Unit 3: Energy Transformation

Outlines
3.1. Cellular metabolism
3.2. Photosynthesis
3.2.1. Photosynthetic pigments
3.2.2.light dependent and light
independent rxns
3.1. Cellular metabolism
 Brainstorming Questions

1. How living organisms or their cells extract

energy from their environments ?

2. Define cellular metabolism

3. Differentiate catabolism and anabolism

•Metabolism is the sum of chemical reactions
that takes place within each cell of an
organism.

•The reactions may aid in the transformations

of energy from one form to another in cells.

•Broadly, these reactions can be divided into

catabolic and anabolic
I. Anabolism : is the set of reactions involved
in the synthesis of complex molecules
• help in the building of macromolecule.

II. Catabolism: is the set of reactions involved

in the breakdown of complex molecules

•It is also the breakdown of monomers into

carbon
 A nabolism C atabolism
It is the constructive It is the destructive phase of
phase of metabolism. metabolism.
simpler substances are
I complex macromolecules are
joined together to form
broken down to form simpler
complex
substances or monomers.
macromolecules.
The process requires The process releases energy as a
energy to construct result of the breakdown of
substances. molecules.
It is an endergonic
It is an exergonic (energy-
(energy absorbing)
releasing) reaction.
reaction.
It occurs during It occurs during cellular
.
photosynthesis. respiration.
3.2. Photosynthesis

•Define photosynthesis

•Describe the external and internal structure

of a leaf.
Photosynthesis
•Is the process by which green plants and
certain other organisms transform light
energy into chemical energy.

•Is a series of chemical reactions that use light

energy to assemble CO2 into glucose (C6H12O6)
and other carbohydrates.
•This provides not only food for the plant but also
the energy, raw materials, and O2 that are used to
support most heterotrophs
 Photosynthesis is important because
 it is the number one source of oxygen in the
atmosphere
 it contributes to the carbon cycle among the
earth, the oceans, plants and animals;
 it contributes to the symbiotic relationship among
plants, humans and animals;
 it directly or indirectly affects most living things
on earth;
 it serves as the primary energy process for plants.
The photosynthetic machine of plant
External and Internal Structure of the Leaf
i. External structure of leaf
A leaf has three main parts–
 Leaf base
 leaf lamina and
 petiole .
ii. Internal Structure of the Leaf
a. Epidermis
The outer leaf layer is known as the epidermis.

The epidermis secretes a waxy coating called

the cuticle that helps the plant retain water.

Leaves has pores called stomata which allow

entry of carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.
The guard cells control opening and closing of
stomata & only cells in the epidermis that
contain chloroplasts
B. The Mesophyll
• Is made up of specialised parenchyma cells found
between the lower and upper epidermis of the leaf.
It consists of:
Palisade mesophyll: are near the upper surface of
the leaf where they receive more sunlight

Spongy mesophyll: Has many large air spaces so it

is the main gas exchange tissue of a leaf.
Palisade mesophyll contain more chloroplasts than
spongy mesophyll cells
E.The vascular bundles
Contain xylem and phloem
• What are the functions of xylem and
phloem?
Internal structure of leaf
 •The site of photosynthesis
 In plants, the highest density of chloroplasts is
found in the mesophyll cells of leaves.

 A double membrane chloroplast consists of;

o Stroma: a fluid-filled matrix where the light
independent of photosynthesis takes place .

oWithin the stroma, another set of membranes

form disk-shaped compartments known as
thylakoids.
structure of a chloroplast and its location within a plant cell and leaf
The interior of a thylakoid is called the thylakoid
lumen.

In most plant species, the thylakoids are

interconnected to form stacks called grana.

Within the thylakoids is the photosynthetic pigment

called chlorophyll.

Some thylakoids have tubular extensions that join up

with thylakoids in adjacent grana.
These are called imergranal lamellae/stromal
lamellae
3.2.1 Photosynthetic pigments
• Photosynthetic cells contain special pigments
that absorb light energy.

• Different pigments respond to different

wavelengths of visible light.

• Pigments are chemical compounds which reflect

only certain wavelengths of visible light. This
makes them appear "colorful".
• In plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, pigments
capture energy of sunlight for photosynthesis.

 Basic classes of pigments.

