuator

❑ Outputs are measured by Sensors.
❑ A Sensor is any mechanism/communication/signal
which can be used to measure an Output.

❑ Feedback: When the Outputs affect the Inputs. Fig: Sensor

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 Control Systems
❑ A Control System is a system which modifies the inputs to the plant to
produce a desired output.

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 Disturbances: It is a signal that tends to adversely affect the value of
the output of a system.
❑ If a disturbance is generated within the system, it is called
internal disturbance, while an external disturbance is
generated outside the system and is an input.

Controlled Variable: It is the quantity or condition that is measured

and controlled.
❑ The controlled variable is the output of the system.

The Manipulated Variable: It is the quantity or condition that is

varied by the controller so as to affect the value of the controlled
variable.

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Example: Control system for a sun seeker solar system/Solar tracker

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1.1.3. Control System Classification
I. Open-Loop Control Systems.
❑ The output has no effect on the control action

❑ The output is neither measured nor fed back for comparison with the
input.
❑ In the presence of disturbances, an open-loop control system will not
perform the desired task.
❑ It can be used, in practice, only if the relationship between the input and
output is known and if there are neither internal nor external disturbances
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 Examples of Open-Loop Control:
A Pop-up Toaster
❑ Uses electric heating elements to toast bread by
exposing it to radiant heat.
❑ Does not measure how well roasted.

Laundry machine
❑ Washes clothes, by setting a program.
❑ Does not measure how clean the clothes become.

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 Advantages:
❑ Simple construction, ease of maintenance, and less expensive.
❑ There is no stability concern.

❑ Convenient when output is hard to measure or measuring the output

precisely is economically not feasible. (For example, in the washer system, it
would be quite expensive to provide a device to measure the quality of the
washer's output, cleanliness of the clothes).

Disadvantages:
❑ Disturbances and changes in calibration cause errors, and the output may be
different from what is desired.
❑ Recalibration is necessary from time to time.

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 II. Closed-loop control systems
❑ In practice, the terms feedback control and closed-loop control are used
interchangeably.

❑ In a closed-loop control system the actuating error signal, which is the

difference between the input signal and the feedback signal , is fed to the
controller so as to reduce the error and bring the output of the system to
a desired value.
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 Advantages:
❑ High accuracy
❑ Not sensitive to disturbance
❑ Controllable transient response
❑ Controllable steady state error

Disadvantages:
❑ More Complex, and More Expensive.
❑ Possibility of instability.
❑ Need for output measurement.
❑ Recalibration is necessary from time to time.

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 Examples of Closed-Loop Control: CD player speed control

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1.1.4. Types of Feedback Control Systems
❑ Feedback control systems may be classified in a number of ways
❖ According to the method of analysis and design:
o Linear control system and Nonlinear control systems
❖ Depending on whether the parameters of the system remain constant
or vary with time.
o Time varying or Time invariant control systems.

❖ According to the types of signals used:

o Continuous data or Discrete data control system
❖Depending on the number of inputs and output
o Single-input-single-output (SISO) or Multi-input-multi output
(MIMO) system

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1.1.5. Linear System

We can test a system for this property using ideas from the figure.

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 1.1.6. Time Invariant Systems
❑ A system is either time-varying or time-invariant, not both.

❑ A time-invariant system does not change its fundamental behaviour over

different periods of time.
❑ Its parameter values are constant.

❑ A time invariant system satisfies the property (for any x(t), τ)

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 We can test a system for this property using ideas from the figure

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1.1.7. System Modeling
What is a model? Why do we need one?
❖ We use the term model to refer to a set of mathematical equations
used to represent a physical system, relating the system’s output
signal to its input signal.

❖ A model is required in order to:

o Understand system behavior (analysis).
o Design a controller (synthesis).

KEY POINT: It is necessary to understand how the system works naturally in order to
know how to be able to change how it works using a feedback controller.

