Overview of Power Electronics

Power Electronics Power Electronics

Power Semiconductor Devices
Power Semiconductor Phase Controlled Choppers Inverters
Devices Converters
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Overview of Power Electronics (ESE)

Resonance Converter

AC and DC Drive

SMPS
Lecture 0
AC Voltage Controller
Introduction to Power Electronics
Ideal & Practical Switches
Switching Losses
What do we mean by Power Electronics? What do we mean by Power Electronics?
• Power Electronics is the application of Electronics & Circuitry to • Power Electronics convert, control & conditioning the flow of energy
Control the Electric Power Conversion from one device to another. or power using switches.
• This acts as an interfacing circuit & it is also used to regulate and
control output. It contains power semiconductor devices.

SOURCE Power Processing LOAD

(AC/DC) Circuit (AC/DC) • There is always a mismatch between availability of supply and the
load demand. Hence, to cope up with this problem, power electronics
is very useful.

Control

Power Electronics V/S Analog Electronics Power Electronics

• In Analog Electronics we use ICs which work on Low Power Devices
whereas in Power Electronics we use Power Semiconductor Devices Advantages of P.E Disadvantages of P.E
which work on High Power Devices.
• Eg : (i) Speed control of DC motor
(i) Improves efficiency (i) Introduces Switching problems
in the system
(ii) Improves Power Factor
(ii) Introduces Harmonics
(iii) Significantly Reduces Weight of System Components
(ii) HVDC Transmission
(iv) Increase life expectancy of (iii) Requires additional protection
System due to heat loss.
(v) Fast Controlling action
 Power Semiconductor Devices Power Semiconductor Devices
Why Harmonic are undesirable? Why Silicon?
• Degradation in the quality of the electric power supply.
• Silicon is preferred over germanium because its atomic number is 32,
• Increased losses within the distribution system.
whereas silicon's atomic number is 14.
• Overload in the neutral conductor, which carries zero sequence or
• The valency of electrons in both atoms is the same, but they are in
triplen harmonic current.
different shells; in silicon, the valance electrons are in the third shell,
• Vibrations and premature aging of generators, motors, and
Whereas in germanium, the valance electrons are in the fourth shell,
transformers.
which means they are farther away from the nucleus, so valance
• Increase in noise levels.
electrons experience less force of attraction.
• Distortion in the power supply can disrupt the operation of sensitive
• They could then easily escape the outermost shell and get free.
loads.
• This also means that the Ionization potential of Germanium is lesser than
• Interference in telephone or communication lines due to zero sequence
that of Silicon.
currents. • But, Silicon atoms are more stable than Germanium atoms at high
• Increase in machine core losses. temperatures. Also, silicon is abundant in nature, they are less
expensive than germanium.

Power Semiconductor Devices Power Semiconductor Devices

Silicon V/S Germanium Energy Bandgap

Parameters Ge Si

Thermal Limit

Voltage Rating

Current Rating

Power Rating

Availability
 Power Semiconductor Devices Power Semiconductor Devices
Mechanical Switches Ideal Switch

• These require manual contact with the switch for operation (need to be
operated by human)
• Switching Frequency of mechanical switches are very low.
• Time taken to turn on or turn off the switch is very large, as it is
operated by a human.
• Generally, mechanical switches are designed with the help of aluminium
or copper conductor.

Power Semiconductor Devices Question

I-V Characteristics of Ideal Switch Draw the V-I Characteristics of the switch for the given below

circuit.
Power Semiconductor Devices Power Semiconductor Devices
Timing Characteristics of Ideal Switch Properties of Ideal Switch

• In ON state, it must have ability to carry any amount of current w/o any
voltage drop across it.
• In OFF state, it must be able to block any amount of voltage w/o any
current flow through it.
• Device must have 0 ON state resistance so ON state losses called as
Conduction Loss must be 0.
• Device must have ∞ OFF state resistance so OFF state loss called as
Blocking Loss must be 0.
• Switch must be able to change its state from ON to OFF or vice- versa
instantaneously.
• Switch can be operated at any frequency.
Power Semiconductor Devices Power Semiconductor Devices
Practical Switch I-V Characteristics of Practical Switch

Power Semiconductor Devices

Power Semiconductor Devices
Timing Characteristics of Practical Switch
Properties of Practical Switch

• In ON state, switch has a small voltage drop across it & can only carry
a limited amount of current.
• In OFF state, switch has a small leakage current through it & can only
block a finite amount of voltage.
• Device has a non-zero ON state resistance so ON state losses called as
Conduction Loss is also non-zero.
• Device must has a finite OFF state resistance so OFF state loss called as
Blocking Loss is non-zero as some finite leakage current flows through it.
• Both the conduction loss & blocking loss taken together are known as
Switching Power Loss
• Switch requires a finite time & Energy to change its state from ON to
OFF or vice- versa.
• Switch can only be operated at some finite frequency.
Power Semiconductor Devices Power Semiconductor Devices
Losses in Practical Switch Losses in Practical Switch

Constant voltage drop Constant Resistance

Power Semiconductor Devices Question

Losses in Practical Switch
A MOSFET rated for 15 A, carries a periodic current as shown in
Piece - wise linear (PWL) figure. The ON state resistance of the MOSFET is 0.15 Ω. The
average ON state loss in the MOSFET is
Question
A Diode is having the I-V characteristics as shown below. If it is used
in a Half wave rectifier circuit with resistive load and carrying a
peak current of 100 A(drop across diode neglected). Determine the
average conduction loss in the Diode
Power Semiconductor Devices Power Semiconductor Devices
Switching Power Losses Switching Power Losses

Power Semiconductor Devices Power Semiconductor Devices

Switching Power Losses Switching Power Losses

Power Semiconductor Devices Question
Switching Power Losses
Figure shows the voltage across a power semiconductor device and
the current through the device during a switching transition. Is the
transition a turn ON transition or a turn OFF transition? What is the
energy lost during the transition?

Question
Question
The forward characteristic of power semi-conductor device is given
by V = 1+ i , where V ,i is the voltage & current across the diode.
For current waveform shown below the average power dissipated in
the diode will be ________ .
Question
A thyristor in an application carries a half-sinusoidal current with a
2ms period and a 10A peak. The thyristor can be modeled during
conduction with an ON resistance of 0.5 ohms . Determine the
average conduction loss in the device.

Question
During switching operation of a semiconductor device, the voltage
and current waveforms of the switch are shown in figure below. For
a switching frequency of 50 Hz. Find the following
(i) Average power loss during of switching.
(ii) Maximum Switching Power Loss During ON & OFF operation
 The End

Power Semiconductor Devices

Basic Terms

Lecture 1 •
•
•
Unipolar : Can only Block Voltage in Single direction.
Bipolar : Can Block Voltage in two directions.
Uncontrolled Switch(Passive Switch) : ON/OFF cannot be controlled by
an external signal.
• Semi-Controlled/Half-Controlled Switch(Active Switch) : It can be turned
Power Electronic Switches ON or OFF by an external signal but both are not possible.
• Fully-Controlled Switch(Active Switch) : It can be turned ON and OFF
Power Diode by an external signal both are possible.
• Firing Circuits : Circuits that are used to trigger a power semiconductor
device.
 Power Semiconductor Devices Power Semiconductor Devices
Power Switches Majority Charge Carrier Device

• Only one type of charge carrier, either holes or electrons, participates in

• Diodes : On and off states controlled by the power circuit. conduction.
• Thyristors : Latched on by a control signal but must be turned off by the • For this to occur, there must be no p-n junction in the path of the current
power circuit flow.
• Controllable switches : Turned on and off by control signals • As only one polarity of charge carriers are present , hence it is also
called an Unipolar device.
• The controllable switch category includes several device types including Minority Charge Carrier Device
bipolar junction transistors (BJT), metal-oxide-semiconductor field effect
transistors (MOSFETs), gate-turn-off (GTO) thyristors, and insulated gate • Both holes and electrons contribute to conduction. When holes move from
bipolar transistors (IGBTs). There have been major advances in this the p-channel to the n-channel, they become minority carriers after
category of devices moving from the n-channel to the p-channel. Therefore, it is a minority
carrier device.
• There is a p-n junction in the path of the current flow.
• Conduction happens due to both polarity of charges hence it is called a
Bipolar device.

