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INTRODUCTION

1.1 Structural Design Philosophies

Structural engineers use a variety of design methods

 To ensure that structures perform satisfactorily under prescribed loading conditions
both under service loads (working loads) and at ultimate loads.

Service load
The maximum intensity of load expected during the life span of the structure is known as
service load. It depends upon a certain probability of occurrence. No additional factor of
safety or over load factor is included in the service load.

Ultimate load

Ultimate load is the amount of load applied to a component beyond which the component
will fail. The ultimate load is the design load multiplied by a factor of safety (FOS). The
ultimate loads are the most critical loads for the design. The structure must be able to support
this load without failing.

The design load is the maximum amount of something a system is designed to handle or the
maximum amount of something that the system can produce, which are very different
meanings. For example, a crane with a design load of 10 tons is designed to be able to
lift loads that weigh 10 tons or less.
Different types of Philosophies developed and modified over decades for designing
structures. For example;-

A. Allowable Stress Design (ASD) Called Working Stress Design (WSD) or Straight line
Design used for designing steel, concrete, wood and masonry structure.
B. Strength Design Method used for concrete which replace WSD
C. Load Factor Design (LFD)
D. Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) currently get wider acceptance.
The foundation of every design philosophy is that the known Stress-Strain Relationship of
the materials. The following assumption are applied in the context of material properties
1. The material is homogeneous
2. The material is isotropic
3. The material is linearly elastic.
A homogeneous material is a material of uniform composition throughout that cannot be
mechanically separated into different materials Homogeneous is defined as "the same in all
locations" while isotropic means "the same in all directions. Anisotropic: Properties of a
material depend on the direction; linear elasticity is the property of a material to become
deformed due to certain loading conditions without yielding.
Stress and Strain are fundamental concepts that are used to describe how a body responds to
external loads. Stress is a quantity that describes the distribution of internal forces within a
body. Stress is a measure of the internal force per unit area. (N/m 2) or (Pa). One reason being
able to calculate stresses is important is because it allows us to predict when an object will
fail. The bar fail when the stress within it exceeds the strength of the material. Strain is a
quantity that describes the deformations that occur within a body. The concept of stress and
strain are closely linked. The relationship the two can be described using a stress-strain
diagram. Stress- Strain diagrams are different for different materials. We can obtain the
diagram for a specific material by performing a tensile test. The other type of stress is shear
stress, if our bar isn’t loaded along its axis, but instead perpendicular to its axis, the internal
forces that develop within it are oriented parallel to the bars cross section. This internal
forces called Shear forces. Shear stress denoted by Greek later tau, calculated similarly to
normal stress i.e. Force/Cross-Sectional area A. Shear stresses causes a rectangular object to
deform. We have deformation, so of course we also have strain. Shear Strain is defined as the
change in angle.
There are 3 type of design philosophy
1. Allowable Stress Design (ASD) Called Working Stress Design (WSD)
 Oldest, Simple

 The design based on the elastic behaviour of material and linear portions of
the stress-strain curves
 The calculation based on service load condition
  Factor of safety given only for material (for Concrete and bar) but not for
load
 Use service load (DL+LL)
 Concrete is considered as Elastic.
 Concrete and steel fail at the time follow balanced reinforced concept