1. Chlorophylls are greenish pigments which
contain a porphyrin ring ( has the potential to
gain or lose electrons easily)

• There are several kinds of chlorophyll, which

the most important one is chlorophyll "a".
• chlorophyll “a’’: It is a green pigment found in all
plants, algae, and cyanobacteria.

• chlorophyll “b’’: occurs only in "green algae" and

in plants.

chlorophyll "c"
• is found only in the photosynthetic members of
the Chromista and dinoflagellates.
 2. Carotenoids
are usually red, orange, or yellow pigments, and they
include the familiar compound carotene.

Carotenoids cannot transfer sunlight energy directly to

the photosynthetic pathway, but must pass their
absorbed energy to chlorophyll. For this reason, they are
called accessory pigments.
3 Phycobilins:
very visible accessory pigment.
the brown pigment whose colors keep other
brown algae as well as the diatoms

4. Phycobilins:
o are water-soluble blue pigments,
o found in the cytoplasm, or in the stroma of the
chloroplast.
o They occur only in Cyanobacteria and
Rhodophyta.
 Absorption spectra of photosynthetic
pigments.
• Chlorophyll a absorbs violet blue and reddish orange-red
wavelengths.

• Chlorophyll b absorbs mostly blue and yellow light.

• Both Chlorophyll a and Chlorophyll b also absorb light

of other wavelengths with less intensity. However, none

of them absorbs green.

• Only absorbed light (largely blue and red) is useful in

photosynthesis
• Carotenoids are ubiquitous and essential pigments
in photosynthesis.

• They absorb in the blue-green region of the solar

spectrum and transfer the absorbed energy to
chlorophylls.
3.2.2. Light dependent and light independent reaction

• Inside a chloroplast, photosynthesis occurs in two

stages:

1. The light-dependent reactions and

2. The light-independent (Calvin Cycle) reactions

1. Light-Dependent Reactions(cyclic and
noncyclic photophosphorylation)
Convert light energy to chemical energy.
Photophosphorylation

• The process of synthesizing ATP molecule in the

presence of light.
• Photophosphorylation istwo types:
a) Non-cyclic Photophosphorylation
b) Cyclic Photophosphorylation
A. Non-cyclic Photophosphorylation
• The movement of the electrons using the energy
from excited electrons provided by photosystem II

• Water is split, providing a source of electrons and

protons .

• The lost electrons by P680 of Photosystem II are

occupied by P700 of Photosystem I and are not
reverted to P680 .
•The electrons released by P700 are carried by
primary acceptor and are finally passed on to
NADP.

•The electrons combine with the protons which is

produced by splitting up of the water molecule
and reduces NADP.
b. Cyclic Photophosphorylation
• Electrons travel in a cyclic manner for
synthesizing ATP molecules.

• This process usually takes place in the thylakoid

membrane and uses Photosystem I and the
chlorophyll P700.

• The electrons are transferred back to P700

• This downward movement of electrons from an
acceptor to P700 results in the formation of
ATP molecules.
 I

cyclic photophosphorylation
Cyclic Photophosphorylation Non-Cyclic
Photophosphorylation
•Only Photosystem I is involved. •Both Photosystem I and II are involved.

•P700 is the active reaction centre. •P680 is the active reaction centre.

•Electrons travel in a cyclic manner. •Electrons travel in a non – cyclic

manner.
Electrons revert to Photosystem I Electrons from Photosystem I are
accepted by NADP.
ATP molecules are produced. Both NADPH and ATP molecules are
produced.
Water is not required. Photolysis of water is present.
NADPH is not synthesized. NADPH is synthesized.
Oxygen is not evolved as the by-product Oxygen is evolved as a by-product.

This process is predominant only in This process is predominant in all green

bacteria. plants.
What is the structure of a photosystem?
•A photosystem consists of a number of
pigment molecules all clustered around one
particular chlorophyll molecule called the
reaction centre molecule.

• This cluster of pigment molecules is called an

antenna complex. Only the reaction centre
molecule is positioned next to the electron
transport chain.
 Energy absorbed by other molecules in the
photosystem is transferred to the reaction
centre molecule, where the light-dependent
reactions begin.

Different pigment molecules in the antenna

complex can absorb different wavelengths of
light, making the whole system more efficient.

