UNIT – 3

Energy Transformation
3.1. Energy
Metabolism is the sum of chemical reactions that takes place within the cell.

- Metabolism enable cells to produce energy for different processes, and also synthesize new organic
materials.
- Metabolism is comprises of:
A. Anabolism
- It involves the synthesis of large, complex biomolecules from smaller molecules
- It is used to build macromolecules, like protein, polysaccharide, nucleic acids, etc.
- It is the constructive phase of metabolism
- It requires energy to construct substances, so it is an endergonic /energy absorbing/ reaction.
Eg. Photosynthesis
B. Catabolism: is the breakdown of complex molecules such as protein, starch, fats, glucose, fatty
acids into smaller monomers, or into molecules.
- It is the destructive processes (phases)
- The process release energy, as a result of the breakdown of molecules
- It is an exergonic /energy releasing reaction
Eg. Cellular respiration

3.2. Photosynthesis
- Photosynthesis is a series of chemical reactions that use light energy to fix CO2 into glucose /C6H12O6/,
and other carbohydrates.

- The plants use water to make organic compound, and release oxygen gases (O2) as a byproduct.

6CO2 + 12H2O light energy C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O

Carbon dioxide + water Chl Glusose Oxygen gas Water

- Photosynthesis provides:
o Food for plants and other living organisms
o Energy
o Raw materials
o Oxygen (O2), etc

Photosynthesis is important. Because

o It is the number one source of O2 in the atmosphere

o It contribute to carbon cycle, among plants, earth, ocean, and animals.
o It directly or indirectly affect most living things on earth.
o It serve as the primary energy process for plants
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Eg. – Plants
- Multicellular algae
- Some protists are photosynthetic organisms, and are called photoautotrophs
- Cyanobacteria
- Purple sulfur bacteria
External and internal structure of a leaf
- The outer leaf layer is known as the epidermis.
- The epidermis secretes a waxy coating called cuticle.
- Cuticle is used to:
o Prevent the lose of water from the leaf
o Help plants to retain water
- The external part of a leaf includes:
o Leaf base
o Leaf (amina/Blade)
o Petiole
- Most leaves are flat thin and broad
Epidermis: is the outer most layer of cells on a leaf
- It is one cell thick
It has many function. These are:
o It provides protection
o It is a water proof, and helps to protect the internal organ from drying out, and from
infection.
o It gives mechanical strength to the leaf.
o It is transparent and allow light into the leaf.

The leaf also contain stomata. It allow the entery of CO2 into the leaf and given off O2 and water vapour to
the atmosphere.
The internal parts of a leaf also contain:
 Mesophyll cells is made up of specialized cells called parenchyma cells.
 Mesophyll cells are found in between of the lower and upper epidermis of a leaf.
 Mesophyll cells are specialized for photosynthesis.
 They contain chloroplasts.
- There are two types of mesophyll cells. These are:
i. Palisade mesophyll: are found near the upper surface of the leaf and receive more light. They contain
more chloroplasts per cell.
ii. Spongy mesophyll: It has many large air space between the cell.