NB: - by nature concrete is elastic but it’s very small. Concrete is better in Compression not in
tension. Elasticity is happen due to Tension not in compression. ASD assumes that Concrete and
steel have elastic behaviour due to this gives a high factor of safety and high concrete sections…
due to this elastic behaviour increase for the materials this is not correct and un economical
design and also uses service load but in reality happens above service load.
2. Ultimate Strength Method (USM)
 It’s made or assures that to resist the desired ultimate/collapse load
 Calculation based on ultimate load condition
 Factor of safety given only for loads (for Concrete and bar) but not for the
material
 Uses a parabola stress block
 Use a load which before collapse
 Deflection and crack is completely disregarded (avoided)
3. Limit State
 Is a state of impending failure, beyond which a structure ceases to perform its
intended function satisfactorily, in terms of either safety or serviceability?
 Currently widely used
 Compile both ASD and USM
 Based on Statistical Concept of Safety
 Associated with Statistical Probability of Failure
 Calculation are done by considering safety at ultimate loads and serviceability
at working loads.
  Satisfy dual Criteria
A. Safety is acceptable degree of security against collapse or Failure.
Failure is Occur due to flexure, shear, compression, torsion, tension
and stability
B. Serviceability failure is Occur due to deflection, crack, durability,
excessive vibration, fire resistance and fatigue.
 Behaviour of Concrete and steel well studied
 Consider multiple Partial Safety Factors which attempts to provide adequate
safety at ultimate load as well as adequate serviceability at service loads, by
considering all possible limit states.
 Partial Safety Factors sound probabilistic basis, involving the separate
consideration of different kinds of failure, types of materials and types of load.
gf = Partial Safety Factor (PSF) used to Calculate Design Strength and Design load
Design Strength= Characteristics Strength of the Material divided by Partial Safety Factor gf
Design Load = Characteristics Load of the Material Multiplied by Partial Safety Factor gf
gf = 1.5 (Concrete) and gf = 1.15 (Steel)
Deferent PSF used for different load Combination. When we consider Limit State of Collapse
(Ultimate Load) There are 3 Cases
A. UL1=1.5DL + 1.5LL
B. UL2=1.5DL + 1.5WL/EL or 0.9 DL + 1.5 WL/EL when stability against Overturning or
stress reversal is critical.
C. UL3=1.2 DL + 1.2LL +1.2WL/EL
The Ultimate load for design of structure member subjected to this load is
UL=Maximum (UL1, UL2, UL3)
NB;- either Wind Load and Earthquake load not consider at a time because the probability of the
joint occurrence of Wind and Earthquake consider to be negligible.
When we consider Limit State of Serviceability There are 3 Cases. In this case the PSF = 1
D. SL1=DL + LL
E. SL2=DL + WL
F. SL3=DL + 0.8LL +0.8WL
The Serviceability load for design of structure member subjected to this load is
G. SL=Maximum (SL1, SL2, SL3)
Maximum of above serviceability load shall be consider serviceability limit state of design.
 Use under reinforced concept for design
 A. Ultimate Strength limit State (limit state of collapse)
 It’s made or assures that our design not to collapse.
 Deals with strength, overturning, sliding, buckling, fatigue fracture, flexure, shear,
compression, torsion, tension and stability
 Factor of safety given for both the material and load.

B. Serviceability limit State

 It’s made or assures that our design to give service.
 Deals with discomfort to occupancy or malfunction
 Its include excessive deflection, crack-width, leakage, durability, excessive
vibration, fire resistance and fatigue.
Safety Requirement for Structure design will be
Design Resistance >= Design Load Effects
Design Resistance provided by Materials. This value is computed by PFS for materials which
accounts for understrength.
Design Strength of steel Reinforcement = fy/gs
Fy = Characteristic Strength (Yield Strength) and gs = Partial Safety factor for steel

Design Strength of Concrete ≠ fck/gc this is Bcoz Characteristic Strength of concrete fck is
obtained by Test Results from 150mm size of concrete cube. The actual size of structure not
equal to 150mm its different and varying size. So, the strength of concrete in the structure will
not be on the characteristic strength fck i.e due to size effect gc.
There is a size effect which is reduce the strength of concrete.
Nominal Strength of concrete to be consider for design = 0.67fck
Design Strength of Concrete = 0.67fck / gc

 Therefore, in limit state one structure designed under the control and limit of
flexure, shear, compression, torsion, tension, stability, deflection, crack,
durability, excessive vibration, fire resistance and fatigue. If one design passes
one of this limit states it is termed as a structure which is unfit for use or
collapsible.
1.2 Fundamentals of Structural Design Philosophies

Design Philosophies Based on inelastic Behavior: Plastic Design Method

Plastic Design Method (Capacity Design Method) (Inelastic design method) is applicable for
design of steel structures only, (using steels having the yield strength nor greater than 450Mpa)
the corresponding method of structural analysis is known as Plastic Analysis. The term plastic
comes from the fact that the maximum load that can be carried by a steel member is calculated
from the knowledge of the strength of steel in the plastic region of the stress-strain curve.
The plastic design method was developed for design of indeterminate steel structures such as
continuous beams and frames (not applicable to determinate structures such as simple beams).
The methods take advantage of a unique property of structural steel called ductility. The
maximum load that a structure can carry is based on structural usefulness just before reaching
the collapse condition, which is caused when the applied loads cause one or more hinges to
develop in the structure that are required to maintain a stable equilibrium. The Hinge so
developed is called a plastic hinge because the stress across the entire cross section of the load
member at the hinge is uniform and equal to the yield stress of steel (in the plastic zone of the
stress-strain curve of steel, the corresponding loads are referred to as collapse loads. A structure
said to have become a collapse mechanism upon the formation of such a hinge or hinges simply
because their formation would lead the structure to collapse.
Fig:- (a)Idealized stress-strain curve, (b) Strain distribution corresponding to loading stages
circled in (a), (c) Stress distribution corresponding to loading stages circled in (a), (d) Yield
distributions corresponding to loading stages circled in (a), (e) Plastic hinge develops in a
simply-supported beam at location of plastic moment.(e)
Plastic Bending of Beams
If bending moment is small so the length of the beam will bend elastically, it means the stress
and strain vary linearly across the section, if increase the moment M there will be a stage where
the maximum direct stress at the point farthest from neutral axis its equal to σy (Fy) , the
corresponding value of M we can call it Yield Moment (My) = σyI/y1
If the moment is increased again, as shown below on the stress distribution diagram that yield
stress σy is attain in the top fibber looks a plastic zone on the top of the diagram, the centre is
elastic zone. Now if a further increase of moment, the yield stress also it reach a plastic zone in
the bottom. Between the top and bottom plastic zone there is elastic zone. If increase moment
further again and again, surely the plastic zone will move towards in the centre to neutral axis i.e
the elastic zone will be reduced to a negligible size and the beam section comes to completely
plastic.
To understand the plastic zone concept, let’s take a stress strain curve, if the bending moment
further increased, the strain εy also increases, however due to plastic yielding the stress remain
constant equal to σy.