Power Semiconductor Devices Power Semiconductor Devices

Minority Charge Carrier Device Minority Charge Carrier Device

• Minority carrier devices have depletion layer due to formation of P-N • Minority carrier devices have conduction modulation, hence ON
junction. resistance ( r ) & conductivity loss ( P ) are much lower.
• These junctions have mainly two operating regions Forward bias & Reverse • BJTs have negative temperature coefficient, hence BJTs are not suitable for
bias. parallel operation.
• During Forward Bias charge carriers get injected ,hence depletion width of
the P-N junction reduces.
• During Reverse Bias charge carriers get depleted ,hence depletion width of
the P-N junction increases.
• The time taken for this injection and depletion of charge carriers are known
as ON time(t ) and OFF time(t )
• Hence the maximum switching frequency is given as
Power Semiconductor Devices Power Semiconductor Devices

Majority Carrier Device V/S Minority Carrier Device Power Diode

• Power semiconductor diodes are similar to low-power p-n junction

Majority Carrier Device Minority Carrier Device diodes, known as signal diodes. However, power semiconductor devices
are more complex in both structure and operation than their low-power
1. Both holes and electrons will act
counterparts.
1. Only One type of charge carrier
2. No PN Junction as charge carriers.
3. Low t , t 2. PN Junction • This complexity arises because low-power devices must be modified to
4. Higher Switching frequencies 3. High t , t be suitable for high-power applications. For instance, power diodes are
possible. 4. Lower Switching frequencies constructed with an n-type layer, called the drift region, between the p-
5. Lower Switching Power Loss possible. layer (anode) and the n⁺ layer or substrate (cathode). This modification
6. Higher turn on resistance & 5. Higher Switching Power Loss supports large blocking voltages. The n-type layer is not present in
conduction loss. 6. Lower turn on resistance & signal diodes.
7. Schottky Diode, MOSFET conduction loss.
7. Power Diode, SCR, BJT, IGBT,
TRIAC, GTO etc

Power Semiconductor Devices Power Semiconductor Devices

Power Diode Power Diode

• Voltage Blocking capacity of any semiconductor device is directly

proportional to width & doping of the layer.

• To pass high current in conduction mode of a semiconductor device we

require large area and to provide fast conductivity. We must have one
highly doped n layer in the semiconductor device.

Width of p region

Width of n region

Width of n region
 Power Semiconductor Devices Power Diode
Power Diode Properties

• It is a two terminal device and the terminals are named as anode and
• Power devices are constructed with a
cathode
vertical orientation, as this structure allows
• It is a three layered uncontrolled, unipolar, unilateral passive device
for a greater cross-sectional area (CSA) to
• It is a minority charge career device.
support larger current ratings.
• Safe Operating Region - 2 Quadrant

• The cross-sectional area (CSA) of a power

diode is determined according to its current
rating.

• Highly doped p⁺ and n⁺ regions contain

more charges, enabling a higher current
rating. If the doping in the p and n regions
is reduced, the current rating of the device
decreases.

Power Diode Power Diode

Drift Layer Conductivity Modulation

• Drift layer is used to increase Reverse Breakdown voltage. • During Forward Bias, holes enter from p region to n & electrons from
• Signal diode has exponential V-I characteristics n to n
• Drift layer has less doping, less no. Of charges, higher resistance
hence voltage drop becomes = IR • Charge concentration increases in the drift layer. Hence conductivity
• This drop dominates exponential characteristics & hence forward bias increases, this phenomenon is known as conductivity modulation.
curve appears to be linear.
• As conductivity increases the resistance offered at the drift region
decreases. Hence the conduction loss reduces.
 Power Diode Power Diode
Comparison with Signal Diode I-V Characteristics of a Practical Power Diode
• Power Diode has more V as compared to signal diode.
• Power diode has more knee voltage (1V) as compared to Si
diode(0.7V)
• Power Diode has Linear characteristics in FB region & not exponential
characteristics.

Question Question
The I-V Characteristics of a Practical diode lie in the To adapt a signal diode for high current and high voltage
applications with minimal losses:
(a) 1st & 2nd Quadrant
(a) a lightly doped n layer is added between the two p and n layers
(b) 1st & 3rd Quadrant
(b) a heavily doped n layer is added between the two p and n layers
(c) 1st & 4th Quadrant
(c) a lightly doped p layer is added between the two p and n layers
(d) none of the above
(d) a heavily doped p layer is added between the two p and n layers
Power Diode Power Diode
DC Diode Parameters DC Diode Parameters

• V is the voltage drop of a diode across A & K at a defined current

levels when it is forward biased. • I is the current at a particular voltage & when voltage is below the
breakdown voltage.

• V is the voltage drop of a diode at a defined current level when it is

beyond reverse - biased level. This is known as avalanche.

Power Diode Power Diode

AC Diode Parameters AC Diode Parameters

• ( t. ) is the time required for the diode voltage to drop to a particular • Under OFF condition, charges in the drift layer
voltage after the forward current starts to flow. are very few, resulting in very low conductivity
and very high resistance.
• A device requires a finite time to transition from the OFF state to the
• When current begins to flow, the voltage drop
ON state. To turn ON, the depletion layer must vanish by charges
across the diode increases as the drift resistance
injected by the battery.
is very high (during ( t )).

• During the ON state, the voltage across the diode is low, but for the
• Gradually, drift resistance reduces due to
voltage to reduce, the time required is (t )
conductivity modulation, and hence the voltage
drop across the diode also reduces (during
( t )).
 Power Diode Power Diode
AC Diode Parameters AC Diode Parameters

• The process of removing excess charge carriers from the device • First, we remove excess charge carriers in
during turn-off so that the device regains its reverse blocking the drift region. This is done by the
combined action of recombination and
capability is called Reverse Recovery.
negative diode current.

• To stop current flow, a depletion layer must be formed inside the

• Once excess charges are removed from the
device.
drift layer, the depletion layer forms and
expands into the drift layer.
• Forming the depletion layer again requires some time, called Reverse
Recovery time. • After the depletion layer forms, the reverse
current also reduces to a low value called
reverse saturation current.

Power Semiconductor Devices Power Semiconductor Devices

Reverse Recovery Charge Reverse Recovery Charge

• When a power diode is quickly reverse biased during

high forward current (hard switching), It needs time to
clear charge carriers to block reverse voltage.

• Recovery time (t ) is a typical metric for evaluating

diode reverse recovery.

• The amplitude of the reverse current during recovery is

a better performance measure than t alone.

• Reverse recovery charge(Q ) is the integral of

recovery current over recovery time. This predicts in-
circuit performance of the device.
Power Semiconductor Devices Question
Reverse Recovery Charge During the turning off of a semiconductor device, the voltage and
current waveforms of the switch are shown in figure below. For a
switching frequency of 50 Hz. Find the following if switching period
starts from t
(i) Average power loss during switching.
(ii) Reverse Recovery Charge
Question Power Semiconductor Devices

The reverse recovery time of a diode is t = 5 μs and the rate at Classification of diodes based on Reverse Recovery Time
which the diode current is decreasing is 5A/μs. The reverse recovery • General Purpose Diode : These diodes are typically made from silicon,
charge Q and peak inverse current I of the diode will be if the which is doped with impurities to create the p-n junction. Silicon diodes are
softness factor is very less than 1. widely used due to their good electrical properties, cost-effectiveness, and
stability over a wide range of temperatures and currents.

• Fast Recovery Diode : These diodes are designed to switch off quickly,
minimizing the reverse recovery time. This is achieved by doping the silicon
with gold or platinum, which introduces deep-level traps that facilitate faster
recombination of charge carriers, thus speeding up the recovery process.

• Schottky Diode : A Schottky diode is formed by the junction of a metal with

a semiconductor (typically n-type silicon), rather than a p-n junction.
Schottky diodes have negligible or no depletion layer.
 Power Semiconductor Devices Question
Classification of diodes based on Reverse Recovery Time Which of the following statements about Schottky diodes is false?

General Purpose
Fast Recovery Diode Schottky Diode (A) Schottky diodes do not store charges.
Diode

(B) The main charge carriers in a Schottky diode are holes.

(C) Schottky diodes have an aluminum-silicon junction.

(D) Schottky diodes can be switched off more quickly than similarly
rated p-n junction diodes.

