IS 800 : 2007

4.3 Assumptions in Analysis or gain in buildings if not properly insulated. This

can impact energy efficiency.Susceptibility to
4.3.1 The structure shall be analyzed in its entirety *Buckling:Long steel columns and beams can be
except as follows: susceptible to buckling under heavy loads or in the
event of design flaws, requiring careful
a) Advantages of Steel Structures High engineering and bracing.
Strength-to-Weight Ratio:Steel is
incredibly strong relative to its weight, 4.3.4 Base Stiffness
allowing for lighter structures that can
still support large loads*.Durability and
Longevity:Steel structures are highly Fire Vulnerability:While steel can resist fire, it
durable and can withstand extreme loses strength at high temperatures, leading to
weather conditions, including heavy potential structural failure. Proper fireproofing is
snow, wind, and [IS 1893 (Part 10]. necessary to mitigate this risk.

b) .Speed of Construction:Steel components Initial Cost:The initial cost of steel can be higher
are often prefabricated off-site, which can than other materials like wood or concrete.
significantly reduce construction time. However, this may be offset by the benefits in the
Once delivered to the site, they can be long term.
quickly assembled.*Flexibility and
Versatility:Steel can be easily molded into a) Noise and Vibration:Steel structures can
various shapes, making it suitable for a transmit noise and vibration more readily
wide range of architectural designs and than other materials, which may require
applications.*Recyclability:Steel is 100% additional acoustic treatments in certain
recyclable, making it an environmentally applications.
friendly option. Steel structures can be b) Complexity of Welding and
dismantled Connections:Welding and making
connections in steel structures require
c and repurposed, reducing waste.*Cost- skilled labor, and any defects in these
Effective:Despite the initial cost, steel connections can lead to structural
structures can be more economical in the weaknesses.
long run due to their durability, low c) Environmental Impact:Although steel is
maintenance requirements, and fast recyclable, the production process is
construction times.*Fire Resistance:With energy-intensive and contributes to
proper insulation and fireproofing environmental pollution, particularly in
materials, steel structures can offer good terms of carbon emissions.
resistance to fire, limiting structural d) Distinguish between working stress
damage during a fire.*Ease of design and limit state design of steel
Expansion:Steel structures can be easily structure Working Stress Design (WSD)
modified or expanded, allowing for future and
building extensions or changes without e) Limit State Design (LSD) are two
significant challenges. methods used in the design of steel
structures. Both approaches aim to
4.3.2 Span Length, ensure that the structure is safe,
serviceable, and efficient, but they differ
The span length of a flexural member in a in their design philosophies, factors of
continuous frame system be taken as the safety, and approaches to load
Disadvantages of Steel Structures. considerations. Here's a comparison:

4.3.3 Arangements of imposed Loads in Buildings Working Stress Design (WSD):WSD is based on
the concept of ensuring that the stress in structural
Corrosion:Steel is susceptible to corrosion, members under working loads does not exceed a
especially in environments with high humidity or specified allowable stress. The allowable stress is
salt exposure. Protective coatings and regular derived by applying a factor of safety to the
maintenance are required to prevent material's yield stress.
rusting.*Thermal Conductivity:Steel has high
thermal conductivity, which can lead to heat loss 23
IS 800 : 2007

f) its yield point.Limit State Design l) limit states and load combinations.
(LSD):LSD is a more modern and However, it provides a more realistic
comprehensive approach that considers
both ultimate strength (ultimate limit
state) and serviceability (serviceability
limit state) of the structure.The design
ensures that the structure remains safe m) assessment of the structure's
g) under the worst possible loads (ultimate performance.* Application in
limit state) and functional under normal PracticeWorking Stress Design
loads (serviceability limit state).LSD (WSD):WSD was traditionally used in
considers various limit states beyond just many countries but is now largely
stress, such as buckling, fatigue, and replaced by LSD due to its limitations in
deflection. Safety FactorsWorking Stress n) efficiency and material usage.Limit State
Design (WSD):A single factor of safety Design (LSD):LSD is the preferred
is applied to the material's yield strength method in modern engineering practice
to determine the allowable stress.This and is adopted in most current design
factor of safety is often conservative, codes, such as Eurocodes, AISC, and IS
leading to potentially over-designed codes
structures.Limit State Design
h) (LSD):LSD uses partial safety factors, 4.3.5 simple construction
which are applied to both the material
strengths and the loads.These factors are
calibrated based on the probability of Distinguish between working stress design and
failure, leading to a more optimized and limit state design of steel structure? Working
efficient design.Different safety factors Stress Design (WSD) Basic Concept:Elastic
are applied to different types of loads Design: WSD is based on the elastic behavior of
(e.g., dead load, live load, wind load). materials. The design ensures that the stresses
Load ConsiderationsWorking Stress induced in the structure under service loads do not
Design (WSD):WSD considers only the exceed the permissible (allowable) stresses. These
i) working loads, without explicitly permissible stresses are a fraction of the yield
considering the possibility of extreme or stress or ultimate strength of the material,
accidental loads.The design is typically providing a margin of safety.
based on service loads and does not
account for load combinations.Limit
4.3.6 Factor of Safety: The factor of safety is
State Design (LSD):LSD explicitly
applied uniformly, typically by dividing the
considers different load combinations,
material's yield or ultimate strength by a specific
including extreme and accidental
value to determine allowable stresses. The
loads.The design checks are performed
structure is designed to remain in the elastic range
for both ultimate loads (for safety) and
under all expected loads2. Load
service loads (for usability). Material
Consideration:Service Loads: WSD focuses on the
j) UtilizationWorking Stress Design
loads that the structure is expected to carry during
(WSD):The material is generally under-
its lifetime, without considering the ultimate
utilized because the design is more
capacity of the structure.
conservative, leading to heavier and
potentially more expensive
structures.Limit State Design 4.3.6.1 Limit State Design (LSD)1. Basic
(LSD):LSD leads to more efficient use of Concept:Ultimate Capacity Design: LSD is based
materials, resulting in lighter structures. on the concept of limit states, which are conditions
By considering the probability of failure, beyond which the structure no longer fulfills the
the design is less conservative and more required function (e.g., collapse or excessive
economical.*Design SimplicityWorking deflection). The design ensures that the structure's
Stress Design (WSD):WSD is simpler strength and serviceability meet specific criteria
and more straightforward, as it primarily under various limit states.Partial Safety Factors:
k) involves comparing calculated stresses Different partial safety factors are applied to
with allowable stresses.Limit State account for uncertainties in loads, material
Design (LSD):LSD is more complex, strengths, and other factors,
involving multiple checks for different
24
 IS 800 : 2007