Let’s take a section mentioning the top and bottom plastic zone, if further increase the bending
moment, the elastic core will be reduced to negligible size.
If further more increase the bending moment, the two plastic zone yield met, so there is no
elastic zone i.e. fully plastic. The neutral axis in the fully plastic conditions divides the section
into two equal areas and the resultant tension and compressions it forms a couple which is equal
to ultimate moments. Zp Related to the plastic situation, if the maximum moment which a
section can carry without exceeding the yield stress in that situation we can use yield moment
My= σy Ze, so we got plastic moment Mp and My yield moment, using this moment we can
find a shape factor Ratio=Mp/My its depend on shape on the cross section.
Plastic Hinges in Simply Supported Beam
Plastic Hinges refers to the deformation of a part of a beam wherever plastic bending happens.
Hinge means that having no capability to resist moment. Therefore, a plastic hinge behaves like a
standard hinge - permitting free rotation.
Plastic hinge is the presence of unrestricted plastic flow at a section of a beam leads us the
concept of formation of plastic hinge in beams. It is used to describe the deformation of a section
of a beam where plastic bending moment occurs.

If the value P is increased until PL/4 = M p , the mid span section of the beam will be fully plastic
with the region of plasticity, i.e extending the value of P to both side to the support, the bending
moment also decrease both right and left hand sides. Unrestricted plastic flow occurs at the mid
span section where large increase in the deformation takes place with no increase in loads and
outs side the hinge this beam it behaves as two rigid beams connected by plastic hinges and
rotates relative to each other. No plasticity occurs in beam section for which bending moment
Mp is less than My.
We need to find the length of region of plasticity Lp = L/3

LIMIT STATES DESIGN PHILOSOPHIES

Concepts of limit states
The term limit states refers to a variety of conditions (or) (states) that must not be violated if a structure partly or
wholly, must retain its ability to perform its intended functions (or usefulness) during its intended service life. Many
conditions that, if violated, would impair a structures ability to satisfactorily carry extreme loads. These limit states
are owner/designer- driven conditions and there intents specified in the design code/standard specifications.
Intended Service life is prescribed in the design codes, usually 50 or 70 Years.
Example let us say
 Deflection of a bridge beam should not exceed L/800…this form a serviceability limit
state for the bridge. Excessive deflection cause functional problems, i.e. not permitted.
 The design load cycles on the bridge not exceed 2*10^6 cycles for the entire service
life of the bridge…such form is a fatigue limit state for the bridge
 The bridge should be safe and remain serviceable when it is subjected to the maximum
design load…such a condition would constitute a strength limit state for the bridge.
The limit states can be material specific. Example,
 Crushing and Cracking, and bond failure are some of the limit states applicable to
concrete and masonry structures but not to steel or wood structures. Likewise,
 Buckling and formation of plastic hinge are limit states only specific to steel structures.
 Yielding of steel applicable to both steel and steel reinforcement in concrete.
 Buckling, Stability and Bearing failure are common to structures constructed from all of these three
materials. (steel, concrete (masonry) and wood)
Typical limit states for structures can be classified in the context of
1. Safety this includes collapse of all or parts of structure.
 Conditions that affect safety of structure include
 Tipping or sliding
 Rupture
 Sudden or progressive collapse
 Plastic mechanism
 Instability
 Corrosion
 Fatigue
 Deterioration
 Fire
2. Damage
 Conditions that affect damage of structure include
 Excessive or premature cracking
 Deformation
 Permanent inelastic deformation
 Collision damage
3. Serviceability
 Conditions that affect serviceability of structure include
 Disruption of normal use due to excessive deflection
 Vibrations
 Local damage
In structural design codes, generally 3 kinds of limit states are recognized in relation to the intended functions of a
structure

1. Strength Limit State: - which relate to safety against some level of predefined load or
extreme loads during the intended life of structure.
2. Serviceability Limit State: - which relate to the functional requirements of the structure.
 3. Fatigue Limit States: - which relate to loss of strength under repeated loads.
Design criteria ensure that a limit state is violated only with an acceptably small probability by selecting the load
and resistance factors and nominal load and resistance values that will never be exceeded under the design
assumption.

1. Strength Limit State