The pigments in the antenna complex include

chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and carotenoids.
The reaction centre molecule is always
chlorophyll a.
Photosystem I and photosystem II
1. Electrons (e–) in chlorophyll molecules in photosystem II
are excited by the energy in photons of light: they become
more energetic.
2. The conditions created splitting of water is called
photolysis :
2H2O → O2 + 4H+ + 4e–
3. The primary electron acceptor passes the electrons to the
next molecule in an ETC (plastoquinone or ‘Pq’).
– The electrons then pass along a series of cytochromes
– and finally to plastocyanin (Pc) – the last carrier in the
chain.
– The electrons lose energy as they are passed from one
carrier to the next.
4. One of the molecules in the cytochromes
complex is a proton pump.
 As electrons are transferred to and then
transferred from this molecule, the energy they
lose powers the pump which moves protons
from the stroma of the chloroplast to the lumen
of thylakoid.

 This leads to an accumulation of protons inside

the thylakoid, which drives the chemiosmosis
synthesis of ATP.
What is Chemiosmosis?
•Chemiosmosis is the movement of ions across
a semipermeable membrane bound structure,
down their electrochemical gradient.

5. Electrons in chlorophyll molecules in

photosystem I are excited (as this photosystem
absorbs photons of light) and escape from the
molecule.
•They are replaced by the electrons that have
passed down the electron transport chain from
photosystem II
6. The electrons then pass along a second
electron transport chain involving ferredoxin
(Fd) and NADP reductase.

At the end of this electron transport chain,

they can react with protons (hydrogen ions)
and NADP in the stroma of the chloroplast
to form reduced NADP.
• In summary, the steps of the light reactions of
photosynthesis produce three chemical products:
O2, NADPH, and ATP:

1. O2 is produced in the thylakoid lumen by the

oxidation of water by photosystem II.
2. NADPH is produced in the stroma using high-
energy electrons that start photosystem II and are
boosted a second time in photosystem I.
•Two high-energy electrons and one H+ are
transferred to NADP+ to produce NADPH.

3. ATP is produced in the stroma via ATP synthase

that uses an H+ electrochemical gradient.
2. Light-Independent Reactions (Calvin cycle)
 W hy dark reaction is called C alvin cycle
?
• It does not requires light .
• It takes place in the stroma of the chloroplast.
• It is purely enzymatic and it is slower than the light
reaction.
• Use ATP and NADPH2 from the light-dependent
reactions to “fix” CO2 and create a product that can be
converted into glucose.
• The light-independent reactions of the Calvin
cycle can be organized into three basic stages:
1. Fixation
2. Reduction and
3. Regeneration
 1. Carbon fixation
• A molecule of CO2 is combined with a carbon
acceptor molecule known as ribulose-1,5-
bisphosphate (RuBP)& form 6-carbons Cpd.

 The 6-carbons compound disintegrate into two

molecules of 3 carbons CPD called 3
phosphoglyceric acid (3-PGA).

• This reaction is catalyzed by the enzyme RuBP

carboxylase oxidase ( rubisco).
• RUBP + CO2 RUBISCO 2 (3-PGA)
 2. Reduction
• ATP and NADPH molecules are utilized to change
the 3-PGA molecules into another triose Called
glyceraldehyde-3- phosphate (G3P).

• This stage has derived its name from the fact

that NADPH donates electrons to a three-carbon
intermediate to form G3P.
 3. Regeneration:
Some G3P molecules form glucose, while others
need to be recycled so that they can regenerate
the RuBP acceptor.
Regeneration needs ATP and involves a complex
series of reactions called the “carbohydrate
scramble.”
+++++++++++++++++++++++++++

Calvin cycle (C3 cycle)

In the dark reaction, CO2 is fixed to
carbohydrates and the CO2 acceptor
ribulosebiphosphate is regenerated.

In the Calvin cycle, 12NADPH2 and 18 ATPs are

required to fix 6 CO 2 molecules into one hexose
sugar molecule .

• 6CO 2 + 6H2O → C 6H12 O 6 + 6O2

C3,C4 and CAM Plants
o There are 3 types of plants based the way the fix
carbondioxide
1. C 3 Plants
• are plants capable of fixing CO 2 into a 3-Carbon
sugar called Phosphoglycerate (PGA).
• In this process, the enzyme Rubisco fixes carbon
into sugar using the Calvin cycle.
• This fixation of carbon dioxide by Rubisco is the
first step of the Calvin cycle.
• Examples of C3 plants are wheat, rice, oats, and
orchard grass.

