Occupational Health & Safety

Practitioner

Reading

BASIC ACOUSTICS

January 2009

®
Contents
OVERVIEW .....................................................................................................................1

SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................2

SECTION 2: SOUND WAVES .......................................................................................3

SECTION 3: TERMS USED TO DESCRIBE SOUND WAVES .....................................5

SECTION 4: SOUND POWER AND SOUND INTENSITY ..........................................10

SECTION 5: PROPAGATION OF SOUND ..................................................................13

SECTION 6: SOUND FIELDS......................................................................................18

REVIEW EXERCISES 1 – ANSWERS .........................................................................19

SUMMARY ....................................................................................................................20

REFERENCES & FURTHER READING.......................................................................21

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 READING – BASIC ACOUSTICS

OVERVIEW

This reading covers basic acoustics including the relationship of

noise to sound; the terms used to describe sound waves; and the
relationship between sound pressure, sound intensity and sound
power.

Objectives
After reading this information you should be able to explain:

 the relationship of noise to sound;

 the physical properties of sound;
 the terms used to describe sound waves;
 the relationship between sound pressure, sound intensity and
sound power;
 the way sound waves propagate in the open and are affected
by obstacles; and
 the terms used to describe sound fields.

Author
Pamela Gunn
B.Sc.(Hons Physics) University of Western Australia
M.Sc.(Occupational Hygiene) London University

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Section 1: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Understanding basic acoustics is

essential for dealing with noise
problems

Noise is defined as unwanted or damaging sound, that is, sound

that interferes with what people are trying to do, or sound that has
an adverse effect on health or safety.

To be able to deal with the problems of noise we must first have an

understanding of basic acoustics - the nature of sound and its
physical properties.

To some of you this will be a revision of your high school science

classes, so you may wish to 'fast forward'. However, make sure
you know the concepts and terms given in this first reading, as
they will be used in later readings in the course.

To be able to follow some of the sections, you will also need to be

familiar with some basic maths and to complete the exercises it will
be helpful to have access to a scientific calculator - either on your
computer or a pocket one.

Examples of noise at work

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Section 2: SOUND WAVES

2.1 Propagation of sound waves

Sound is a disturbance, or wave, which moves through a physical
medium (such as air, water or metal) from a source to cause the
sensation of hearing in animals. The source may be a vibrating
solid or turbulence in the air.

For example, consider a vibrating tuning fork as the source and the
air as the medium. As a prong of the fork moves outward, air
molecules in contact with it are also moved and cause a region of
raised pressure (called a compression). When the prong moves
inward, the air pressure on its outer edge is lowered (called a
rarefaction), and the air molecules move back. This motion is
passed on to adjacent molecules and in this manner a sound wave
propagates and energy is transferred, even though each molecule
only oscillates around a central position.

This process can be visualized if you can get hold of a coiled

spring. Vibrate one end and watch the coils compress and stretch
out.

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2.2 The sound wave produces sound

pressure changes
The pressure changes produced by a sound wave are known as
the sound pressure. Compared with atmospheric pressure (about
100 000 pascals) they are very small (between 20 micropascals
and 200 pascals) and are superimposed on it.

Sound pressure superimposed on atmospheric pressure

The changes in sound pressure at a point over time can be

depicted on a graph -

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Section 3: TERMS USED TO DESCRIBE

SOUND WAVES

3.1 Wavelength
Wavelength is the distance between two successive pressure
peaks. Its symbol is  and it is measured in units of metres (m for
short).

3.2 Period and frequency

Period is the time taken for one vibration cycle. Its symbol is T and
its unit is seconds (s).

Frequency is the number of vibration cycles per second. Its

symbol is f and it is measured in units called hertz (Hz) (named
after Heinrich Hertz 1857-1894 the German physicist who studied
electromagnetic waves).
1
Frequency and period are related by f  (Equation 1.1)
T

For example, a sound with a period of 0.002 s has a frequency of

500 Hz.

3.3 Frequency range

Sounds over a large range of frequencies can be produced.