4.5.2.1 Plastic Moment Capacity (MpM_pMp)

4.5 Plastic Analysis
The plastic moment capacity MpM_pMp occurs
4.5.1 Application when the entire section has yielded. For a
triangular section, the plastic neutral axis divides
Calculate the shape factor of triangle.? The shape the area into two equal parts. This axis is located at
factor (also known as the shape coefficient or form h3\frac{h}{3}3h from the base.
factor) is a concept used in plastic analysis,
particularly in determining the collapse load of a The plastic moment MpM_pMp is calculated by
structural member. It is defined as the ratio of the taking moments about the plastic neutral axis:
plastic moment capacity to the elastic moment
capacity of a cross-section.For a given shape, the Mp=σy×area of one half×distance from centroid of
shape factor SfS_fSf is calculated as:Sf=MeMp half to plastic neutral axisM_p = \sigma_y \times \
text{area of one half} \times \text{distance from
Where: centroid of half to plastic neutral axis}Mp=σy
×area of one half×distance from centroid of half to
a) MpM_pMp is the plastic moment plastic neutral axis
capacity of the cross-section.
b) MeM_eMe is the elastic moment capacity The area of one half of the triangle is:
of the cross-section.
Ahalf=12×12×b×h=bh4A_{\text{half}} = \frac{1}
Shape Factor of a Triangle {2} \times \frac{1}{2} \times b \times h = \
frac{bh}{4}Ahalf=21×21×b×h=4bh
Consider a triangular cross-section with a base bbb
and height hhh. The distance from the centroid of one half to the
plastic neutral axis is h6\frac{h}{6}6h. Therefore:
1. Elastic Moment Capacity (MeM_eMe)
Mp=σy×bh4×h6=σy⋅bh224M_p = \sigma_y \times
For a triangular section, the centroid (neutral axis \frac{bh}{4} \times \frac{h}{6} = \frac{\sigma_y \
in the case of bending) is located at h3\frac{h} cdot b h^2}{24}Mp=σy×4bh×6h=24σy⋅bh2
{3}3h from the base. The elastic moment capacity
MeM_eMe is given by: 3. Shape Factor (SfS_fSf)

Me=σyIymaxM_e = \frac{\sigma_y I}{y_{\ Now, the shape factor SfS_fSf is:

text{max}}}Me=ymaxσyI
Sf=MpMe=σy⋅bh224σy⋅bh254=5424=2.25S_f = \
Where: frac{M_p}{M_e} = \frac{\frac{\sigma_y \cdot b
h^2}{24}}{\frac{\sigma_y \cdot b h^2}{54}} = \

⋅bh2=2454=2.25
a) σy\sigma_yσy is the yield stress. frac{54}{24} = 2.25Sf=MeMp=54σy⋅bh224σy
b) III is the second moment of area (moment
of inertia) of the section about the neutral
axis. Final Answer
c) ymaxy_{\text{max}}ymax is the distance
from the neutral axis to the farthest fiber The shape factor of a triangular cross-section is
(which is 2h3\frac{2h}{3}32h). 2.25..

The moment of inertia III for a triangle about its

centroidal axis parallel to the base is:I=bh336I = \
frac{b h^3}{36}I=36bh3Substituting into the
equation for MeM_eMe
:Me=σy⋅bh3362h3=σy⋅bh254M_e = \frac{\
sigma_y \cdot \frac{b h^3}{36}}{\frac{2h}{3}} =
\frac{\sigma_y \cdot b h^2}{54}Me=32hσy⋅36bh3
=54σy⋅bh2
25
IS 800 : 2007