Used in rectifiers operated Used in Inverters,Choppers Used in SMPS

around line frequency (50 hz) higher than line frequency

Question
The Schottky diode is utilized in high-speed operations due to:

(a) small current potential

(b) minimal storage delay
(c) small size
The End
(d) high speed of electrons
 Power BJT(Bipolar Junction Transistor)
Construction

Lecture 2
Transistor Family

Power BJT Power BJT

KeyPoints KeyPoints

• In Power Electronics n-p-n instead of p-n-p as mobility of electron is • High collector doping increases charge carriers and device
faster than holes. conductivity.
• In BJT Conduction due to both electrons & holes occur hence it is a • Conductivity modulation of the drift layer occurs similarly to a
bipolar device. power diode, reducing conduction losses.
• It is a minority charge carrier device. • The collector and emitter serve as power terminals, while the
• Cross - sectional area of Power BJT is more than normal BJT to base is the control terminal.
increase the current rating of the device hence device is made
vertical.
• To block high voltage we need one intrinsic layer(drift layer) in
the BJT hence Power BJT has 4 layers.
Power BJT Power BJT

Case - 1: V Case - 2: V

Power BJT Power BJT

Case - 3: V Secondary Breakdown Problem
• As temperature increases, the reverse saturation current of the
collector-base (CB) junction increases.
• Specifically, the reverse saturation current (I ) doubles for every
10°C rise in temperature.
• Continuous temperature rise can cause thermal runaway or
secondary breakdown.
• Thermal runaway occurs when the increase in I due to
temperature rise leads to further heating, creating a feedback
loop that can thermally damage the device.
Power BJT Power BJT
I-V Characteristics
Case - 4 V

Power BJT Power BJT

Analog V/S Power BJT KeyPoints

• It is a two junction, three terminal & 4 layer device.

• Power BJTs have higher V due to the drift layer and higher
• It is a unidirectional device.
current ratings due to their vertical structure.
• It is a current controlled device.
• Power BJTs operate in cutoff and saturation, while analog BJTs
• Higher leakage Current(Minority Charge carrier device)
function in the active region for amplification.
• Its switching frequency is low.(Minority Charge carriers)
• It can only block positive voltage.
• It is a fully controlled device and comes into the category of
active devices.
• Power BJT is either operated in Cut OFF or Saturation mode but
not in active mode.
Power MOSFET(Metal Oxide Semiconductor Power MOSFET
Field Effect Transistor)
Construction

Construction • We use n channel enhancement Power MOSFET as it has better

mobility.
• Drain & Source Terminal are known as Power Terminal ,Gate as
Control Terminal
• Oxide layer is kept below gate terminal to minimise current flow
from gate to the device.
• It is a Voltage controlled device. (As Gate current is zero, Gate
isolated with SiO )
• It is a unipolar device current flows either due to holes or
electrons.
• It is a Majority Charge Carrier Device

Power MOSFET Power MOSFET

Case - 1: V Body Diode

• Formed between body & drift

layer but since body is shorted
to source, it can carry current
from source to drain.
• Current during normal
operation flows from drain to
source.
• Current through the body diode
flows from source to drain.
• Hence it is called a bidirectional
switch.
Power MOSFET Power MOSFET
Case - 2: V Case - 3: V

• Positive voltage is applied to the gate

terminal.
• The electric field (E-field) passes through the
oxide into the device.
• This electric field exerts a force on holes and
electrons inside the body:
• Holes are pushed downwards.
• Electrons are pulled upwards.

Power MOSFET
Power MOSFET
I-V Characteristics
Working
• Electrons accumulate below the gate terminal, while holes are pushed
away.
• A small region below the gate has more electrons than holes, behaving as
an n-type region, called the n-channel.
• Since the drain is positive relative to the source, electrons flow from the
source to the drain.
• Consequently, current flows from the drain to the source.
• Electron flow path: n+ source → n-channel → n drift → n+ drain.
• The Electron flow path has no p-n junction, making it a majority carrier
device (unipolar device).
• The minimum gate voltage required to create the n-channel is called the
Threshold Voltage.
 Power MOSFET
Question
Keypoint
Which of following statements is/are correct regarding Power
• It has more conduction loss compared to BJT ( due to no conductivity
MOSFETs?
modulation as it is a Majority Charge carrier device)
• It provides minimum switching loss in comparison to any other power
(i) The gate circuit impedance of MOSFET is higher than that of a BJT
electronics device.
(ii) The gate circuit impedance of MOSFET is lower than that of a BJT.
• It is free from second breakdown problem.
(iii) The MOSFET has higher switching losses than that of a BJT
(iv) The MOSFET has lower switching fosses than that of a BJT

Question IGBT( Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor)

Construction
Choose the correct statements:

(a) Both MOSFET and BJT are voltage-controlled device

The gate circuit impedance of MOSFET is lower
than that of a BJTx
(b) Both MOSFET and BJT are current controlled devices

(c) MOSFET is a voltage-controlled device whereas BJT is a current

controlled device

(d) MOSFET is a current controlled device whereas BJT is a voltage-

controlled device.
IGBT IGBT

Construction Construction

• Due to the presence of the drift layer, • Source becomes emitter, and drain becomes collector.
conduction modulation occurs. • When a positive voltage is applied to the gate, an electric field forms an
• BJT has lower conduction loss but n-channel below the gate terminal, allowing current to flow through a pn
longer switching time. junction.
• MOSFET has faster switching but higher • The p⁺ collector injects holes and the n⁺ emitter injects electrons into the
conduction loss. drift layer, increasing its conductivity and reducing R .
• IGBT combines the advantages of both • Due to Silicon Oxide layer present at Gate , Hence the Gate current is
BJT and MOSFET. zero.
• The structure of IGBT is similar to • We don’t apply Negative voltage to IGBT as it may get damaged.
MOSFET, but the n⁺ drain is replaced
by a p⁺ collector.

IGBT IGBT
I-V Characteristics Latch-up in IGBT:

• A parasitic SCR forms within the IGBT with its 4 layers: collector, drift,
body, and emitter.
• When collector current flows, it causes a voltage drop across the body
region, which acts as the gate of the SCR.
IGBT IGBT

Latch-up in IGBT: Why is IGBT faster than BJT ?

• If the collector current (Ic) is high, the voltage across the body resistance • IGBT has only one pn junction in the current path, while BJT has two. The
increases, which can trigger the parasitic SCR. pn junctions reduce speed due to reverse recovery.
• Once the SCR conducts, the gate terminal loses control, and the device • The gate in IGBT is insulated, so no charges are injected from the gate.
latches into the on state. Thus, no charges need to be removed when turning off, unlike in BJT
• Manufacturers specify a limit on collector current to avoid turning on the where charges need to be removed from the base.
SCR.

IGBT Comparison
BJT V/S MOSFET V/S IGBT
Keypoint
Power BJT Power MOSFET IGBT
• It is a voltage controlled device
Minority Charge Carriers Majority Charge Carriers Minority Charge Carriers
• It is unidirectional device and can block only forward Voltage.
• It is a Minority Charge carrier Device Current Controlled Device Voltage Controlled Device Voltage Controlled Device

• It has high conduction loss in comparison to BJT but lower compared to Low ON State Voltage drop Higher ON State Voltage drop Low ON State Voltage drop

any other power electronics device. Higher Conduction losses Lower Conduction losses
Lower Conduction losses
• It has Positive temperature coefficient during switching.
Higher Switching loss Lower Switching loss Lower Switching loss
• It is free from secondary breakdown problem.
Negative temperature coefficient Positive temperature coefficient Positive temperature coefficient
• The drive(control) circuit of IGBT is like that of the MOSFET.
• The on-state characteristics are like those of the BJT.
Has Secondary Breakdown No Secondary Breakdown No Secondary Breakdown
• IGBTs have replaced BJTs in many applications.
Parallel operation is not advisable Parallel operation is possible Parallel operation is possible

Rating: 1200V, 800A, 15KHz Rating: 500V, 140A, 1 MHz Rating: 1200V, 500A, 50 KHz
Question Question
Which of following statements is/are correct regarding Latch-up in What determines the voltage blocking capability of an IGBT?
IGBT? (a) Injection layer
(b) Body layer
(A) A large current flows through the IGBT, which can lead to (c) Metal used for the contacts
excessive power dissipation. (d) Drift layer
(B) It can cause significant heating, potentially damaging or
destroying the IGBT.
(C) The device turns off safely.
(D) The gate control loses its ability to turn off the IGBT, making the
device uncontrollable.

Question
In an IGBT, what is the p+ layer connected to the collector terminal
called?
(a) Drift layer
(b) Injection layer
(c) Body layer
The End
(d) Collector layer
 Question

Lecture 3
Important PYQs on Power Diodes & Power
Transistors
Question
Question Question
A silicon diode is preferred to a germanium diode because of its A Schottky diode is

(a) higher reverse current. (a) a majority carrier device.