The lowest note on the piano is 28 Hz, the highest is 4186 Hz ,

whilst Middle C is 262 Hz.

The range audible to young people with undamaged hearing is

about 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz and for adults 20 Hz to 16 000 Hz.

Sound with a frequency below 20 Hz is called infrasound.

Sound with a frequency above 20 000 Hz is called ultrasound.

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Illustration based on figure in 'Noise Control - A Guide for Workers and

Employers ' US Department of Labor, 1980

3.4 Sound pressure and frequency

A sound may contain waves of only one frequency, in which case it
is called a pure tone.

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Noise is made up of waves of many different frequencies and

magnitudes superimposed on one another.

Sound Pressure is the force per unit area and gives the
magnitude of the wave. Its symbol is p and its unit is pascal (Pa).
(Named after Blaise Pascal 1623-1662, French physicist and
philosopher who was first to measure altitude by barometric
pressure.)

A quantity known as the root-mean-square pressure, p rms , is often

used in acoustic measurements, to overcome the problem of the
average pressure being zero.
p2peak p peak
For pure tones p rms    0.7p peak (Equation 1.2)
2 2

3.5 Relationship of speed, frequency

and wavelength of sound
Wave velocity is the speed with which sound travels through the
medium. Its symbol is c and its unit meters per second (m/s).

It is related to the frequency (f) and wavelength ( ) by:

c = f (Equation 1.3)

So, if you know the speed and frequency of a sound, you can work
out the wavelength by:

c
 (Equation 1.4A)
f

Similarly, for frequency:

c
f (Equation 1.4B)


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3.6 Speed of sound depends on the

medium of transmission
The speed of sound depends on the medium (its elasticity and
density) and its temperature.

In air the relationship is: c  20.06 K (Equation 1.5)

where K is the absolute temperature:

i.e. K = temperature in °C + 273.

So at 21°C the speed of sound in air is:

20.06 21  273  20.06 294  344 m/s.

In water the speed of sound is 1470 m/s and in steel, 5050 m/s.

The cowboy will hear the train noise via the rails before he hears it
through the air

Illustration based on figure in ' Noise Control - A Guide for Workers

and Employers ' US Department of Labor, 1980.

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Review exercises 1
Answers are at the end of this reading.

Question 1
What is the wavelength in air at 21 °C of a sound with:

(i) frequency at the lowest end of the range of audibility

(i.e. 20 Hz)?

(ii) frequency at the highest end (i.e. 20 000 Hz)?

(Tip: use equation 1.4A above).

Question 2
If the temperature increases to 40 °C, what is the frequency of a
sound with a wavelength of 5 m in air?

(Tip: use equation 1.5 first, then equation 1.4B).

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Section 4: SOUND POWER AND SOUND INTENSITY

4.1 Sound power is a fundamental

property of the source
A sound source can be characterized by the sound power that it
emits to the surrounding medium. This is a fundamental property
of the source and is not affected by the surroundings, such as
reflecting surfaces. Hence it is often specified by machine
manufacturers so different sources can be compared.

Sound power is the energy emitted by a sound source per unit

time.

The symbol for sound power is W and its unit is the watt. (Named
after the Scottish mechanical engineer James Watt, 1736-1819, of
steam engine fame.)

A source that emits power equally in all directions is called an

omnidirectional source.

Any other source is called a directional source.

4.2 Sound intensity decreases with

distance from source
Sound intensity, at a point in the surrounding medium, is the
power passing through a unit area. Its symbol is I and its unit,
watts/m2.

W
I (Equation 1.6)
S

where:

W is the sound power in watts

and S is the surface area in m2

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For an omnidirectional point source, the sound wave spreads out

from the source in all directions. The sound power, W, of the
source is hence spread over the surface of a sphere.

W
So S = 4 r2 and I  where r is the radius of the sphere (i.e.
4 π r2
the distance from source) in meters.

As the distance from the source increases, the sound intensity

decreases according to the "inverse square law".