7.6.2 Width of Lacing Bars

tension and shear simultaneously, leading to a
Explain the failure modes of bolted connection? 1. combined failure mode.
Shear Failure of the BoltDescription: When the
applied load on the connection is predominantly in Mode of Failure: The bolt may fail in a
shear, the bolt may fail by shear if the force manner that reflects both tensile and shear
exceeds the shear strength of the bolt.Mode of forces acting on it, often resulting in a
Failure: The bolt will be "cut" along the shear complex fracture pattern.Prevention:
plane(s), which could be either single shear (one Designing the bolt to resist the combined
plane) or double shear (two planes).Prevention: stresses by using interaction formulas that
Ensuring that the bolt material and diameter are consider both tension and shear.
adequate to resist the applied shear force.
7.6.7 Slip Failure (for Slip-Critical
7.6.3. Tensile Failure of the BoltDescription: If the Connections)Description: In slip-critical
bolted connection is subjected to tensile forces, the connections, bolts are pre-tensioned, and the
bolt might fail by tensile rupture if the tensile load connection relies on the friction between the
exceeds the bolt's tensile strength.Mode of Failure: connected surfaces. Slip failure occurs when the
The bolt fractures along its cross- frictional force is overcome, and the connection
section.Prevention: Selecting a bolt with sufficient slips.Mode of Failure: The connection moves or
tensile strength and ensuring that the bolt is slips, which may or may not lead to ultimate
properly pre-tensioned. failure depending on the design.Prevention:
Properly pre-tensioning the bolts and ensuring the
7.6.3.1. Bearing Failure of the Bolt contact surfaces have the required frictional
HoleDescription: Bearing failure occurs when the properties.
material around the bolt hole experiences
excessive deformation due to the compressive 7.6.8. Fatigue FailureDescription: Bolted
force exerted by the bolt.Mode of Failure: The bolt connections subjected to cyclic loading can
hole elongates or becomes deformed, which can experience fatigue failure, where repeated stress
lead to increased displacements or even failure of cycles lead to the initiation and propagation of
the connection.Prevention: Designing the cracks in the bolt or connected material.Mode of
connection so that the bearing stress does not Failure: Cracks develop and propagate over time,
exceed the allowable bearing strength of the eventually leading to fracture of the bolt or the
material. connected material.Prevention: Designing for
fatigue resistance by avoiding stress
7.6.4. Tear-out FailureDescription: Tear-out failure concentrations, using bolts with appropriate fatigue
happens when the edge distance between the bolt strength, and controlling the number of load
and the edge of the connected plate is insufficient, cycles.
causing the material to tear out under load.Mode of
Failure: A portion of the material is pulled out 7.7 . Prying Action
between the bolt hole and the edge of the
plate.Prevention: Providing adequate edge distance
and bolt spacing to avoid this failure.* Block Shear  Description: Prying action occurs in
FailureDescription: Block shear failure is a bolted connections with lever arms (such
combination of shear and tensile failures that as those in angle connections), where the
occurs when a segment of the connected material applied load causes additional tension in
(including a group of bolts) shears out from the the bolts due to deformation of the
main body of the plate.Mode of Failure: The block connected plates.
of material that includes the bolts shears out along  Mode of Failure: The increased tension in
one or more planes and simultaneously tears along the bolts can lead to tensile failure or
excessive deformation.
 Prevention: Designing the connection to
another.Prevention: Ensuring that the design minimize prying action by reducing lever
considers both the shear and tensile capacities of arms or providing adequate stiffness..
the material surrounding the bolt group*.
Combined Tension and Shear FailureDescription:
In some connections, bolts are subjected to both 50
 IS 800 : 2007

Alignment: Welded connections can be designed

to minimize or eliminate eccentricities in the
connection, which helps in reducing additional
stresses that might otherwise occur in bolted or
riveted connections.Improved Strength:High Load
Capacity: Welded connections can provide higher
strength than bolted connections, especially when
designed and executed correctly. This is because
the entire cross-section of the connected members
can be used to transfer loads.Elimination of
Drilling:No Holes Required: Welding eliminates
the need for drilling holes, which can weaken the
members and introduce stress concentrations. This
also speeds up the fabrication process.

7.7.2.2 .Disadvantages of Welded Connections.

Quality Control Issues: Dependence on Skill: The
quality of a welded connection highly depends on
the skill and experience of the welder. Poor
welding can lead to defects such as cracks,
porosity, or incomplete fusion, which can
compromise the integrity of the connection.
Inspection Challenges :Difficult to Inspect:
Welded joints can be more challenging to inspect
compared to bolted connections. Non-destructive
testing methods like ultrasonic or radiographic
inspection are often required, which can be costly
and time-consuming.Residual Stresses and
Distortion:Heat-Induced Issues: Welding
introduces significant heat into the material, which
can lead to residual stresses and distortion in the
welded members. These effects can cause warping
7.7.1.4 What are the advantages and disadvantages or misalignment of the structure if not properly
of welded connection? Advantages of Welded controlled. Field Welding Challenges:
ConnectionsStructural Continuity:Monolithic Environmental Sensitivity: Field welding can be
Construction: Welded connections create a difficult to perform in adverse weather conditions,
continuous connection between steel members, such as rain, snow, or high winds. This can delay
resulting in a monolithic structure. *Aesthetic construction or require additional protective
Appeal:Cleaner Appearance: Welded connections measures, increasing costs.Lack of Dismantling
are generally more aesthetically pleasing because Ability: Permanent Connection: Welded
they do not require additional components like connections are permanent and cannot be easily
bolts, nuts, or gusset plates. This leads to a cleaner dismantled or adjusted. This can be a disadvantage
if future modifications or disassembly of the
7.7.2 and more streamlined appearance, especially structure are required .Higher Labor Costs:
important in architectural structures.Efficiency in Specialized Labor: Welding requires skilled labor,
Material Use:No Need for Additional Hardware: which can be more expensive than labor for bolted
Welding does not require bolts, nuts, or other connections. The need for specialized equipment
fasteners, which reduces material usage and and safety precautions further increases labor
weight. This can lead to cost savings in both costs. Potential for Brittle Fracture :Material
materials and transportation.Flexibility in Sensitivity: Certain steels and weld metals are
Design:Versatility: Welding allows for susceptible to brittle fracture, especially in cold
connections at various angles and orientations, temperatures. This requires careful selection of
providing greater flexibility in the design and materials and sometimes preheating or post-weld
fabrication of complex structures. It enables the heat treatment .Fatigue..
joining of dissimilar materials, if needed.Reduced
Connection Eccentricity:
51
 IS 800 : 2007