(b) lower reverse current and higher reverse break down voltage. (b) a minority carrier device.

(c) higher reverse current and lower reverse break down voltage. (c) a fast recovery diode.

(d) None of the above. (d) both majority and minority carrier diode.

Question Question
Which one of the following is not required for Power diode? A bipolar junction transistor (BJT) is used as a power control switch by
biasing it in the cut-off region (off state) or in the saturation region (on-

(a) High speed operation state). In the on-state, for the BJT

(b) Fast communication (a) both the base-emitter and base-collector junctions are reverse
biased.

(c) Small recovery time (b) the base-emitter junction is reverse biased, and the base-collector
junction is forward biased.

(d) Low on-state voltage drop (c) the base-emitter junction is forward biased, and therefore the base-
collector junction is reverse biased.
(d) both the base-emitter and base-collector junctions are forward
biased.
Question Question
The figure given below shows a MOSFET with an integral body diode.
It is employed as a power switching device in the ON and OFF states
through appropriate control. The ON and OFF states of the switch are
given on the V - I plane by

Question
The conduction loss versus device current characteristic of a power
MOSFET is best approximated by

(a) A parabola

(b) A straight line

(c) A rectangular hyperbola

(d) An exponentially decaying function

Question
In an IGBT cell the collector and emitter are respectively

(a) n and p

(b) n and p

(c) p and n

(d) p and n

Question
Question
 The End Lecture 4-A
Introduction to Thyristors
(SCR)

Silicon Controlled Rectifier(SCR) Silicon Controlled Rectifier(SCR)

Evolution of SCR’s Designing

• Thyratron : A gas-filled tube device used for rectification and • BJT is a fully controlled device but it can’t block voltage of both polarity.

switching. • Hence we needed a controlled device which can block voltage of both

• Bulky and less reliable than modern alternatives. polarities.

• Thyristor : Semiconductor device evolved from thyratron. • To design a new device for AC-DC converter we require some specifications,

• Consists of four layers (PNPN) and three terminals: anode, cathode, which are as follows,

and gate. 1) It must block voltage of both polarity.

• SCR (Silicon Controlled Rectifier) : A type of thyristor made of 2) It must be unidirectional.

silicon. 3) It must be naturally commutated.

• Operates like two interconnected transistors (NPN and PNP). 4) Turn ON & OFF time of the device can be on the higher side.

• Efficient and reliable, used for controlled rectification and high

power applications.
 Silicon Controlled Rectifier(SCR) Silicon Controlled Rectifier(SCR)
Construction Different Modes

• It is a Four-layer, three-junction (p-n-p-n) semiconductor Thyristor has three basic modes of operations:
device.Three terminals: anode, cathode, and gate. • Forward blocking
• It consist of four alternating p-type and n-type silicon • Reverse Blocking
layers forming junctions J1, J2, and J3. • Forward conduction
• It is named for using silicon and functioning as a
rectifier.Very low resistance in forward conduction, very
high in reverse conduction.
• Operation of SCR can be controlled.
• It is an unidirectional device, blocks current from cathode
to anode.
• It can block current from anode to cathode until triggered
by a gate signal.

Silicon Controlled Rectifier(SCR) Silicon Controlled Rectifier(SCR)

Reverse Blocking Mode
Reverse Blocking Mode

• The Reverse voltage capacity of SCR is decided by voltage

blocking capacity of Junction J . As junction J is introduced
• Cathode is made positive with respect to between a highly doped and thin layer(N )
the anode. • When breakdown voltage is exceeded, avalanche breakdown
• Junction J₁ is reverse biased. occurs.
• Junction J₂ is forward biased. • Avalanche breakdown can damage the device.
• Junction J₃ is reverse biased. • Reverse breakdown voltage is usually higher than forward break
over voltage.
• Junctions J₁ and J₃ provide the reverse
blocking capability of the device.
• Outer junctions (J₁ and J₃) are reverse
biased, while the inner junction (J₂) is
forward biased.
• Reverse Saturation current will flow.
 Silicon Controlled Rectifier(SCR)
Silicon Controlled Rectifier(SCR)
Forward Blocking Mode
Forward Conduction Mode

• Anode is positive relative to the cathode

without any signal to the gate terminal.
• J junction is responsible for the forward (i) Forward voltage triggering method
blocking capability.
(ii) GATE triggering method
• Small amount of leakage current flows.
• Forward and reverse breakdown voltages (iii) Temperature triggering method
decrease with an increase in temperature. (iv) Light Activated method
• In symmetrical SCR , SCR is designed to have (v) dv/dt triggering method.
equal forward and reverse breakdown
voltages.
• Doping must be adjusted accordingly.

Silicon Controlled Rectifier(SCR) Forward voltage triggering method

Forward voltage triggering method Disadvantages
• The SCR is in its off state, with no current flowing between the anode
and cathode. • In the transient zone, a large current flows through a small area,
• A forward voltage is applied across the anode and cathode, making leading to high heat loss during switching.
the anode positive relative to the cathode. • A high positive voltage is required to trigger the SCR, making it an
• The forward voltage reduces the width of the depletion region at the
uneconomical method of triggering.
junctions J1 and J3, while J2 remains reverse-biased.
• As the forward voltage increases, the electric field at the reverse-
• Frequent high heat loss during each turn-on reduces the lifespan of
biased junction J2 becomes strong enough to cause avalanche the SCR.
breakdown.
• This leads to a large number of charge carriers (electrons and holes)
being generated.
• The generated carriers increase the current flow through the SCR
• In this method there is no role of Gate current. We are simply
applying a voltage which has to be greater than Forward breakdown
voltage.
Question
Calculate the conduction period of SCR in the given below figure.
Assume Gate current, I to be zero.

Silicon Controlled Rectifier(SCR) Silicon Controlled Rectifier(SCR)

Gate triggering Method Gate triggering Method
• Apply a small positive voltage between the gate and cathode for a
short duration.
• Positive voltage at the gate floods the gate's p-layer with electrons
from the n-layer cathode.
• This reduces the width of the depletion region at junction J2, lowering
the forward breakover voltage.
• The forward breakover voltage decreases as the gate current
increases, making it easier to turn on the SCR.
• This positive gate current turns on the SCR by creating a conduction
path.
• SCR is termed a current-controlled device because gate current
determines when the SCR turns on.
• Gate triggering is considered the most efficient, reliable, and
straightforward method for turning on an SCR.
Silicon Controlled Rectifier(SCR) Silicon Controlled Rectifier(SCR)
Practical I-V characteristics Ideal I-V characteristics

Gate triggering Method Gate triggering Method

Advantages Latching Current

• Unlike other methods, gate triggering does not involve injecting • The latching current is the minimum anode to cathode current
charges from the gate, simplifying the turn-off process. required to maintain the conduction state of the SCR by ensuring the
• Once the SCR is on, it remains on even if the gate current is removed, breakdown of junction J2.
as long as the anode current exceeds the latching current. • This current value is crucial for initiating and maintaining the
• No Avalanche breakdown occurs. conduction in the SCR after the gate trigger pulse is removed.
• We don’t need to give Gate supply all the time. Only until Anode to • The latching current remains constant for a particular SCR at a given
cathode current reaches latching current. temperature.
• Once the gate current is applied and the SCR turns on, the anode
current must reach or exceed the latching current to keep the SCR in
the conducting state.
• The exact value of the latching current can vary with temperature
changes, but for a given temperature, it remains constant.
• If the anode current falls below the latching current before the device
fully latches, the SCR will turn off.
Gate triggering Method Gate triggering Method
Gate Pulse Width Holding Current

If the gate signal is not removed after the anode current reaches the latching • To discuss holding current, the SCR must be in conduction mode.
current, it leads to: • Holding Current is the minimum anode current required to keep the
• Power Losses: Prolonged application of the gate signal results in unnecessary SCR in the ON state.
power consumption.
• If the current falls below this level, the SCR will turn off.
• Reduced Efficiency: Continuous gate current can lower the overall efficiency
(η) of the system. • Holding current signifies the instant when the SCR theoretically turns
• The latching current sets the minimum gate pulse width required to turn on off.
the SCR effectively.
• If the latching current is high, the required gate pulse width must be Latching Current V/S Holding Current
increased accordingly to ensure proper turn-on.
• Hence we design SCR to have minimum latching current as Gate terminal is
• Latching Current: Required to initially turn on the SCR.
very sensitive (Used for blocking forward voltage) • Holding Current: Required to keep the SCR on after it has been
turned on.
• There is no relation between latching & holding current.