[As we shall see in the next Reading, in terms of decibels this

means that when r doubles there will be a drop of 6 dB in sound
level.]

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4.3 Relationship between sound

intensity and sound pressure
As most measurements of sound are in terms of sound pressure
(p), it is useful to know the relationship between sound intensity
and sound pressure:

p2
I (Equation 1.7)
ρc

where:

I is the sound intensity in watts/m2

p is the sound pressure in Pa

 is the density of medium in kg/m3
c is the speed of sound in m/s

For air at 21°C ,  = 1.2 kg/m3 and following equation (1.5):

c = 344 m/s

p2
Therefore, I   0.0024 p 2
(1.2)(344)

Strictly speaking, this equation is for plane waves (i.e. waves

propagating with parallel wavefronts). However, away from a point
source, the spherical waves approximate plane waves.

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Section 5: PROPAGATION OF SOUND

5.1 Spherical wave fronts – 6dB

decrease when distance doubles
When sound spreads out from a point source in a free space the
wave fronts are spherical and the sound pressure level will
decrease 6 dB for each doubling of distance.

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5.2 Cylindrical wave fronts – 3dB

decrease when distance doubles
When sound spreads out from a line source (such as a road with
constant traffic or a pipe carrying fluid), the wave fronts are
cylindrical and the sound pressure level will decrease 3 dB for
each doubling of distance.

5.3 Perpendicular wave fronts –

sound pressure does not decrease
with distance
When sound spreads out from a plane source (such as close to a
large, vibrating panel or sound travelling down a duct) the wave
fronts are perpendicular to the direction of propagation and the
sound pressure level does not decrease with distance.

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5.4 Other factors do not play a

significant role in occupational noise
exposures
The above relationships hold true only in ideal conditions. In reality
the decrease in sound levels will be affected by:

 absorption by the air and moisture in it;

 wind and temperature gradients;
 absorption of the ground; and
 reflection and absorption by obstacles in the path.

The first three of these are only significant over long distances and
are important in the study of environmental noise annoyance.
However, they do not play a significant role in occupational noise
exposures and so will not be considered further here.

5.5 Reflections, diffraction and

refraction
When a sound wave encounters an obstacle such as a barrier or
wall, its propagation will be affected in one of three ways -
reflection, diffraction and refraction.

Reflection occurs when an obstacle's dimensions are larger than

the wavelength of the sound. In this case the sound ray behaves
like a light ray and, for an obstacle with a flat surface, the reflected
ray will leave the surface at the same angle as the incident ray
approached it, so that the angle of incidence is equal to the angle
of reflection.

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Diffraction occurs when an obstacle's dimensions are of the same

order or less than the wavelength of the sound. In this case the
edge of the obstacle acts like a source of sound itself and the
sound ray appears to bend around the edge. This limits the
effectiveness of barriers.

Refraction occurs when a sound ray enters a different medium at

an angle. Because of the differing speed of travel of the sound
wave in the two media, the sound ray will bend. This can be an
important consideration in outdoor sound propagation over long
distances. When weather conditions produce a temperature
inversion, sound rays originally propagating upwards can be bent
back to the ground.

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5.6 Transmission and absorption

When a sound wave strikes an obstacle, part of it is reflected, part
is absorbed within the obstacle and part is transmitted through to
become a sound wave in air again on the other side.

The obstacle's ability to block transmission of sound depends on

its structure and is indicated by its transmission loss rating.

Stiff, heavy materials stop a lot of sound by reflecting most of it

and hence have a high transmission loss. Examples are sheet
metal, timber, bricks and concrete.

Soft, porous materials are not good at blocking the transmission of

sound.

The fraction of sound energy that is absorbed by an obstacle is

called its absorption coefficient.

Soft, porous material such as open cell foams and fibrous

materials are good absorbers of sound and have an absorption
coefficient close to 1.

Hard, non-porous materials are poor absorbers and have

coefficients as low as 0.02.