• C3 plants exhibit the C3 pathway because the

first carbon compound produced has three
carbon atoms hence the name “C3 pathway”.

• All processes occur in the mesophyll cells

because the bundle sheath cell is lack of
chloroplast .
 Light-independent reactions
1 Carbon 2 . G3P
fixation synthesis
6 CO2
combines uses energy.
CO 2 with (reduction )
RuBP. 6
6 RuBP
12
PGA
C 3 cycle
3 . RuBP (Calvin-
synthesis Benson
uses energy cycle) 12 ATP
and 10 G3P. 12 ADP
6 ADP 12 NADPH
12
6 ATP 12 NADP+
G3P
4. 2 G 3P available
for synthesis of
carbon compounds
such as glucose. glucose
(or other molecules)
 2. C4 plants
• In some plants like maize, sorghum, and
sugarcane , the first product of carbondioxide
fixation is not 3 carbon Cpd but the four carbon
compound oxaloacetic acid.

• Plants that utilize this pathway are commonly

called the C4 plants.

• The oxaloacetic acid is formed when

carbondioxide is bound to a compound known as
phophoenolpyruvate (PEP) in the mesophyll cell.
 CO 2 is captured with
C 4 plants use the C4 pathway
a highly specific enzyme.
CO 2

PEP
C4
4-carbon Pathway
AMP molecule

ATP
within mesophyll
chloropast

pyruvate
CO 2

PGA rubisco CO 2
stoma C3
RuBP
bundle- Cycle
sheath G3P
cells
glucose

In a C4 plant, both mesophyll

and bundle-sheath cells contain within bundle-sheath
chloropast
chloroplasts.
C 4 plants essentially store carbon for hot times of the
day. G uess what pathway many weeds use?
The basic stages C4
1. Fixation of CO2 by the carboxylation of
phosphoenol-pyruvate (PEP) in the
mesophyll cells to form a C 4 acid.

2. Oxaloacetate is converted into another C4

compound (malate)

3. Transport of the malate to the bundle

sheath cells.
4 . Decarboxylation of the malate within the
bundle sheath cells and generation of CO2,
which is then reduced to carbohydrate via
the Calvin cycle.

5. Transport of the pyruvate that is formed

by the decarboxylation step back to the
mesophyll cell and regeneration of the CO2
acceptor phosphoenolpyruvate
The C4 photosynthetic pathway
3. CAM (crassulacean acid metabolism)Plants

CAM plants succulent (water-storing)

plants such as cacti achieve their high water
use efficiency by opening their stomata
during the cool, desert nights and closing
them during the hot, dry days.

Closing the stomata during the day

minimizes water loss
•
The CAM mechanism is similar in many respects
to the C 4 cycle.
The first product of carbondioxide fixation is C 4
Compounds. But formation of the C 4 acids is
both temporally and spatially separated

At night, CO 2 is captured by PEP carboxylase in

the mesophyll cells, and the malate that forms
from the oxaloacetate product is stored in the
vacuole.
• During the day time, the stored malate is
transported to the chloroplast and
decarboxylated by NADP malic enzyme

• The released CO 2 is fixed by the Calvin cycle, and

the NADPH is used for converting the
decarboxylated triose phosphate product to
starch.
CAM cycle
CAM vs C 4
Photorespiration
• Photorespiration is a process which involves
oxidation of organic compounds in plants by
oxygen in the presence of light.
• Like ordinary respiration, this process also
releases carbon from organic compounds in the
form of CO2 but does not produce ATP.
• Photorespiratory substrate is glycolate.
• RuBisco instead of combining with CO2 it
combines with O2.
• This type of oxidation of O2 to RuBP molecule is
known as
 photosynthetic oxidation cycle or
 glycolate pathway or
 C2 photorespiratory carbon oxidation cycle.
• Photorespiration is common in C3 plants but
highly reduced in C4 plants, and absent in CAM
plants
• The enzyme rubisco can use either CO2 or
O2 as a substrate
• Photorespiration begins in the chloroplast
• rubisco attaches O2 to RuBP in its oxygenase
reaction
• a three-carbon compound (3-PGA), and a two-
carbon compound ( phosphoglycolate) produced
• 3-PGA is a normal intermediate of the Calvin
cycle, but phosphoglycolate cannot enter the
cycle, so its two carbons are removed, or
"stolen," from the cycle
• Three-fourths of the carbon that enters glycolate
pathway as phosphoglycolate is recovered, while
one-fourth is lost as CO2
The photorespiratory cycle
The photorespiratory cycle
Thank you
 3.4. Cellular Respiration
Outlines
oCellular respiration
oCoupled Reactions
oThe site of cellular respiration
oStages of cellular respiration
oEnergy from non carbohydrate sources
oCellular respiration

* It is the process by which cells produce energy

from glucose and other organic molecules in the
form of energy storing compound called ATP.