Holding Current Holding Current

Natural Commutation Forced Commutation
• Forced Commutation is required in DC circuits as the current does not
• Natural commutation occurs in AC circuits where the current naturally
naturally fall to zero.
drops to zero during each half cycle, turning off the SCR without
• In certain converters, natural commutation is absent, necessitating
needing an external commutation circuit. Hence the name natural
external methods to turn off the SCR.
commutation.
• Commutation Circuit is required to turn off SCRs when natural
• This method is ideal for low and medium frequency applications such
commutation is unavailable.
as AC - DC or AC - AC converters where designing an external
• Commutation circuits are economically viable for high switching
commutation circuit is uneconomical.
frequency SCRs.
• The minimum time required to turn off an SCR using a forced
commutation circuit is determined by the holding current.
 Silicon Controlled Rectifier Silicon Controlled Rectifier
Summary
Summary
• To turn off an SCR, the anode current must be reduced below a certain
• Can only be turned on by a positive gate pulse but cannot be turned
threshold called the holding current.
off by a gate pulse, hence called a Semi-Controlled Switch.
• Simply applying a reverse gate current does not reduce the anode current
• Bipolar switch: Blocks both polarities of voltage.
below the holding current, hence it cannot turn off the SCR.
• Unidirectional switch: Current flows only from anode to cathode.
• SCR’s are used to design AC to DC converter having low Switching
• Safe Operating Area (SOA): Operates in the 1st and 3rd
frequency.
quadrants.
• SCR’s which are used in Low Switching Frequency applications don’t require
• Minority charge carrier device: Conduction due to both electrons
any commutation circuits.
and holes.
• SCR’s which are used in High Switching Frequency applications require
• Available up to 10kV and 3kA, making it the highest-rated device.
commutation circuits for proper operation.
• Highest power rating among all devices but also the slowest,
• Asymmetrical SCR’s are good for reactive power compensation.
suitable only for low-frequency operation.
• Light activated SCR’s are good for series and parallel operations of SCR’s.

Silicon Controlled Rectifier(SCR)

Two Transistor Analogy

• The Gate of SCR is Similar to Base of BJT

• The Cathode of SCR is Similar to Emitter of BJT
• The Anode of SCR is NOT Similar to Collector of BJT
The End
 Question
An SCR operates at a steady-state current of 100 A in conduction
mode. To trigger this SCR, a 50 µs gate pulse is required for the
latching current of 60 mA. Due to a change in the load, the new

Lecture 4-B steady-state current is 50 A in conduction mode. Which of the

following should be reconsidered regarding the gate pulse and
latching current?

Assignment Questions
(a) Increase the gate pulse width
Gate Characteristics (b) Decrease the gate pulse width
(c) No change in the latching current
(d) Decrease the latching current.

Question Question
Which of the following best defines the holding current of SCR? An SCR with a low switching frequency has a latching current of 2
mA at 25°C and provides a steady-state current of 10 A for a
(a) The minimum anode current required to maintain the SCR in the particular converter. If its junction temperature changes to 150°C,
ON state. what will be its latching current and steady-state current for the
(b) The minimum value of anode current below which the SCR may same converter, respectively?
turn off.
(c) The minimum time taken to turn off the SCR is equivalent to the (a) Both will change
time taken to match the steady-state anode current and holding (b) Only Latching current will change
current. (c) Only Steady State current will change
(d) The current at which the anode current becomes lower than the (d) None of the above
holding current, causing the SCR to revert to the forward blocking
state.
Question Question
A SCR is in conducting state, a reverse voltage is applied between Consider the following statements:
anode and cathode, but it fails to turn off. What could be the 1. A thyristor requires turn off circuit while transistor does not.
reason? 2. The voltage drop of a thyristor is less than that of a transistor.
3. A thyristor requires a continuous gate current.
(a) Positive voltage is applied to the gate. 4. A transistor draws continuous base current
(b) The reverse voltage is small.
(c) The anode current is more than the holding current. Which of these statements are correct?
(d) Turn off time of SCR is large.
(a) 1, 2, 3 and 4 (b) 1 and 2

(c) 2 and 4 (d) 1 and 4

Question Question
In forward-bias portion of the thyristor's i-v characteristic, the Find the minimum width of gate pulse required to turn on SCR if the
number of stable operating regions is latching current of the given SCR is 4 mA .

(a) One (b) Two (c) Three (d) None

Question
Find the state of SCR,if the latching current of the given SCR is 50 mA .
Question
An SCR having a turn-on time of 5 µs, latching current of 50 mA and
holding current of 40 mA is triggered by a short duration pulse and
is used in the circuit shown in the following figure. The minimum
pulse width required to turn the SCR on will be
Question
 Silicon Controlled Rectifier(SCR) Silicon Controlled Rectifier(SCR)
Gate Characteristics Gate Characteristics

• Gate triggering is the most • Curves 1 and 2 shows the variation in doping
reliable method to trigger an levels of the p and n layers.
SCR.
• PN Junction: Between the Gate
(G) and Cathode (K), there is a
PN Junction (J ).
• Bias Condition: This junction can
be assumed to have a forward
bias condition similar to a diode.

• As gate voltage increases, gate current also increases, helping in the

efficient turning on of the SCR.
Gate Characteristics Gate Triggering
Operating Point Types

• Continuous Pulse Triggering: Involves applying a continuous gate pulse

to ensure the SCR is triggered and remains on.
• Such type of trigger is preferred for highly inductive load.

Gate Triggering Question

Types
A thyristor is triggered by a pulse train of 5 kHz and duty ratio is
• Pulse Gate Triggering: Involves applying a gate pulse to ensure the SCR is 0.4. If the allowable average power is 100W, the maximum
triggered and turns off. allowable gate drive power is:
• Less Triggering Power loss.
(A) 100√2 W
(B) 50W
(C) 150W
(D) 250W
Question
For an SCR, the gate-cathode characteristics has a straight-line slope
of 130. For trigger source voltage of 15V and allowable gate power
dissipation of 0.5 watts, the value of resistance R is
Question
A thyristor data sheet given 1.5V and 100mA as the gate-trigger
voltage and gate-trigger current respectively. A resistance of 20 Ω is
connected across gate-cathode terminals. For a trigger supply
voltage of 8V, compute the value of resistance that should be
connected in series with trigger supply in order to ensure turn on of
the device

(Α) 27.14 Ω
(Β) 37.14 Ω
(C) 47.14 Ω
(D) 57.14 Ω

Question
Question
The triggering circuit of a thyristor is shown in figure. The thyristor
requires a gate current of 10 mA, for guaranteed turn-on. The
maximum value of R required for the thyristor to turn on reliably
under all conditions of V variation is
 The End Lecture 5
Triggering Methods

Silicon Controlled Rectifier(SCR) Silicon Controlled Rectifier(SCR)

Thermal/Temperature triggering Method Light triggering Method

• When the temperature near the reverse-biased depletion layer • When light radiation of a specific wavelength is incident near the
increases, more electron-hole pairs are produced by absorbing depletion layer, it produces electron-hole pairs by absorbing light
thermal energy. energy.
• This production of electron-hole pairs initiates the turn-on process • The light acts similarly to a gate signal by generating electron-hole
of the SCR. pairs, effectively turning on the SCR.
Drawbacks: • Light triggering is efficient and reliable for simultaneously
• Uncontrolled Activation: This method is not preferred because triggering multiple SCRs.
temperature changes can unpredictably alter the characteristics of • Applications:LASCR: Light-triggered SCRs (LASCR) are commonly
the SCR. used in high-voltage direct current (HVDC) applications.
• Reliability Issues: The inconsistency in temperature can lead to
unreliable SCR operation, affecting the overall performance and
stability of the device.
Silicon Controlled Rectifier(SCR) Question
dv/dt triggering Method For given below circuit, the Change in Energy of the inductor is ΔW

• During Forward Blocking state, junction ( J2 ) is reverse

& Change in Energy of the Current Source is ΔW during the

biased, creating a depletion layer on both sides. This layer

switching operation. Then

acts as an insulator, preventing current flow through the SCR.