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Section 6: SOUND FIELDS - NEAR FIELD AND FAR

FIELD

Inside a room, sound waves from a source will reflect from the
walls, ceiling, floor and other objects in the room. Close to a
source like a machine, the direct sound dominates and the sound
pressure may vary significantly with just small changes in position.
This area is called the near field and its extent is about twice the
machine's dimension or one wavelength of the sound. For
example, a transformer producing sound at a frequency of 120 Hz
will have a near-field extending about 3m, see equations (1.4A)
and (1.5).
c
λ so that, 344 divided by 120 is 2.9 or about 3 m.
f
The area beyond the near field is called the far field. This is made
up of two sections - the free field where the direct sound still
dominates and the sound pressure level decreases 6 dB for each
doubling of distance, and the reverberant field where the
reflected sound adds to the direct sound and the decrease per
doubling of distance will be less than 6 dB.

Illustration based on figure from National Institute of Occupational Health and Safety -
External Education Program ' Noise and Hearing Conservation ' 1988

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REVIEW EXERCISES 1 – ANSWERS

Question 1
What is the wavelength in air at 21 °C of a sound with:

(i) frequency at the lowest end of the range of audibility

(i.e. 20 Hz)?

(ii) frequency at the highest end (i.e. 20 000 Hz)?

ANSWER

c 344
i) λ    17.2 m
f 20

c 344
(ii) λ    0.0172 m or 17.2 mm
f 20000

Question 2
If the temperature increases to 40 °C, what is the frequency of a
sound with a wavelength of 5m in air?

ANSWER

c 355
c = 355 m/s f    71 Hz
λ 5

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SUMMARY

You have now completed the first Noise reading, which gives you
the basic understanding of sound waves needed to continue with
the rest of the Noise readings.

Check that you have clearly understood the definition of noise; the
nature of sound waves; the terms we use to describe sound waves
( wavelength, ; period, T; frequency, f; wave velocity, c; and
sound pressure, p); the terms sound power, W and sound
intensity, I and their relationship to sound pressure; how sound
waves propagate in the open and are affected by obstacles
(reflection, diffraction, refraction transmission, absorption); and the
terms used to describe sound fields (near, far, free, reverberant).

Acknowledgement
The inclusion of topics in this reading and others in this course follows the
guidance given in Australian Standard AS/NZS 1269.1:2005, Appendix B,
Topics Recommended for Inclusion in a Training Course for Noise
Assessment. This in turn was based on Appendix 5 of the Code of
Practice for Noise Control in the Workplace, WorkSafe Western Australia
Commission, March 1994 and the experience of over fifteen years of
Noise Officer training courses run at the Curtin University of Technology.

Some of the figures used in the reading have been adapted from Noise
Control: A Guide For Workers And Employers, U.S. Department of Labor,
1980, which was itself adapted from a publication of the Swedish Work
Environment Fund.

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REFERENCES & FURTHER READING

For those of you wanting a more detailed treatment of the material

in this reading, see:

Beranek, L. L, Noise and Vibration Control, Revised Edition,

Institute of Noise Control Engineering, Washington, 1988.

Bies, D.A. and Hansen, C.H., Engineering Noise Control: Theory

and Practice 3rd Edition, E & FN Spon, London, 2003.

Norton, M. P., Fundamentals of noise and vibration analysis for

engineers, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1989.

01dB, Mediacoustic - Teaching Acoustics by Computer, 01dB,

France 1996. (An interactive CD-ROM)

Information on Heinrich Hertz, 1857-1894, the German physicist

who studied electromagnetic waves:
www.cobalt.chem.ucalgary.ca/ziegler/educmat/chm386/RUDIMEN
T/tourclas/hertz.htm

Information on Blaise Pascal, 1623-1662, French physicist and

philosopher who was first to measure altitude by barometric
pressure:
http://www-history.mcs.st-
and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Pascal.html

Information on the Scottish mechanical engineer James Watt,

1736-1819, of steam engine fame:
www.sjsu.edu/depts/Museum/wat.html

An MPEG clip showing examples of tasks involving noise.

http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/noise/abouthlp/noisemeter_flash/s
oundMeter_flash.html

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