17.2.3 Explain the failure modes of axial loaded The column experiences plastic deformation, and
column.? Axially loaded columns are structural the material yields or crushes, leading to a gradual
elements that primarily carry compressive loads failure. For brittle materials, crushing may lead to
along their length. 1. Buckling Failure sudden fracture.Factors Influencing Crushing:
Material Strength: The compressive strength of the
a) Description: material directly determines the load at which
o Buckling is a form of instability crushing occurs.Column Length: Short columns
that occurs when a slender with low slenderness ratios are more likely to fail
column is subjected to axial by crushing than by buckling. Prevention:
compressive loads. Instead of Ensuring that the applied load does not exceed the
failing by crushing, the column material's compressive strength by designing
deforms laterally (out-of-plane) columns with adequate cross-sectional area and
and fails by bending. using materials with sufficient compressive
b) Mode of Failure: strength. Local Buckling Description: Local
o The column deflects laterally, buckling occurs in columns with thin-walled cross-
typically in a sinusoidal or sections, such as in steel I-beams or box sections.
parabolic shape, leading to a When subjected to compressive loads, individual
sudden and often catastrophic elements of the cross-section (like flanges or webs)
failure. The load at which may buckle locally before the entire column
buckling occurs is called the fails.Mode of Failure: Portions of the cross-
critical buckling load. sectional elements buckle locally, causing a
c) Factors Influencing Buckling: reduction in the overall load-carrying capacity of
o Slenderness Ratio: The the column and possibly leading to global buckling
slenderness ratio (λ\lambdaλ) is or other forms of failure. Factors Influencing
the ratio of the column's Local Buckling: Thickness of Elements: Thinner
effective length to its radius of elements are more susceptible to local buckling.
gyration. Columns with a high Width-to-Thickness Ratio: A higher width-to-
slenderness ratio are more prone thickness ratio increases the likelihood of local
to buckling. buckling. Prevention: Designing with thicker
o Material Properties: The elastic elements or adding stiffeners to prevent local
modulus (E) of the material buckling. Reducing the width-to-thickness ratio
affects the buckling load. A can also help. Overall Instability (Combined
higher modulus increases the Failure Modes) Description: Overall instability
critical buckling load. occurs when a column is subjected to a
o End Conditions: The support combination of axial loads and moments, leading
conditions at the ends of the to a complex interaction of bending and
column (e.g., pinned, fixed, free) compression. This mode combines elements of
significantly affect the critical buckling and crushing. Mode of Failure: The
buckling load. Columns with column may buckle under combined loading, with
fixed ends have higher buckling sections yielding or crushing depending on the
loads than those with pinned or stress distribution across the cross-section. Factors
free ends. Influencing Overall Instability: Load Eccentricity:
d) Prevention: Eccentric application of loads induces moments in
o Increasing the column's cross- the column, exacerbating the likelihood of
sectional area, choosing combined failure modes.Material and Geometric
materials with a higher elastic Properties: The interaction between material yield
modulus, or reducing the strength and column slenderness plays a critical
column's effective length can role.Prevention:Ensuring loads are applied
help prevent buckling. concentrically, minimizing eccentricities, and
designing the column to resist combined stresses.
Torsional BucklingDescription:Torsional buckling
17.2.3.1. Crushing or Yielding Failure Description: is a form of instability that occurs in columns with
Crushing or yielding occurs when a short, stocky non-symmetrical cross-sections (such as angles or
column is subjected to axial compressive loads that channels). When subjected to compressive loads,
exceed the material's compressive strength. This these columns..
failure mode is characterized by the material
yielding or fracturing without significant lateral
deformation (buckling).Mode of Failure: 111
IS 800 : 2007

17.2.4.2 Explain the factors effecting strength of End Conditions: The manner in which the member
tension members.? The strength of tension is connected to other elements (e.g., pinned, fixed)
members, which are structural elements subjected can affect stress distribution and overall strength.
to axial tensile forces, is influenced by several
factors related to the material properties, geometric 17.3.1 Shear Lag EffectShear Lag: Shear lag
characteristics, connection details, and loading occurs when not all parts of the cross-section are
conditions 1. Material Properties equally effective in resisting the applied load,
especially in members with non-uniform stress
Yield Strength (fyf_yfy): The yield strength of the distribution (e.g., angles, channels). This effect
material is crucial in determining the load-carrying reduces the effective area and hence the tensile
capacity of a tension member. A higher yield strength of the member.6. Stress
strength allows the member to resist greater tensile ConcentrationsGeometric Discontinuities: Features
forces before yielding.Ultimate Tensile Strength like holes, notches, or abrupt changes in cross-
(fuf_ufu): The ultimate tensile strength is the section can cause stress concentrations, leading to
maximum stress the material can withstand before localized increases in stress. These areas are more
failing. It plays a role in determining the member's susceptible to fracture.Connection Eccentricity:
failure strength.Ductility: Materials with high Eccentric loading, where the line of action of the
ductility can undergo significant plastic tensile force does not pass through the centroid of
deformation before fracture, providing a warning the cross-section, can introduce additional bending
before failure and allowing for redistribution of stresses, reducing the effective tensile capacity7.
stresses. Load Distribution and AlignmentUniform Load
Distribution: For the full cross-sectional area to be
17.2.4.3. Cross-Sectional AreaGross Area effective, the tensile force should be uniformly
(AgA_gAg): The gross cross-sectional area of the distributed. Misalignment or uneven load
member directly influences its tensile capacity. A distribution can reduce the member's
larger cross-sectional area increases the member's strength.Eccentric Loading: Eccentric or off-center
strength.Net Area (AnA_nAn): The net area loading can introduce bending stresses in addition
accounts for reductions in the cross-sectional area to tensile stresses, which reduces the overall
due to bolt holes, cuts, or other discontinuities. The strength of the member.
net area is critical in determining the member's
capacity to resist fracture.Effective Net Area 17.3.2. Environmental Factors Corrosion:
(AneA_{ne}Ane): In some cases, the effective net Corrosion can reduce the cross -sectional area of a
area, which accounts for factors like shear lag tension member over time, leading to a decrease in
(non-uniform stress distribution), governs the tensile strength. Corroded areas are also more
design. prone to stress concentrations and potential
failure.Temperature: High or low temperatures can
17.2.4.4 Length and Slenderness RatioSlenderness affect the material properties, such as yield
Ratio (λ\lambdaλ): While tension members are not strength and ductility, thus influencing the tensile
prone to buckling, a high slenderness ratio can still capacity of the member 9Fatigue and Cyclic
influence their behavior, particularly in terms of LoadingFatigue: Repeated or cyclic loading can
lateral stability. A very slender member may cause fatigue failure in tension members, even if
experience lateral vibration or deflection under the applied load is below the material's yield
load.Length: The length of the member can affect strength. Fatigue cracks typically initiate at stress
its overall deformation under tensile loads. Long concentrations and propagate over time, leading to
tension members may experience significant failure.Cyclic Loading Conditions: Tension
elongation, which can lead to serviceability members subjected to varying loads must be
issues.4. Connection DetailsType of Connection: designed to resist potential fatigue failure by
The method of connecting the tension member to ensuring that stress ranges are within allowable
other structural elements (e.g., bolted, welded, limits10. Residual StressesResidual Stresses:
riveted) can significantly impact its strength. Stresses remaining in the member from
Bolted connections, for example, reduce the net manufacturing processes (e.g., welding, cold
area, while welded connections provide continuous working) can influence the overall strength,
stress transfer.Bolt Holes: The presence and size of especially under loading conditions that exacerbate
bolt holes reduce the net area and introduce stress these stresses..
concentrations, which can lower the tensile
strength of the member. 112
 IS 800 : 2007