* The energy released by cellular respiration is

temporarily captured by the formation of ATP
within the cell

* ATP is referred to as energy currency of cells

•ATP is a nucleotide consisting of an
adenine base attached to a ribose sugar
which is attached to three phosphate
groups .

•These three phosphate groups are linked

to one another by two high-energy bonds
called phosphoanhydride.
Adenosine triphophate.
Hydrolysis of ATP
•When one of the phosphoanhydride bond is
broken in a hydrolysis rxn, energy is
released.
•ATP+ H2O ⇋ ADP+Pi+energy

The hydrolysis of ATP →ADP →AMP is

reversible.
 regenerates ATP from ADP and P
  Coupled Reactions
•A coupled reaction is carried out when
two reactions occur nearly simultaneously.

• The first reaction must be exothermic and

that gives off energy.

•The second reaction is endothermic, which

immediately uses the energy produced
from the first reaction.
•An e.g of coupled rxn
1. Is the hydrolysis of ATP and the contraction of
muscle tissue.
 Two proteins, actin and myosin, form a loose
complex called actomyosin.
 When ATP is added to isolated actomyosin, the
protein fibers contract.
 The hydrolysis of ATP releases energy which is
used by muscles to contract. The coupled
reaction is:
A. ATP + H2O ---------ADP + P + energy
B. Relaxed muscle + energy-----contracted muscle
2. The hydrolysis of creatine phosphate to
release energy which in turn is used for the
formation of more ATP.
3.4.1. The site of cellular respiration

•Cellular respiration is carried out by both

prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

•In prokaryotic cells, it is carried out in the

cell cytoplasm, and cell membrane

•Whereas in eukaryotic cells it begins in the

cytosol then is carried out in the
mitochondria.
3.4.2. Stages of respiration.

Cellular respiration consists of a sequence

of many chemical rxns that vary during
aerobic and anaerobic conditions.

Aerobic respiration is divided into 3 main

stages: Glycolysis
Citric acid cycle, and
Electron transport chain
Stage I. Glycolysis
Called Embden-Meyerhoff
pathway
 It occurs in the cytosol of the cell
in anaerobic condition.

 It is the common pathway of both

aerobic and anaerobic respiration.

 Glycolysis begins cellular

respiration by breaking glucose into
two molecules of a three-carbon
compound called pyruvate
 The 3 stages of Glycolysis
i. The investment stage.

 2 ATP molecules are hydrolyzed, and the

phosphates from those ATP molecules are
attached to glucose, which is converted to
fructose-1,6- bisphosphate

 The energy investment phase raises the free

energy of glucose, thereby allowing later
reactions to be exergonic.
2. The cleavage phase
• breaks the six-carbon molecule into two
molecules of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate.
3. The energy liberation phase (Harvesting stage)
 Produces four ATP, two NADH, and two
molecules of pyruvate.

Because two molecules of ATP are used in the

energy investment phase, the net yield is two
molecules of ATP.
Glycolysis: Energy balance sheet
• Hexokinase: - 1 ATP
• Phosphofructokinase: -1 ATP
• GAPDH: +2 NADH
• Phosphoglycerate kinase: +2 ATP
• Pyruvate kinase: +2 ATP
Total/from a molecule of glucose: +2 ATP, +2
NADH, 2Pyruvate
Stage II: Pyruvate oxidation (link reaction)

 Is a transition reaction
 Pyruvate converted into Acetyl CoA which
enter Krebs cycle.
 It takes place in matrix oc mitochondoria
The Processes of link rxns
Step 1. A carboxyl group is removed from
pyruvate, releasing a molecule of carbon dioxide
into the surrounding medium.