• The reverse-biased ( J2 ) junction behaves like a capacitor.
This is due to the depletion region at ( J2 ), which can store
charge and exhibit capacitance.
• When the rate of change of the voltage (dv/dt) across the
SCR increases rapidly, it can induce a current through the
capacitive ( J2 ) junction.
• This current may be sufficient to turn on the SCR, even
without a gate trigger.
 Power Semiconductor Devices
Keypoint

• We don’t want to introduce sudden change in current or sudden change

in voltage across power electronic devices as it will introduce
electromagnetic interference (EMI)
• if dv/dt across the SCR is very high then it may falsely trigger the SCR.

Question Switching or Dynamic Characteristics of SCR

Turn ON
Which of the following does not cause damage of an SCR? SCR Turn on time is defined as the time during which SCR changes from
forward blocking mode to final on state.
(a) High current Total turn on intervals; time can be divided into three
(b) High rate of rise of current
(i) Delay time (t )
(c) High temperature rise (ii) Rise time (t )
(d) High rate of rise of voltage (iii) Spread time (t )
Turn on time =
Switching or Dynamic Characteristics of SCR Switching or Dynamic Characteristics of SCR
Delay time(t ) Rise time(t )

• The delay time (t ) is the time between the instant at which gate current • The time taken by the anode current to rise from 0.1 to 0.9
reaches 0.9 Ig or the instant at which anode current reaches 0.1Ia
Here Ig and Ia are respectively the final values of gate and anode • The rise time is also defined as the time required for the forward
currents. blocking off - state voltage to fall from 0.9 to 0.1 of its initial value OP.
• The delay time may also be defined as the time during which anode
voltage falls from Va to 0.9 Va ,where Va = initial value of anode • During rise time, turn on losses in the thyristor are the highest due to
voltage. high anode voltage (V ) and large anode current (I ) occurring
• The delay time may also be defined as the time during which anode together in the thyristor.
current rises from forward leakage current to 0.1 Ia where I₁ = final
value of anode current. • Rise time depends on time constant of load.

Switching or Dynamic Characteristics of SCR Switching Characteristics during Turn - off

Spread time(t ) Commutation Circuit

• The time taken by the anode current to rise from 0.9I to I

• It is also defined as the time for the forward blocking voltage to fall
from 0.1 of its initial value to the on state voltage drop.

• Spread time depends on geometrical construction of device.

Commutation Circuit Commutation Circuit
Turn off Process Thyristor Turn off time(t ):
• SCR Turn-Off means transition from the ON state to the OFF state,
It is the time between the instant anode current becomes zero and the
capable of blocking forward voltage.
instant SCR regains forward blocking capability.
• The dynamic process of changing from conduction state to forward
During this time (t₁) all the excess carriers from four layers of SCR are
blocking state is called Commutation Process.
removed.
• If forward voltage is applied to the SCR at the moment its anode
The turn off time is divided into two intervals.
current falls to zero, the device will not be able to block this forward
(a) reverse recovery time (trr)
voltage, as the carriers (holes and electrons) in the four layers are
(b) gate recovery time (tgr)
still favorable for conduction.
• The device will therefore go into conduction immediately even though
After 't₁', anode current builds up in the reverse direction with the same
gate signal is not applied.
—- slope. The reason for the reversal of anode current is due to the
• To solve this problem it is essential that the thyristor is reverse biased
presence of charge carriers stored in the four layers.
for a finite period after the anode current has reached zero.

Commutation Circuit Commutation Circuit

Thyristor Turn off time(t ): Circuit Turn off time(t ):
• At instant t , when reverse recovery current has fallen to nearly zero
• It is defined as the time between the instant anode current becomes
value, the junctions J1 and J3 recover and SCR is able to block the reverse
zero and the instant reverse voltage due to practical circuit reaches
voltage.
zero.
• At the end of reverse recovery period t , the middle junction 'J2' still has
• The condition t > t for reliable turn off, otherwise the device may turn
charges left, therefore, the thyristor is not able to block the forward
on at an undesired instant, a process called Commutation failure.
voltage at t .
• Thyristors with slow turn off time are called converter grade SCR's.
• The charge carriers at J2 cannot flow to the external circuit therefore they
Ex: phase controlled rectifiers, cyclo converters & ac voltage controllers
must decay only by recombination. This is possible if a reverse voltage is
• SCR's with fast turn off time are called inverter grade SCR
maintained across SCR. The time taken for this (t - t ) is called gate
Ex: inverters, choppers and forced commutation converters.
recovery time (tgr).
• The thyristor turn off time 'tq' is depended on magnitude of forward
current , di/dt and junction temperature at the time of commutation .
Question Question
Turn-on time of an SCR in series with RL circuit can be reduced by

(A) increasing circuit resistance R

(B) decreasing R
(C) increasing circuit inductance L
(D) decreasing L
 The End

Protection of SCR
di/dt Protection :

• When a thyristor is forward biased and

Lecture 6
turned on by a gate pulse, anode current
starts to flow.
• If the rate of rise of anode current (dI/dt) is
too fast, localized hot spots form due to
slower charge spreading velocity.
Protection of SCR • These hot spots can cause localized heating,
Series & Parallel Operation of SCR potentially damaging the thyristor.
• To prevent this, a small inductor (dI/dt
inductor) is placed in series with the anode
circuit to keep the current rise below the
specified limit.
 Protection of SCR
dv/dt Protection :
Question
The forward dv/dt rating of an SCR
• A high rate of rise of applied voltage across a thyristor can cause it to
turn on unexpectedly.
(a) Decreases with the decrease in the RMS value of forward
• This phenomenon, known as dV/dt turn on, must be avoided to
anode-cathode voltage
prevent false triggering of the thyristor.
(b) Decreases with the increase in the junction temperature.
• False turn-on due to high dV/dt, even without a gate signal, can be
(c) Increase with an increase in the junction temperature.
prevented by specific measures designed to limit the rate of voltage
(d) Increase with the decrease in the RMS value of forward anode-
increase across the device.
cathode voltage

Question
The junction capacitance of a thyristor is C = 20nF and can be
assumed independent of off-state voltage. The limiting value of
charging current to turn on the thyristors is 15 mA. If a capacitor of
0.01 µF is connected across the thyristor, determine the critical
value of dv/dt.
Protection of SCR Question
Snubber Circuit Design :
Calculate the parameter of Snubber circuit, in the given controlled
• Components: A snubber circuit consists of a resistor (Rs) and a
power circuit.
capacitor (Cs) in series, connected in parallel with the thyristor.
• When switch 'S' is closed, a sudden voltage appears across the
capacitor Cs, and the thyristor remains open-circuited.
• The voltage across Cs builds up slowly, which helps protect the
thyristor from sudden voltage spikes and ensures a controlled rate of
voltage increase.
Protection of SCR Protection of SCR
Over Voltage Protection : GATE Protection :
• Internal Over Voltages : Caused by the series inductance (L) in the SCR • Over-Voltage Protection : Connect a zener diode across the gate circuit to
circuit.Large transient voltages ( ) can occur.These transient voltages prevent over-voltage-induced false triggering.
may exceed the SCR's breakover voltage, potentially causing permanent • Over-Current Protection : Connect a resistor (R2) in series with the gate circuit
damage. to limit over-current.
• External Over Voltages : Caused by lightning strokes and switching surges.For • Noise Signal Bypass : Use a capacitor and a resistor across the gate to
reliable operation, overvoltages must be suppressed using voltage clamping cathode to bypass noise signals and prevent false triggering.
(V.C) devices.
Over-Current Protection :
• Faults, short circuits, or surge currents can raise the junction temperature of an
SCR above its rated value, potentially damaging the device.
• Fast Acting Current Limiting Fuse (FACLF) quickly interrupts excessive current to
protect the SCR.
• Circuit Breakers: Automatically cut off current flow in the event of an over-current
condition, safeguarding the SCR.