Explain Lug angles and column splices.? Lug length of a single column section is limited by
AnglesLug angles are structural components used manufacturing, transportation, or erection
in steel construction to connect tension members, constraints, or when different sections of the
such as plates or angles, to the main structural column are subjected to different loads
elements like gusset plates, columns, or beams.
17.4.4 Functions and Applications :Length
17.4 Functions and Applications: Extension: Column splices are used to extend the
length of columns beyond what is feasible for a
Force Transmission: Lug angles help in single piece, allowing for taller structures.Load
transmitting a portion of the tensile force from the Transfer: The splice must effectively transfer axial
main member to the gusset plate or another loads, moments, and shears from one column
structural component.Connection of Large Tension segment to the other without significant
Members: When tension members are large or deformation or weakening of the column.
consist of multiple elements (like in trusses or Accommodating Different Cross-Sections: In
braced frames), lug angles allow for a more some cases, columns in different stories may have
efficient and practical connection by spreading the different cross-sections, and splices are designed to
load over a larger area.Reduction of Connection connect these sections seamlessly.
Length: By using lug angles, the effective length
of the connection can be reduced, minimizing the *Types of Column Splices:Butt
eccentricity and reducing the chances of inducing Splice :Description: The ends of the two column
bending moments. segments are butted together and connected using
cover plates or splice plates, typically with bolts or
17.4.2 Design Considerations: welds .Applications: Used when the columns have
the same cross-section and need to be aligned
Load Distribution: The design should ensure that precisely.*Lap Splice :Description: The end of one
the load is distributed evenly between the lug column segment overlaps the end of the other, and
angles and the main tension member. This requires they are connected using bolts, welds, or a
careful consideration of the angle's size, thickness, combination of both. Applications: Used in cases
and the number of bolts or welds used.Stiffness: where direct butting of the columns is difficult, or
The lug angle must be stiff enough to carry the where additional reinforcement is required *End
load without significant deformation, which could Plate Splice:Description: End plates arwelded to
lead to an uneven load distribution and potential the ends of the column segments, which are then
failure.Connection to Main Member: The bolted together. This type allows for easier
connection of the lug angle to the main member alignment and erection.Applications: Commonly
(through bolting or welding) should be designed to used in steel frame construction where precise
prevent slippage or excessive deformation.m alignment is needed, and the columns are subjected
Advantages:Improved Load Transfer: Lug angles to high loads.
facilitate better load transfer in situations where
direct bolting or welding of large or complex 17.4.5 Advantages: Flexibility in Construction:
members is difficult .Flexibility in Design: They Allows for the construction of tall buildings by
offer flexibility in connecting tension members to joining shorter sections of columns, which are
gusset plates or other structural components, easier to manufacture, transport, and
especially in trusses and frames. erect.Adaptability to Varying Loads: Column
splices can be designed to accommodate different
Disadvantages:Increased Complexity: The use loads and cross-sections in different stories,
of lug angles can complicate the connection design optimizing the use of materials.
and construction process.Potential for
17.4.6 Disadvantages :Potential Weak Points: If
Misalignment: If not properly designed or
not properly designed, splices can become weak
installed, lug angles can introduce misalignment,
points in the structure, reducing the overall
leading to uneven load distribution.
strength and stability of the column
17.4.3 Column Splices

Column splices are connections used to join two

segments of a column in a multi-story building or
tall structure. These splices are necessary when the 113
G-1 GENERAL IS 800 : 2007

G-1.1 List the various factor affecting the lateral 5. Beam DepthDepth-to-Span Ratio: Beams with a
stability of a beam? The lateral stability of a beam, larger depth-to-span ratio are more susceptible to
especially in structural steel design, is critical to lateral-torsional buckling, especially if the depth
ensure that the beam does not buckle or twist increases without a corresponding increase in
laterally under loading. Various factors affect the lateral support6. Material PropertiesModulus of
lateral stability of a beam, and understanding these Elasticity (E): A higher modulus of elasticity
factors is essential for designing safe and efficient provides greater resistance to buckling, improving
structures. 1. Slenderness Ratio (Lateral Torsional lateral stability.Yield Strength: The material’s
Buckling) yield strength affects the load at which buckling
will occur. Materials with higher yield strength can
G-1.2 Unbraced Length (L): The length of the resist higher loads before buckling7. Restraint
beam between lateral supports significantly affects Against RotationTwist Restraint: Restraints or
its lateral stability. A longer unbraced length bracing that prevent the beam from twisting about
increases the risk of lateral-torsional buckling. its longitudinal axis improve lateral stability.
Moment of Inertia (I): The moment of inertia about Warpage Restraint: The ability to resist warping
the weak axis (I_y) of the cross-section influences deformation in the cross-section improves lateral
the beam's resistance to lateral stability, particularly for beams with open
displacement.Section Modulus: The ratio of the sections.8. Initial ImperfectionsInitial Curvature or
section modulus about the weak axis to the strong Camber: Any initial out-of-straightness or
axis affects stability. Higher ratios indicate better imperfections in the beam can significantly reduce
lateral stability. lateral stability by amplifying the effects of applied
loads.Residual Stresses: Stresses remaining in the
G-1.3 .Cross-Sectional Shape and PropertiesShape beam from manufacturing processes can
of the Cross-Section: Beams with open sections exacerbate the effects of applied loads, leading to
(e.g., I-beams, channels) are more prone to lateral- premature buckling.
torsional buckling than those with closed sections
(e.g., tubes, rectangular sections).Width-to- 9. Lateral Support ConditionsLateral Restraints:
Thickness Ratio: Flanges with a high width-to- The presence of lateral supports, such as ties or
thickness ratio are more susceptible to local diaphragms, prevents lateral displacement of the
buckling, which can influence overall lateral compression flange, enhancing
stability.Torsional Stiffness: Cross-sections with stability.Intermediate Supports: Additional
higher torsional stiffness (e.g., box sections) resist supports along the span, such as secondary beams
twisting better, improving lateral stability. or bracing, provide intermediate restraint and
reduce the effective unbraced length.
3. Load CharacteristicsType of Load: Uniformly
distributed loads provide better lateral stability 10. End Conditions and Restraints
compared to concentrated loads, which can cause
localized instability.Point of Load Application: End Fixity: Beams with fully fixed or partially
Loading applied at the shear center (or centroid) of restrained ends are less likely to buckle
the cross-section reduces the risk of twisting. laterally compared to simply supported or free
Eccentric loads, or loads applied away from the ends.
shear center, increase the likelihood of lateral-
torsional buckling.Magnitude of Load: Higher End Bracing: Bracing at the ends of the beam,
loads increase the risk of lateral instability, preventing lateral movement and rotation,
especially if the beam is slender 4. Support enhances overall stability..
ConditionsLateral Bracing: The presence and
spacing of lateral bracing along the beam
significantly enhance lateral stability by preventing
lateral displacement and twisting.Boundary
Conditions: Fixed or restrained ends provide better
lateral stability compared to simply supported or
free ends, as they resist both rotation and lateral
movement.
 bending and shear forces.Fixed Beam: A beam
with both ends fixed, restricting rotation. It can
135