Step 2. The hydroxyethyl group is oxidized to an

acetyl group, and the electrons are picked up by
NAD+, forming NADH.

Step 3. The enzyme-bound acetyl group is

transferred to CoA, producing a molecule of
acetyl CoA.
•Coenzyme A is derived from a pantothenic acid needed
for respiration
The overall reaction:
2pyruvate + 2NAD+ + 2 CoA --> 2 acetyl-
CoA + 2NADH + 2H+ + 2CO2.

 The Acetyl-coA molecules enter the Kreb

cycle
 NADH goes to the electron transport chain
to produce ATP.

 Carbon dioxide diffuses out of the cell as a

waste product.
 The protons (2H+) stay in the matrix.
Stage 3: Krebs cycle /citric acid
/tricarboxylic acid cycle /

• It takes place in matrix of mitochondria

• It begins when acetyl-CoA combines with a four
-carbon molecule called oxaloacetate &
produces citric acid which has six carbon atoms.

• This is why the Krebs cycle is also called the

citric acid cycle.
 Inner membrane

Outer
membrane

Cristae

Matrix
Inter membrane
space
Structure of mitochondria
An electron-micrograph of a mitochondrion
•After citric acid forms, it goes through a
series of reactions that release energy.

•The energy is captured in molecules of

NADH, ATP, and FADH2, another energy
carrying compound.

•Carbon dioxide is also released as product

of these reactions.
• The final step of the Krebs cycle regenerates
OAA, the molecule that began the Krebs cycle.

• This molecule is needed for the next turn

through the cycle.

• Two turns are needed because glycolysis

produces two pyruvate molecules from a single
glucose molecule
Citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle)
Stage IV: Oxidative phosphorylation
 It is the process in which ATP is formed as
a result of the transfer of electrons from
NADH or FADH2 to o 2by a series of electron
carriers.
 It takes place in cristae of mitochondoria

 Oxidative phosphorylation generates 90%

of molecules of ATP that are formed when
glucose is completely oxidized to CO2 and
H2O
The 3 major steps in oxidative phosphorylation

a. oxidation-reduction rxns :
Involving electron transfers between
specialized proteins embedded in the inner
mitochondrial membrane
B. The generation of a proton (H+) gradient
across the inner mitochondrial membrane
(which occurs simultaneously with step (a)

C. The synthesis of ATP using energy from the

spontaneous diffusion of electrons down the
proton gradient generated in step( b).
The NADH and FADH2, formed during
glycolysis, the link reaction, and the TCA cycle,
release their electrons to ETC and finally reduce
molecular O2 to H2O.

Electron transfer occurs through a series of

protein electron carriers, the final acceptor
being O2 and the pathway is called the electron
transport chain (ETC).
Energy is released as they pass from one carrier
to the next & used to phosphorylate ADP.
There are 3 sites of the chain that can give enough
energy for ATP synthase.
These sites are:

Site I between FMN and Coenzyme Q at enzyme

complex I.
Site II between cyt b and cyt C1 at enzyme
complex III
Site III between cyt a and cyt a3 at enzyme
complex IV
 e-
Q cyt b H+
e- cyt a
e-
e- e-
FMN succinylDH cyt a3
cyt-c1
e- H+ H+
H+ H+
H+
Cytocrome b-C1 Cytocrome
NAD
complex oxidase
dehydrogenase
complex

Electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation

• Mechanism ATP synthesis
 The transfer of electrons through the
electron transport chain causes protons to
pumped be from the mitochondrial matrix
to the intermembrane space.

Resulting in an electrochemical potential

difference across the inner mitochondrial
membrane.
The electrical potential difference is due to
the accumulation of Proton outside the
membrane, whereas the chemical potential
difference is due to the difference in pH when it
is more acidic outside the membrane

This electrochemical potential difference

drives (forces) ATP synthase to generate ATP
from ADP and inorganic phosphate.
 How many ATP molecule produced from
1NADH?
Q: How many ATP molecule produced
from 1FADH2?