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 ❑ Developing a reasonable mathematical model is the most important part of the
entire analysis.
❖ It is also often the most difficult, amounting to ≈ 80 %–90 % of the effort
in designing a controller

❖ There are three basic approaches to modeling:

o Analytic system modeling.
o Empirical system Modelling.
o Semi Empirical system Modelling
❑It is important to realize that no model is ever exact!
❖ Inaccuracies arise because of
o Unknown parameter values, or
o Unmodeled dynamics (to make simpler model).
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 1.2. Differential Equations of Systems
❖ Differential Equations: Are equations that involve derivatives of a function.
❑ They can be ordinary (ODE) or partial (PDE) depending on whether
they involve derivatives with respect to one variable or multiple
variables.
❑ It is a powerful tool for describing, analyzing, and predicting the
behavior of dynamic systems.
❖ A wide range of systems in engineering are modeled mathematically by
differential equations.
❖ In general, the differential equation of an n-th order system is written

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I. Electrical Systems
❑ Deriving a mathematical model for an electrical system starts from knowing the
mathematical model of each component and then using the laws that govern the
connection of these components.

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 Examples: Determine the mathematical model of an RC circuit using differential
equation.
According to Kirchhoff ’s voltage law

It is re-written as in standard form

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Exercise 1.1 : Consider an electric circuit shown in
figure below and find a differential equation model
with input 𝑣(𝑡) and output 𝑖(𝑡).

Exercise 1.2: Determine the differential equation

model of an electrical system given in figure.

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Exercise 1.3 : Consider an Op-amp electric circuit shown in figure below and find a
differential equation model with input 𝑉𝑖 (𝑡) and output 𝑉𝑜 (𝑡)

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 II. Mechanical Systems
❑ Mechanical systems are either Translational or Rotational

❑ Mathematical modeling of mechanical systems involves creating equations

that describe the behavior of mechanical components.
❑ These models help us analyze and predict the system's performance.

Steps to Develop a Mathematical Model

❑ Define the System: Identify all components (e.g., masses, springs, dampers)
and their interactions.
❑ Draw Free-Body Diagrams: Illustrate forces acting on each component.
❑ Apply Newton’s Laws: Write down the equations of motion for each
component.

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 A. Translational Mechanical Systems
❑ The three basic components of linear translational mechanical systems are the
spring, viscous damper, and mass

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Example: Consider a mechanical translation system shown in figure below, where a
mass M is connected to a fixed surface by a spring with spring constant K. A force
𝑓(𝑡) is applied to the mass, which moves on a surface with friction.

≅
The surface friction is modeled by a viscous
Draw a free-body diagram damper with damping constant 𝑏
The forces acting on the mass due to the spring and
damper are opposite to the direction of motion.
By Newton’s law

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 Exercise 1.4: A quarter-car is modeled by the mass-spring-damper system shown in
the figure below. Develop a mathematical model of the system.

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 B. Rotational Mechanical Systems
❑ The three basic components of linear rotational mechanical systems are the
torsional spring, viscous damper, and rotational mass

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 Example: Consider a mechanical rotational system shown in figure below, where an
inertial element having moment of inertia J is connected to a fixed surface by a rotational
spring with spring constant K. A torque T(t) is applied to the inertial element, which
rotates on a surface with friction. Determine the mathematical model of the system

The torque acting on the inertial element due to the rotational

spring and damper are opposite to the direction of rotation.
By Newton’s law 𝑑 2 𝜃(𝑡) 𝑑𝜃(𝑡)
𝑇 𝑡 =𝐽 2
+b + Kθ(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝜃(𝑡) 𝑑𝜃(𝑡)
𝐽 2
= −b − Kθ 𝑡 + 𝑇 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
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Exercise 1.5: Find a differential equation model of the armature-controlled dc motor of
with input 𝑉𝑎 and output 𝜔𝑚 .

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 1.3. Laplace Transform: Why need Laplace transform?
❑ The Laplace transform is a powerful mathematical tool used for analyzing and
solving differential equations.
Key Benefits:
❑ Simplifies Complex Differential Equations: The Laplace transform
converts complex differential equations into simpler algebraic equations,
making them easier to solve. This is particularly useful for linear time-invariant
(LTI) systems.

❑ Initial and Boundary Conditions: It naturally incorporates initial conditions

into the transformed equations, eliminating the need for separate handling of
these conditions.

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 ❑ System Analysis: It helps in analyzing systems in the frequency domain, allowing
for the understanding of system behavior, stability, and response characteristics.