IS 800 : 2007

7.6.2 Width of Lacing Bars. carry more load with less deflection compared to a
behavior of beams in bending simply supported beam.6. Failure ModesYielding:
Bending Moment Definition: A bending moment When the stress in the beam exceeds the yield
is the internal moment that induces bending of the
beam. It is caused by external forces, such as loads
applied perpendicular to the beam's axis.Positive
Bending Moment: When the beam bends in a strength of the material, it undergoes plastic
"smile" shape, the top fibers are in compression, deformation, leading to permanent bending.
and the bottom fibers are in tension .Negative
Bending Moment: When the beam bends in a Buckling: Under compressive forces,
"frown" shape, the top fibers are in tension, and especially in slender beams, buckling can
the bottom fibers are in compression.2. Stress occur before the material reaches its yield
DistributionTension and Compression: In bending, strength.
the top surface of the beam (for positive moments)
is in compression, while the bottom surface is in Fracture: If the tensile stress exceeds the
tension. The stresses vary linearly from the top to material’s tensile strength, the beam may
the bottom.Neutral Axis: This is the axis within the fracture, particularly in brittle materials.7.
beam where the stress is zero. It divides the beam Shear Force and Shear StressShear Force: The
into a compression zone and a tension zone. internal force parallel to the cross-section of
the beam, caused by external loads. It varies
3. Deflection along the length of the beam.Shear Stress: The
stress due to shear force. It is highest at the
Definition: Deflection is the displacement neutral axis and zero at the top and bottom
of the beam under load. The amount of surfaces.
deflection depends on the material
properties, the geometry of the beam, the 8.Beam EquationsBending Equation: σ=M⋅yI\
type of load, and the boundary conditions. sigma = \frac{M \cdot y}{I}σ=IM⋅y, where σ\
sigmaσ is the bending stress, MMM is the bending
Elastic Deflection: In the elastic range, moment, yyy is the distance from the neutral axis,
deflection is reversible and proportional to the and III is the moment of inertia.
load (follows Hooke's Law).
Deflection Equation: The deflection of a beam can
4. Moment of Inertia (I) be calculated using various methods, including the
double integration method and Macaulay’s
Definition: The moment of inertia is a method, depending on the beam's loading and
geometric property that reflects how the area boundary conditions..
of the beam's cross-section is distributed about
a given axis. It influences the beam's
resistance to bending.

Formula: For a rectangular section, I=b×h312I

= \frac{b \times h^3}{12}I=12b×h3, where
bbb is the width and hhh is the height of the
section.

5. Beam Types and Boundary ConditionsSimply

Supported Beam: A beam supported at both ends
with no moment resistance at the supports. It bends
freely under load.Cantilever Beam: A beam fixed
at one end and free at the other. It experiences both
types of tension members ?1. Wires and 9. Pipes and Hollow SectionsApplication: Used in
CablesApplication: Commonly used in trusses, towers, and other structural
suspension bridges, cable-stayed bridges, guyed frameworks.Characteristics: Hollow circular or
towers, and tents.Characteristics: They are flexible rectangular sections that are efficient in carrying
and can only carry tension forces. They are tensile forces. They are often used when weight
typically made of steel, which has a high tensile reduction is important.Examples: Tension
strength.Examples: Suspension bridge cables, guy members in space frames, lattice structures.
wires for towers2. Bars and RodsApplication:
Used in trusses, bracing systems, and as tie rods in 10. Composite Tension MembersApplication:
structures.Characteristics: Bars and rods are solid, Used in modern construction where a combination
slender members made from steel, aluminum, or of materials provides enhanced properties.
other metals. They can be circular, square, or Characteristics: Made from a combination of
rectangular in cross-section.Examples: Truss materials, such as steel and concrete or fiber-
members, tie rods in roof structures.3. reinforced polymers. They offer high strength with
reduced weight or improved corrosion
136 resistance.Examples: Fiber-reinforced polymer
(FRP) tension members in bridge retrofits..