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 The site of the photosynthesis
- Chloroplasts are densely found in the mesophyll cells of leaves.
- Chloroplast is double membrane bounded organelles.
- The outer membrane is faces to the cytoplasm of a plant cell. The inner membrane of the
chloroplast is faced to the stoma side. It separates the narrow inter membrane space from the
aqueous interior of the chloroplast, called the stroma.
- The stroma is a fluid filled matrix. It is the place where light independent reaction /Dark-reaction)
takes place.
The stroma of chloroplast contains many important components.
Such as:
 Starch granules
 Thylakoid, disc shaped membranous compartment
 Enzymes
 Chloroplast DNA
- The interior of a thylakoid is called the Thylakoid lumen. In most plant species, the thylakoids are
interconnected to form stacks called Grana.
- The Grana are stacks of up to 100 disk-like structure called Thylakoids. It is the place where light
reaction /light-dependent reaction of photosynthesis take place.
- The thylakoid contains the photosynthetic pigments called chlorophyll.
- Some thylakoids have tubular extensions that join up with thylakoid in adjacent grana. These are
called Inter granal-lamellae.
- Photosynthetic Pigments
- Photosynthetic cells contain a special pigments called chlorophyll. They are used to absorb light
energy.
- Pigments are chemical compounds. They absorb certain wave length of light. Pigments can also
reflect only certain wave lengths of visible light.
- In plants, Algae and cyanobacteria, the pigments are used to absorb /trap/ light energy for
photosynthesis.
There are three basic class of pigments. There are:
1. Chlorophyll: are green pigments.
- Chlorophyll contains a prophring ring
- The prophring ring has the potential to
 To gain or lose electrons easily
 To provide energized electrons to other molecules
Chlorophyll is consisting of different types. These are
 Chlorophyll “a”: It is a green pigment found in all plants, Algae and cyanobacteria.
- Chlorophyll ‘a’ absorb from violet-blue and reddish orange red wave lengths of visible light.
- It is the reaction center in photosynthesis that converts solar energy into chemical energy.
- It reflects the green colour of light.
 Chlorophyll ‘b’: It is also green pigment.
- It occurs only in “green plants” and in “green algae”.
- It absorbs mostly at Blue and Yellow light.
- It also absorb light of other wavelength with less intensity.
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 - It absorbs light energy and passes to the center of reaction (chlorophyll ‘a’)
- It is called antena molecules
 Chlorophyll ‘C’
- It is found only in the photosynthetic members of the chromista, and dianoflagellates.
2. Carotenoids: They are ubiquitous and essential pigments in photosynthesis area usually red, orange
or yellow pigments.
- It includes carotene. It gives carrot its color.
- Carotenoids absorb light energy from the sun and then pass to chlorophyll ‘a.
- They cannot convert sun-light energy into chemical energy.
- They cannot transfer sun-light energy directly to the photosynthetic path way.
Thus, carotenoids are called Accessory Pigments.
Eg. Fucoxanthin. It is brown pigments. It gives brown algae and diatoms their brown color.
3. Phycobilins: are water soluble pigments.
- They are found in cytoplasm, or in the stroma of the chloroplast.
- They occur only in cyanobacteria and rhodophyta
The two most common colors of light that are useful for photosynthesis are Red and Blue.
NB: The pigment molecules are identified in laboratory by using Paper Chromatography.
Light dependent and light independent reaction
- Photosynthesis occurs into two phases. There are:
1. The light dependent reaction/cyclic and non- cyclic photophosphorylation
- It is also called light reaction
- In light reaction, solar energy is converted into chemical energy.
- Water is split into hydrogen ions, and oxygen gas (O2).
- Water is the source of protons (H+) and electrons.
- Oxygen is a by product of light dependent reaction, which is given off/released to the atmosphere.
- Light energy (photon) absorbed by chlorophyll drives a transfer of the electrons and hydrogen ion
(H+) from H2O to an acceptor call NADP+ (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate).
- NADP+ + H+ + e- →NADPH2 (reduce NADP)
- The light reaction also produce /generate ATP by photophosphorylation.
- ATP is produced by using chemiosmosis to ignite a phosphate group ( pi) to ADP+. This process is
called photophosphorylation.
Thus, the two most important products of light reactions are:
 NADPH2 – provide hydrogen ions, and electrons to dark reaction.
 ATP: It is the vital energy source of cell.
In light reaction, glucose /sugar/ is Not produced.
Read figure 3.6 a and b on page 123 & 124
Comparisons of cyclic and non-cyclic photophosphorylation.
Events Non-cycli Cyclic-
photophosphorylation photophosphorylation
1 Path ways of electrons Non-cyclic Cyclic
2 First electron donor /source of Water Photosystem I (P700)
electrons/
3 Last electron acceptor, or NADP+ Pigment molecules in PSI
destinations of electrons (P700)
4 Products - ATP Oxygen ATP only

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 - NADPH2
5 Photosystem involved PsI and PsID Only PSD
Photosystem I and Photosystem II
PSII:
- The electrons in chlorophyll molecules are excited by the energy in photon of light.
- The electrons are more energetic
- The electrons are then escape from the chlorophyll and pass to a primary electron acceptor. This is
because of extra energy in photon.
2. The lost electrons from the pigment molecules are replaced by the electrons of water. The water
molecule is splited by photons. This is called photolysis.
2H2O light 4e-+ 4H+ + O2
3. The primary electron acceptor passes (transfer) the electrons to the plastoquinone (pq). The
electrons then pass along a series of cytochromes and finally to plastocyanin (Pc). plastocyann is
the last electron carrier in PSII.
4. One of the molecules in cytochromes complex is a proton pump (hydrogen ion pump). As the
electrons are transferred from one electron carrier to the next, they lose energy. The energy they
lose powers the proton pump, which moves protons from the stroma of chloroplast to the space
inside the thylakoid.
The H+ ions (protons) are then accumulate inside the thylakoid. The protons are then diffuse out from the
thylakoid interior, into the stroma through ATP-synthase. This process is called chemosmosis. It is used to
synthesis ATP from Pi & ADP.
PSI (Photosystem I)
- The electrons from chlorophyll pigments are excited by energy in photon.
- The lost electrons are replaced by the electrons that have passed down the electron transport chain
from PSII.
- The electrons then pass to ferredoixn (Fd) and accepted by NADP +. At the end of ETC, the
electrons react with protons (H+ions) and NADP+ in the stroma of chloroplast to form NADH 2
(Reduced NADP).
Products of Light Reaction
The light reaction of photosynthesis produces three chemical products. There are:
 NADPH2
 ATPs They are produced in the stroma

 O2 (by-products) = produced in the thylakoid lumen

Light independent reaction (Calvin Cycle).