❑ Control Systems: Widely used in control system design and analysis to determine
system stability, transient response, and steady-state behavior.

❑Transfer Functions: It allows for the derivation of transfer

functions, which are crucial for understanding the input-
output relationship of a system.

❑ The Laplace transform of a function 𝑓(𝑡) is defined as

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1.3.1. Laplace Transform of Commonly used Function
Step Function:

Impulse Function

Exponential Function

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 1.3.2. Properties of the Laplace transform

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 1.3.3. The inverse Laplace transform

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 Example:

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 Example: Find the ILT of

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1.4. Transfer Function
❑ Transfer functions are commonly used to characterize the input—output
relationships of components or systems that can be described by linear, time-
invariant, differential equations.

❑ The transfer function of a linear, time-invariant, differential equation system is

defined as “the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output (response
function) to the Laplace transform of the input (driving function) under
the assumption that all initial conditions are zero”.

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 To derive the Transfer Function
❑ Write the differential equation for
the system.
❑ Take the Laplace transform of the
differential equation, assuming all
initial conditions are zero.
❑ Take the ratio of the output Y(s)
to the input R(s). This ratio is the
transfer function.

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Example: Find the transfer function of the system represented by the differential
equation

Determine if it is proper or strictly proper. If it is not strictly proper,

find the strictly proper part
The transfer function can be written by inspection as

The third-order transfer function G(s) is proper but not strictly proper because the
numerator and denominator polynomials have the same degree. Also, G(∞) = 2.
Hence

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 Gsp(s) is strictly proper because the degree of the numerator is smaller than the
degree of the denominator.
Hence, G(s) can be expressed as

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Exercise 1.6: Consider the Potential Divider circuit shown in figure below and determine
𝑉𝑜 (𝑠)
the transfer function model( ).
𝑉𝑖 (𝑠)

Exercise 1.7: Consider an Op-Amp Circuits with R-C

Components shown in figure below and determine the
𝑉𝑜 (𝑠)
transfer function model ( ).
𝑉𝑖 (𝑠)

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1.5. Impulse Response of LTI Systems

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 ❑ The output of an LTI system is equal to the Convolution of its Impulse
response with the input

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Recall from your differential-equation math course:

⇒ ⇒

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1.6. Block diagrams
❑ A diagrammatic representation of the cause-and-effect relationship
between the input and output of a physical system

❑ Shows information/energy flow in a system, and when used with

Laplace transforms, can simplify complex system dynamics.

❑ BASIC configurations:

I. Blocks Connected in Series

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 II. Blocks Connected in Parallel

III. Blocks Connected in Feedback

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 Example: Represent the DC generator shown in figure below in block diagram. Assume
generator is driven at constant speed. Generator has field windings (input), and rotor/
armature windings (output)

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 Compute the transfer functions of the four blocks

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1.6.1. Block-diagram algebra

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Example: Simplify the block diagram given in figure below and determine the transfer
function

Solution

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 Exercise: Simplify the block
diagram shown in Figure below
and obtain the closed-loop transfer
function C(s)/R(s)

Exercise: Obtain the transfer functions

C(s)/R(s) and C(s)/D(s) of the system
shown in Figure

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1.7.Signal Flow Graphs
❑ Definitions

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 ❑ Node: a point representing a signal or variable.
❑ Branch: unidirectional line segment joining two nodes.

❑ Path: a branch or a continuous sequence of branches that can be traversed from

one node to another node.

❑ Loop: a closed path that originates and terminates on the same node and along
the path no node is met twice.
❑ Nontouching loops: two loops are said to be nontouching if they do not have a
common node.

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1.7.1. Mason’s Signal Flow Graph Gain Formula
❑The transfer function T(s) of a closed loop control system is:

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 Example

❑ Calculate forward path transfer function Pk for

each forward path k

❑ Calculate all loop TF’s

❑ Consider nontouching loops 2 at a time.

❖ Loops L1 do not touch Loops L3 and L4
❖ Loops L2 do not touch Loops L3 and L4

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 ❑ Calculate Δ

❑ Calculate Δk for each forward path

❑ The TF of the system is

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 Thank you for your
Attention

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