IS 800 : 2007
Angle sections (L-shaped) can resist tensile forces
and also provide some resistance to bending. They effective areas of welds? Effective Area of Fillet
are usually made of steel.Examples: Tension WeldsFillet welds are commonly used in
members in steel trusses.4. PlatesApplication: construction. The effective area
Used in gusset plates, tie plates, and for
connections in trusses and frames.Characteristics: Where:
Flat, thin members that distribute loads across a
wide area. Plates can be bolted, riveted, or welded LLL = effective length of the weld.tefft_{\
to other structural components.5. Steel Strips text{eff}}teff = effective throat thickness of the
Application: Commonly used in lightweight weld.
structures, lattice towers, and trusses.
Characteristics: Thin, flat members that are similar
Where:sss = size of the weld (leg length for a fillet
to plates but narrower. They are often used in
weld).kkk = constant depending on the angle
situations where lightweight tension members are
between fusion faces (usually k=0.7k = 0.7k=0.7
required.Examples: Tension members in lattice
for a 90° fillet weld).
towers.
Effective Length ( LLL ):The effective length
6. ChannelsApplication: Used in trusses, frames,
LLL of a fillet weld is the overall length of the
and bridge structures.Characteristics: Channels (C-
weld minus any start and stop craters that may not
shaped or U-shaped sections) are capable of
be full strength. However, for design purposes, it is
carrying tensile forces. They can be used singly or
generally considered as the full length of the
in pairs, depending on the load
weld.2. Effective Area of Butt WeldsButt welds
requirements.Examples: Tension elements in
are used to join two members aligned in the same
bridges, lattice girders.
plane. The effective area AeffA_{\text{eff}}Aeff of
a butt weld is given by:
7. EyebarsApplication: Commonly used in older Aeff=L×tA_{\text{eff}} = L \times tAeff=L×t
bridge designs and large trusses.Characteristics: Where:
Flat bars with holes at each end, allowing them to
be connected using pins or bolts. They are
 LLL = effective length of the weld.
designed to carry large tensile loads.Examples:
 ttt = thickness of the thinner plate being
Tension members in older steel bridges.
joined.

8. Flat and Round TiesApplication: Often used in

roof trusses, lattice girders, and as bracing
elements.Characteristics: These are simple tension
members that can be flat or circular in cross-
section, designed to resist pulling forces.Examples:
Roof truss tie rods, cross-bracing in frames.
In the case of a complete penetration butt weld, the MembersIn trusses, members are often connected
effective area is simply the product of the weld at nodes or joints where multiple members
length and the plate thickness. For partial converge. The most common types of welded
penetration butt welds, the effective area is based joints for truss members include:a. Fillet Welds at
on the effective throat thickness, similar to fillet Gusset PlatesConfiguration: The ends of truss
welds.3. Effective Area of Plug and Slot members are welded to a gusset plate using fillet
WeldsPlug and slot welds are less common but are welds. The gusset plate provides a common
used to transmit shear forces in lap joints. surface to which multiple members can be
welded.Application: This is the most common
For a plug weld, the effective area AeffA_{\ connection in steel trusses where members meet at
text{eff}}Aeff is given by:Aeff=π×d24A_{\ an angle.Advantages: Fillet welds are easy to
text{eff}} = \frac{\pi \times d^2}{4}Aeff=4π×d2 apply and inspect. They can handle moderate loads
and are economical for connecting members to
Where: plates.Example: A diagonal brace or chord
member in a truss connected to a gusset plate at the
joint using two fillet welds (one on each side of the
 ddd = diameter of the plug weld. member).b. Full Penetration Butt
WeldsConfiguration: Members are joined end-to-
For a slot weld, the effective area AeffA_{\ end or at an angle using butt welds, which are fully
text{eff}}Aeff is given by: penetrated to ensure maximum
strength.Application: Used when the members
Aeff=L×wA_{\text{eff}} = L \times wAeff=L×w must align in the same plane or when a strong,
direct connection is needed.Advantages: Provides
137 a stronger connection as the weld penetrates the
full thickness of the material. Ideal for high-stress
areas.Example: Splicing two sections of a truss
IS 800 : 2007
chord together or connecting a chord to a joint in a
continuous line.c. Fillet Welded Tee
Where: JointConfiguration: The member is connected to
another at a right angle, forming a T-joint. Fillet
 LLL = length of the slot. welds are applied along the edges where the
 www = width of the slot. members meet.Application: Used when one truss
member needs to be connected perpendicularly to
4. Effective Area of Intermittent another member or plate.Advantages: Provides a
WeldsIntermittent welds are used to reduce strong connection that resists shear forces.
welding costs while still providing adequate Common in connections where a member
strength. The effective area is calculated as the intersects a plate or another member at a right
sum of the areas of the individual weld segments. angleExample: A vertical member (web)
connected to a horizontal chord in a truss.
Aeff=n×Ls×teffA_{\text{eff}} = n \times L_s \
times t_{\text{eff}}Aeff=n×Ls×teff 2. Welded Joints for Bracket
ConnectionsBrackets are often used to support
Where: loads or provide a point of connection for other
structural elements. Welded joints for brackets
typically include:a. Fillet Welded Corner
nnn = number of weld segments.LsL_sLs = length
JointConfiguration: The bracket is welded to a
of each weld segment.tefft_{\text{eff}}teff =
structural element (such as a column or beam) at
effective throat thickness of the weld.
the corner where two surfaces meet. Fillet welds
are applied along the edges of the bracket where it
5. Weld Groups and Combined WeldsWhen meets the structural element.Application: Used to
multiple welds (e.g., fillet and butt welds) are connect a bracket to a structural member,
combined in a joint, the effective area can be providing support for loads acting perpendicular to
calculated for each weld type, and the total the member.Advantages: Simple to fabricate and
effective area is the sum of the individual effective provides sufficient strength for supporting brackets
areas. The combined strength is then evaluated that carry moderate loadsExample: A wall-
based on the resultant force direction and weld mounted bracket welded to a column or beam
orientation.. flange.

simple welded joints for truss member and bracket

connectionsWelded? Joints for Truss
b. Flare Bevel Welds Typical Effective Length Factors:

Configuration: A flare bevel weld is used when a  Pinned-Pinned (hinged-hinged): K=1.0K

bracket is attached to a curved surface, such as a = 1.0K=1.0
pipe or round section. The weld is made in the  Fixed-Fixed: K=0.5K = 0.5K=0.5
groove formed by the edge of the bracket and the  Fixed-Free (cantilever): K=2.0K =
curved surface.Application: Used to connect 2.0K=2.0
brackets to round or curved surfaces where a  Fixed-Hinged: K=0.7K = 0.7K=0.7
regular fillet weld would not be
effective.Advantages: Provides a neat, strong 2. Radius of Gyration (rrr)
connection on curved surfaces, distributing the
load effectivelyExample: A bracket welded to a The radius of gyration rrr is a property of the
round column or pipe.c. Plug or Slot cross-section of the member and is given by:
WeldConfiguration: Plug or slot welds are used
when a bracket is attached to a structural member
by welding through holes or slots in the r=IAr = \sqrt{\frac{I}{A}}r=AI
bracket.Application: These welds are used to resist
shear forces in the plane of the bracket or when a Where:
hidden weld is preferred.Advantages: Provides a
strong, flush connection that is aesthetically  III = least moment of inertia of the cross-
pleasing and can handle shear forces effectively.. section (in mm4^44).
 AAA = cross-sectional area (in mm2^22).

3. Importance of Slenderness Ratio

138

IS 800 : 2007
Formula for Slenderness Ratio?The slenderness
ratio λ\lambdaλ is given by:λ=Lermin\lambda = \
frac{L_e}{r_{\text{min}}}λ=rminLe
 Buckling: The slenderness ratio is a key
Where:LeL_eLe = effective length of the member factor in determining the buckling load of
(in mm).rminr_{\text{min}}rmin = minimum a member. Higher slenderness ratios
radius of gyration of the cross-section (in mm).  indicate a greater susceptibility to
buckling.
1. Effective Length (LeL_eLe)  Design Limitations: Codes of practice
like IS 800, AISC, or Eurocode specify
The effective length LeL_eLe depends on the maximum allowable slenderness ratios for
boundary conditions (end conditions) of the different types of members depending on
member. It is the length between the points of their function (e.g., columns, struts, ties)
contraflexure (points where the bending moment is to ensure structural safety.
zero), which can be different from the actual  Material and Cross-section: The
length LLL depending on how the ends of the slenderness ratio also depends on the
member are restrained. The effective length is material properties and the shape of the
calculated as: cross-section. Different cross-sections
(like I-sections, circular sections, angles)
will have different radii of gyration and
Le=K×LL_e = K \times LLe=K×L
hence different slenderness ratios for the
same effective length.
Where:
4. Slenderness Ratio Limits (According to IS
 KKK = effective length factor (depends 800:2007)
on the end conditions).
 LLL = actual length of the member.
 Compression Members: Generally, a
slenderness ratio should be less than 180
 for a member subjected to axial DL = 3 KN|m self wt = 0.8 KN/m
compression. :Total DL = 4.5+3+0.8 = 8.3 KN|m = 15.8 KN/M
 Tension Members: Although tension LL= 12 KN/m
members are not as susceptible to :Totar load factooed = 1.5x12 + 1.5X15.8
buckling, IS 800 recommends a = 41.7 KN|m . Eff span = 6.5 + 0.2 = 6.7m .
maximum slenderness ratio of 400 to Design moment =
avoid excessive vibrations or lateral M= Wl² = 41.7X6.7²= 233.98 KNm
displacement. Design SF = 41.7x6.7/2 = 139.69 KN.
 Bracing Members: For members : sn modulus reqd = M /fyX r mo
subjected to bending or bracing, the zp = 233.98x106x1.1/250 = 1.029 x106 mm3
maximum slenderness ratio is typically Try ISMB 400 for which Zp = 1115.2 x10 3 mm3
limited to 250. h= 400 mm , b=140mm A =1846 mm2
tf= 16mm tw= 8.9mm d= 400-2 (16+14) = 340
5. Design Implications mm Izz 7= 20458.4x104 mm4
Ze = 1020x103mm4.
 Low Slenderness Ratio: Indicates a Check for shear str. - Vd= fy / 3X1 X shear area.
"stocky" member, which will fail by = 250/3x1/1.1 x 400x8.9 = 467.12 > 139.69 Hence
yielding rather than buckling. safe.
 High Slenderness Ratio: Indicates a 0.6Vd = 0.6 x467.128 = 280. 7> 139.69 kN .
"slender" member, which is prone to Check for design moment capacity –
buckling at a lower load than that d/tw = 38.2 Hence md= Bbzpfy/rmo
predicted by the compressive strength md = 1.0x 1175.2x103 x 250/1.1 = 267.09 x106
 alone. Nmm > 233.98
Hence adequate :
1. |check for deflection = 5/384 WL2/EI
139 Total working load =12+15.8 = 27.8 KN|m
=5/384 x 27.8x6.7004
Example Calculation -x 27.8x6,7807
2x105 x20458.4x104
Consider a column with a length of 3 meters, = 17.82 mm .
pinned at both ends, and a square cross-section of Peemissible defuection =.Le /300 = 6700/300 =
side 100 mm. 22.33.

 Effective Length (LeL_eLe): Hence safe provide ISMB 400

Le=1.0×3000 mm=3000 mmL_e = 1.0 \

times 3000 \text{ mm} = 3000 \
text{ mm}Le=1.0×3000 mm=3000 mm

 Radius of Gyration (rrr):

 r=AI=100×100100×1003/12
=1000083333333.33=91.29 mm
 Slenderness Ratio (λ\lambdaλ):

λ=300091.29≈32.87\lambda = \
frac{3000}{91.29} \approx 32.87

λ=91.29/3000≈32.87

This slenderness ratio indicates that the column is

relatively stocky, and the design will focus more
on strength rather than buckling concerns..
Design a steel beam section for supporting hall for
the clear span =6.5m,end bearing=200m,c/c
spacing of beam =3m,live load on beam=12kN/m2,
dead load =3kN/m2

Wt of RC slab= 0.1X1X3x25 = 7.5 KNm.

FL = 1.5×3 = 4.5 kN/m
 140

140