Protection of SCR Question

Thermal Protection :
• Use of heat sinks with aluminum discs, ventilating ducts, increased surface area,
A thyristor converter of 415V, 100A is operating at rated load.
and coolants to manage temperature. Details of the thyristor used are as follows: 'ON' state power loss =
• Denoted by the thermal resistance between junction (Tj), case (Tc), and 150W (Pavg), Thermal resistance: Junction to case = 0.01 °C/W,
sink (Ts) temperatures is crucial. Case to sink = 0.08 °C/W, Sink to atmosphere = 0.09 °C/W.
• We try to Reduce to increase power dissipation capability by improving Assume ambient temperature as 35°C. What is the junction
the cooling system. temperature for 100% load?
SCR SCR
String Efficiency
Series & Parallel Operation

String efficiency is a term that is used for measuring the degreeof utilization
For industrial applications, the demand for voltage and current rating is so
of SCRs in a string.
high that a single SCR cannot fulfill such requirement. In such cases SCR's
are connected.
Actual Voltage/current rating of the whole string
(a) In series in order to meet the high voltage demand.
(b) In parallel for fulfilling the high current demand. No. of SCRs
Individual Voltage/current rating of one SCR
in the string

In series or parallel connected SCRs, it should be ensured that each SCR Derating factor
rating is fully utilized and the system operation is satisfactory.
A measure of reliability of string is given by a factor called Derating factor
(DRF). It is defined as:
DRF = 1- String efficiency
 SCR
SCR
Series Operation
Series Operation

SCR SCR
Parallel Operation Parallel Operation
SCR Series Operation & Parallel Operation
Series Operation & Parallel Operation Practical Considerations for SCRs:

From the discussion, it is clear that in an ideal situation: • Different Current Ratings: SCRs with the same voltage rating often

• SCRs connected in series will block equal amounts of voltage, differ in current ratings.

corresponding to their voltage ratings. • Leakage Currents: Variations due to differing doping concentrations

• SCRs connected in parallel will share an equal amount of current, in the pn junction.

corresponding to their current ratings. • Breakdown Characteristics: Each SCR may have different
breakdown voltages.

But practically SCRs having same voltage rating or current rating or • On-State Voltage Drop: Voltage drops vary between SCRs.

same specifications do not have same I-V characteristics due to different • Blocking Capability: SCRs differ in their ability to block voltage.

doping concentration in pn junction of SCRs • Switching Times: Turn-on and turn-off times vary.
• Junction Temperature: Different operational temperatures.
• Reverse Recovery Time: Variation in the time needed for reverse
recovery.

Series Operation & Parallel Operation Series Operation

Compensations for Series & Parallel Connections : Static Equalising Circuit :
• To compensate such problems static & dynamic equalising circuits are
used.
• Static Equalizing Circuit: Addresses variations in static I-V
characteristics.
• Dynamic Equalizing Circuit: Mitigates issues caused by differences in
dynamic characteristics.
 Series Operation
Static Equalising Circuit :

Series Operation Series Operation

Dynamic Equalising Circuit : Dynamic Equalising Circuit :
Series Operation Series Operation
Dynamic Equalising Circuit : Dynamic Equalising Circuit :

Series Operation Series Operation

Dynamic Equalising Circuit : Dynamic Equalising Circuit :
 SCR Parallel Operation :
Parallel Operation : Disadvantages :

• When the load requires more current than a single SCR can handle, • SCRs have a negative temperature coefficient, meaning as temperature
SCRs are connected in parallel. increases, their resistance decreases, causing an uneven current
• SCRs should have similar I-V characteristics during forward distribution among parallel SCRs.
conduction to ensure equal current distribution. • Due to the negative temperature coefficient, a hotter SCR may draw
• Variations in characteristics can lead to unequal current sharing and more current, causing further heating and potential thermal runaway.
other issues. • SCRs in parallel can have different voltage drops, leading to unequal
current sharing.
• Ensuring reliable parallel operation requires complex circuitry for
current balancing and thermal management.

Parallel Operation Parallel Operation

Static Equalising Circuit : Dynamic Equalising Circuit :
Question
Figure, shows two thyristors each rated 500A (continuous) sharing
a load current. Current through thyristor y is 120A. The current
through thyristor x will be nearly

Question
It is required to operate 250-A SCR in parallel with 350-A with their
on-state voltage drops of 1.6 V and 1.2 V. The value of resistance to
be in series with each SCR so that they share the total load of 600 A
in proportion to their current rating will be
 The End Lecture 7
Introduction to GTO & TRIAC
Switch Module

Gate Turnoff Thyristor (GTO) : Gate Turnoff Thyristor (GTO) :

Construction : Construction :

• Retains the basic four-layer structure of a thyristor, with a highly

interdigitated gate-cathode layout.
• GTOs have a complex, interdigitated gate-cathode structure to
Symbol
enhance performance.
• Cathode regions are isolated as islands, improving heat dissipation.
• Presence of n⁺ regions in the p-type anode to speed up turn-off,
affecting reverse blocking capability.
• V-I Characteristics of GTO is same as that of SCR.

Cross-sectional View
Equivalent Circuit of GTO
Gate Turnoff Thyristor (GTO) : Gate Turnoff Thyristor (GTO) :
Reasons for n⁺ Fingers in Anode Region : Comparison :

• Multiple fingers help distribute the anode current over a larger area, SCR GTO
preventing local hotspots.
• Complex gate structure for efficient turn-off.
• Enhanced current spreading reduces the voltage drop across the • Simple gate structure.
• Cathode islands for better heat management.
• Continuous cathode region.
device.
• No anode short • Anode short for faster turn-off
• The design facilitates better removal of stored charges, enhancing the
• Better reverse blocking. • Limited reverse blocking.
turn-off performance.
• Gate triggering current is comparatively lower. • Gate triggering current is comparatively higher.
• Gate current can only turn it on, not off.
• Gate current can turn it on and off.
• Both have similar V-I Characteristics but latching
• Latching current is comparatively less
current is comparatively more.
• Commutation circuit is not required. Hence it can
• Requirement of bulky and costlier commutation
circuit limits its use up to about 1 kHz. be used beyond 1 kHz application.

• Less Efficient • More Efficient

Diode AC Switch (DIAC) DIAC

Construction : Working :

• DIAC contains two anti-parallel pnpn devices or two anti-parallel

SCRs without gate terminals.
• It turns ON when the voltage across its terminals exceeds the
breakdown voltage (VBO).
• Forward voltage triggers the DIAC due to the absence of a gate
terminal.
• Used in triggering circuits of TRIACs.
Symbol
• Functions as a bidirectional or bipolar switch.When connected to the
gate of a TRIAC, it can provide both positive and negative gate

Cross-sectional View pulses.

DIAC Triode AC Switch (TRIAC)
V-I Characteristics : Construction :

Cross-sectional View Side View

Triode AC Switch (TRIAC) TRIAC

Symbol : Working :

• Unlike the SCR, which is unidirectional (current flows only from anode to
cathode), the TRIAC is bidirectional, allowing current to flow in both
directions.
• Terminals: The TRIAC has three terminals: Main Terminal 1 (MT1), Main
Terminal 2 (MT2), and the gate. Terms "anode" and "cathode" are not
used for TRIACs.
• Blocking Voltage: Without a gate signal, the TRIAC blocks voltage in
both directions until the breakover voltage is exceeded.
Symbol
TRIAC TRIAC
Working : V-I Characteristics :

• Activation with Positive Gate Pulse: When MT2 is positive and MT1 is
negative, a positive gate pulse activates the thyristor whose gate terminal
is p-type, causing current to flow from MT2 to MT1.
• Activation with Negative Gate Pulse: When MT2 is negative and MT1 is
positive, a negative gate pulse activates the thyristor whose gate terminal
is n-type, causing current to flow from MT1 to MT2.
• Gate Pulses for Turn-Off : Applying a negative gate pulse when MT2 is
positive, or a positive gate pulse when MT2 is negative, will turn off the
TRIAC.