- It is also called Dark Reaction.
- The chemical process of photosynthesis occurring without light. It does not require light. Light
independent reaction takes place in the stroma of chloroplast.
- The chemical reaction is controlled by enzyme.
- The reaction is slower than light reaction.
- Carabohydrate /sugar/ are synthesized from CO2. The energy poor CO2 is fixed to energy rich
carbohydrate using ATP. .
- The source of energy in dark reaction is ATP and the source of proton (H+ions) is NADPH2. This
process is called carbon fixation or carbon assimilation.
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 C3-Plants
C3-plants are plants capable of fixing CO2 into a 3-carbon sugar called phosphor glycerate /PGA/.
- The source of energy to phosphorylate phosphoglycerate is ATP.
- CO2 is entered into a plant leaves through stomata by simple diffusion.
- CO2 is then reacted with riblose- 1,5-bisphosphate and produce phosphoglycerate. The reaction is
catalyzed by an enzyme called RUBISCO. The plants which use such mechanism of carbon
fixation are called C3-Plants.
- About 95% of plants on the earth are C3-plants.
Eg. – Wheat - Oat
- Rye - Orchard etc.
- Grasses
- In C3-plants, photosynthesis process can takes place only when the stomata are opened.
- C3-plants exhibit the C3-path way. It is C3-compound (3-PGA). The Name C3-plant is derived from
the 1st product. In C3-plants, the light independent reaction of the Calvin-cycle can be organized into
3-stages.
There are:
1. Carbon Fixation
- A molecule of CO2 is combined with a 5-caron sugar (ribulose 1,5 – Bisphosphate and produce 2
molecules of C3-compound phosphoglycerate (PG). the reaction is catalyzed by an enzyme
RUBISCO (Ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase oxygenase).
2. Reduction Reaction: the 3-phosphoglycerate is reduced into glyceraldehyde 3 phosphatae.
NADPH2 provides /donate/ proton to reduce 3 PGL into G3P. The source of energy for reduction
reaction is ATP.
3. Regeneration: some molecules of G3P leave the cycle and used to synthesis sugar /carbohydrate/.
But the other molecules undergo complex rearrangement reaction and regenerate the RUBP again.
This is called carbohydrate scramble. The regeneration reaction require /use ATP as a source of
energy.
NB: In the dark reaction /Calvin Cycle)
- CO2 is fixed to carbohydrate, and the CO2 acceptor RUBP is regenerated.
- 12 NADPH2 and 18 ATPs are required to fix 6CO 2 molecules into one hexose sugar molecule
(fructose 6 phosphate)
- 6 turn of Calvin cycle is needed to synthesis one glucose molecule.
Read figure 3.7 Calvin cycle on page 127

C4-Plants
- The first product of carbon dioxide fixation is C-4 compound called oxaloacetate. The plants that
use this path way are called the C4 plants.
C4-Plants includes maize, sugar cane, sorghum, millet, switch grass etc.
-In some plants the first products of carbon dioxide fixation is the four carbon compound (C-4) called
oxaloacetate. Plants that uses this path way are commonly called C4-plants

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The C4-plant’s leaves generally contain two partially isolated compartments called mesophyll cells, and
bundle sheath cells.
CO2 is entered into the leaves through the stomata of a leaf
CO2 is initially fixed /reacted/ with C3-compound called phosphoenolepyruvate (PEP. It results or produces
a four carbon compound called oxaloacetate. The reaction is catalyzed by an enzyme PEP carboxylase.
Oxaloacetic acid can be then reduced to malate or transaminated to asparate. This process is taking place in
the mesophyll cells
The malate or aspartate then diffuse into the bundle sheath cells. They are decarboxylated to hield CO 2 and
pyruvic Acids CO2 then enters into the Calvin cycle to synthesis sugar.
The resulting compound pyruvate or alanine formed by decarboxylation diffuse back to the mesophyll cells
and regenerated the CO2 acceptor PEP.
Read figure 3.8 the C4 photosynthetic path way on page 128

CAM (Crassulaccan Acid Metabolism) Plants

- The CAM mechanism enables plants to improve H2O use efficiency.
- In CAM plants the formation of C4-acids /C4-path ways) is separated from calvin cycle by time.
So, in CAM plants C4-acid formation is both temporarlly and spatially separated.
In- CAM plants:
- The CAM plants absorb more CO2 at night.
- CO2 is then incorporated via carboxylation of phosphoenolpyruvate into oxalate.
- Oxalate is then reduced to malate.
- Malate is then transported into large vacuoles, and stored there until it is needed.
- At day time, the CAM plants close their stomata in order to minimize the lose of water, and further
uptake of CO2.
- The malate /matic acid/ is transported from vacuole to the bundle sheathes of the chloroplasts.
- Malate is then undergoes decarboxylation reaction and generate CO 2 + pyruvate. CO2 is fixed
/reduced in to carbohydrate via Calvin cycle. But pyurate is again transported into mesophyll cells
and is phosphorylated into PEP.
Read figure 3.9 CAM cycle on page 129