Answer
1NADH = 3ATP
1FADH2 = 2ATP
Why?
 Summary of stages of cellular respiration

The summary equation for aerobic respiration is:

C6H12O6 + 6O2 ➞ 6H2O + 6CO2 + 36ATP
Substrate-level and Oxidative
phosphorylation.
A. Substrate-level phosphorylation
During phosphate is transferred to ADP from a
high energy phosphorylated organic compound.
• A couple of the enzymes in the glycolysis and
citric acid cycle make ATP through substrate-level
phosphorylation.
• However, only a small amount of ATP is made
produced by this mechanism.
B. Oxidative phosphorylation
• A proton motive force across a membrane
provides the energy for ATP synthethase to
make ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate.
• The proton-motive force is created by a large
(1000-fold) difference in proton concentrations
across a membrane.

• However, for prokaryotes, proton gradient (pH

gradient) is maintained across their plasma
membranes.
• In Prokaryotes, net production of 38 ATP and a
eukaryotic cell only 36 ATP. Why?
 In prokaryotes, there are no mitochondria, the
whole process of respiration occurs within the
cytoplasm
 so no ATP is consumed in transporting across the
organelle.
 In prokaryotes and eukaryotes, some of the NADH
is generated by the cytosolic glycolysis.
 Thus oxidation occurs in plasma membranes in
Prokaryotes, and in the inner mitochondrial
membrane in eukaryotes.
Energy from non-carbohydrate sources
• We obtain most of our energy in the form of fats,
proteins, sucrose and other disaccharides, and
starch, a polysaccharide.
• All these organic molecules in food can be used
by cellular respiration to make ATP
• Similarly, glycogen, can be hydrolyzed to glucose
as fuel for respiration.
• Proteins can also be used for fuel,

• Amino acids present in excess are converted by

enzymes to intermediates of glycolysis and the
citric acid cycle.

• Before amino acids can feed into glycolysis or

the citric acid cycle, their amino groups must be
removed, a process called deamination.
• Catabolism can also harvest energy stored in fats
• After fats are digested to glycerol and fatty acids,
• the glycerol is converted to glyceraldehyde 3-
phosphate, an intermediate of glycolysis.
• Most of the energy of a fat is stored in the fatty
acids.
• A metabolic sequence called beta oxidation
breaks the fatty acids down to two-carbon
fragments, which enter the citric acid cycle as
acetyl CoA.
• NADH and FADH2 are also generated during beta
oxidation;
 they can enter the electron transport chain,
leading to further ATP production.
• Fats make excellent fuels, in large part due to
their chemical structure and the high energy
level of their electrons (equally shared between
carbon and hydrogen) compared to those of
carbohydrates.
• A gram of fat oxidized by respiration produces
more than twice as much ATP as a gram of
carbohydrate. Why?
• Fats have high proportion of C-H bonds which
store the chemical potential energy

• Carbohydrates on the other hand, have high

ratio of C-O bonds because of glycosidic
linkages so they do not store as much energy
in their bonds.
Catabolism of various molecules from food
Fermentation
What happens in the anaerobic pathway?
•In the process of glycolysis, a net profit of 2 ATP ,
reduced NAD and 2pyruvates are produced.

•When oxygen is not present, pyruvate will undergo

a process called fermentation. In the process of
fermentation, the reduced NAD from glycolysis will
be recycled back to NAD + so that glycolysis can
continue .
Fermentation does not require oxygen and
is therefore it will replenish NAD+ from the
Reduced NAD produced in glycolysis.

 Types Of Fermentation
I. Alcoholic Fermentation
oIn alcoholic fermentation pyruvate is
decarboxylated (CO2 leaves) to form
acetaldehyde.
o Hydrogen atoms from reduced NAD are
then used to help convert acetaldehyde to
ethanol where NAD+ results.
•Facultative anaerobes are organisms that
can undergo fermentation when they are
deprived of oxygen.

•Yeast is an example of facultative

anaerobe that will undergo alcohol
fermentation.
ii. Lactic Acid Fermentation

•Is the process by which pyruvate molecules are

converted to lactic acid in the muscle cells of
humans, and also in the cells of bacteria.

•The pyruvate molecules from glycolysis are used

to oxidize NADH and convert it back to NAD+
• During the process, lactic acid or lactate is
produced as a byproduct.
•Most animals use the process to regenerate
NAD+ in the absence of oxygen.

•Anaerobic respiration doesn’t produce enough

ATP to power the entire organism, but can be used
to supplement the ATP levels in tissues (like
muscle) where oxygen levels may drop quickly.

•The products of bacterial lactic acid fermentation

have been used to produce food products such as
yogurt, sour cream, and buttermilk