Asymmetrical SCR (ASCR) Reverse Conducting Thyristor (RCT)

Keypoints : Keypoints :
• ASCRs are specially designed to handle limited reverse voltages. • RCT is a special type of ASCR with a monolithically integrated chip
• The reduced reverse voltage capability allows for faster turn-on and turn- featuring an antiparallel diode, reducing reverse blocking capability to
off times, as well as a lower on-state voltage drop. zero.
• Fast turn-off ASCRs minimize the size, weight, and cost of commutating • This integration reduces the size of the heat sink and makes the converter
components. more compact.
• They enable high-frequency operation (20 kHz or more) with improved • RCTs are available with ratings of 2000V and 500A.
efficiency, making them suitable for various applications. • They are used in voltage source inverters (VSIs).
 V-I Characteristics Power Semiconductor Devices
SCR V/S ACSR V/S RCT :
Classification based on Control

Uncontrolled Devices Semicontrolled Devices Fully Controlled

(Passive) (Active) Devices (Active)

Power Diode SCR GTO

TRIAC BJT

MOSFET
Schottky Diode
IGBT

DIAC

Power Semiconductor Devices Power Semiconductor Devices

Classification based on Polarity Classification based on Direction

Unipolar Switch Bipolar Switch Unidirectional Switch Bi-direction Switch

Switch can only block one polarity of Switch can only conduct in one
Switch that blocks both polarity of Switch that allows flow of current in
voltage. But it starts to conduct when direction but not both.
voltage upto certain limit. both directions upto certain limit.
opposite polarity of voltage is
applied. Power Diode
Power Diode SCR
SCR Power MOSFET
BJT GTO DIAC
GTO
BJT
Power MOSFET
DIAC IGBT TRIAC
IGBT
TRIAC
Power Semiconductor Devices Power Semiconductor Devices

Power Diode Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor

• Uncontrolled Switch • Fully controlled Switch

• Unipolar Switch • Unipolar Switch
• Unidirectional Switch • Bidirectional Switch
• MOSFET has an inherent anti-parallel diode called body diode.
Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR)
• Semi-controlled Switch Keypoint
• Bipolar Switch
• Unidirectional Switch • An anti-parallel diode across a switch makes the combination
bidirectional.
Gate Turn off Thyristor (GTO) • This combination can never block reverse voltage.
• When reverse voltage is applied, the diode becomes forward biased.
• Fully controlled Switch
• Bipolar Switch
• Unidirectional Switch

Power Semiconductor Devices Power Semiconductor Devices

Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)

Diode AC Switch (DIAC)
• Fully controlled Switch
• Uncontrolled Switch
• Unipolar Switch
• Bipolar Switch
• Unidirectional Switch
• Bidirectional Switch

Triode AC Switch (TRIAC)

• Semi-controlled Switch
Insulated Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) • Bipolar Switch
• Bidirectional Switch
• Fully controlled Switch
• Unipolar Switch
• Unidirectional Switch
Question Question
The correct sequence of the given devices in the increasing order of Which Semiconductor devices out of the following is/are not current
turn off time. triggered devices?
Devices : BJT,MOSFET,IGBT,SCR,GTO (A) BJT (B) MOSFET (C) IGBT (D) SCR

Power Semiconductor Devices Power Semiconductor Devices

Switch Module
Composite Switch
• A switch module is a collection of two or more active or passive power
When 2 switches are connected in Series:
electronic devices (PEDs).
• Switch modules achieve required voltage and current levels through the • If any switch is OFF, the combination is OFF.
interconnection of PEDs. • If both switches are ON, the combination is ON.
• Different switching frequencies of PEDs.Different voltage and current • Blocking voltage: union of blocking voltages of the two switches (OR gate).
• Conduction current: intersection of conduction current of the two switches
ratings of PEDs.Size of the converter.
(AND gate).
• Good for low to medium power rating devices due to restrictions on size
and compatibility. When 2 switches are connected in Parallel:

• If either switch is ON, the combination is ON.

• If both switches are OFF, the combination is OFF.
• Conduction current: union of conduction current of the two switches.
• Blocking voltage: intersection of blocking voltages of the two switches.
Question
Draw the v-i characteristics of Ideal Switch Module
Question
Draw the v-i characteristics of Ideal Switch Module
Question
Draw the v-i characteristics of given Switch Module ,if V = 1v for
diode & r = 1 ohm for IGBT.
Question
Draw the v-i characteristics of given Switch Module ,if V = 1V
r = 1ohm for BJT & V = 0.5 V, r = 0.6 ohm for Diode.

Question
 The End

Phase Controlled
Rectifiers Lecture 0
AC To DC Converters

Introduction to Phase Controlled Rectifiers

Half Wave Rectifiers with Pure Resistive Load

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 Rectifiers Phase Controlled Rectifiers
Rectification (AC to DC Conversion) Overview

• The rectification process involves converting alternating current (AC) • Phase Controlled Converter allow us to control over the phase of the
into unidirectional direct current (DC). supply.
• This conversion is achieved using diodes or silicon-controlled rectifiers • By Controlling firing angle of SCR, we can control load parameters like
(SCRs). voltage (V), current (I), and power (P).
• Uncontrolled Rectifier: Rectification using only diodes.
• Controlled Rectifier: Rectification using SCRs to control the conversion
process.
• Semi-Converter : Rectification is done with the help of both diode &
SCR. Phase Controlled
Converter

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Phase Controlled Rectifiers Overview of Rectifiers

Application

• Speed control of DC machines.

• Operates in various modes: forward motoring, reverse motoring, 1-φ Uncontrolled 3-φ
forward generating, and reverse generating. Half Wave
Uncontrolled Fully Controlled
• Battery charging and other industrial applications. Half Wave
Fully Controlled

Uncontrolled Uncontrolled
Why SCR is Most Suitable?
Full Wave Fully Controlled Fully Controlled Full Wave
• Blocking Capability: SCRs can block voltages of either polarity, making them ideal for
designing AC to DC controlled converters. Semi Controlled Semi Controlled
• Suitability: Due to low supply frequency, Rectifier grade SCRs are preferred for low
With Source Inductance With Source Inductance
switching frequency applications.
• No Commutation Circuitry: The turning off, or commutation, of a thyristor is by supply
voltage itself is called natural, or line commutation. R : Resistive
L : Inductive
• If we used forced commutation circuits as the ratings of the switches are very high Loads : R,L,RL,RL + FD, RE, FD : Free Wheeling Diode
then those commutation circuits used will also be very bulky and uneconomical to use. RLE E : Voltage Source

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Phase Control Rectifier Phase Controlled Rectifiers
Assumptions Analysis of Supply
In the study of thyristor systems, SCR's and diodes are assumed ideal switches • Supply voltage is typically 1-phase AC or 3-phase AC.
(unless mentioned otherwise) which means that • Supply voltage is pure AC, free from harmonics.It is an Independent
quantity.
(i) During turn on there is no voltage drop across them, • Supply Current: Dependent quantity, influenced by the type of load or
(ii) No reverse current exists under reverse blocking mode. converter it is flowing through.
(iii) transition time = 0 seconds • In practice, the supply current often contains harmonics and is not purely
(iv) Holding current is zero. AC.
• The most dangerous harmonic in AC signal is the DC Component.
Trigger circuits are not shown in SCR circuit for convenience. • Magnetic components may get damaged due to heating from harmonics.
All the SCRs in rectifier circuit are naturally commutated, either due to a.c.
supply or load(Inductance).
No source Inductance present in the circuit unless specified.
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Analysis of Supply Analysis of Supply

Real power of converter :
Fourier Analysis

• Real power is always contributed by i & v having same frequency.

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Analysis of Supply Analysis of Supply
Fundamental Power Factor Operating Power Factor/Supply Power Factor/Power Factor :

• The fundamental power factor is the cosine of the angle between the • The operating power factor is the cosine of the angle between the

fundamental components of voltage and current. resultant components of voltage and current.

• It represents the maximum possible power factor of a system without using • The ratio of real power to apparent power.

power factor correction techniques. • Computation of operating & fundamental power factor requires analyzing

• Fundamental power factor is also known as displacement power factor. the Fourier components of the supply current.

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Analysis of Supply Analysis of Supply

Distortion Factor : Distortion Factor :

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Question

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Analysis of Supply
Total harmonic Distortion(THD) :

• THD is a measure of the distortion of a signal caused by harmonics.

• It quantifies the deviation from the ideal sinusoidal waveform.
• THD is calculated as the ratio of the sum of the powers of all harmonic
components to the power of the fundamental frequency.
• THD is crucial in assessing power quality, with lower THD values indicating
less distortion and higher quality power or signal.

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Analysis of Supply Question
Expected Questions :

• Waveforms of V & i
• Fourier Series of i
• Power Factor, F.D.F/D.P.F, Distortion Factor
• THD
• Average, RMS, Maximum Values of V & i
• P ,Q & S
• Phasor Diagram

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Phase Controlled Rectifiers

Analysis of Converter

• Voltage & Current waveforms of Converter’s internal Devices.

• Average, RMS, Maximum Values of Voltage & Current of Converter’s
internal devices
• ON Time/Conduction Period, Forward Blocking Period, Reverse Blocking
Period
• Firing angle/ Triggering angle

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Analysis of Converter Analysis of Converter
Firing Angle/Triggering Angle
Firing angle/ Triggering angle
• Angular Delay or time delay in applying the gate pulse to an SCR after it is
• Concept of firing angle will be used only for Fully or Semi Controlled
in forward blocking mode.
devices.
• SCR operates in Forward Blocking Mode for a duration equal to the firing
angle.
• By adjusting the firing angle, the output of a power circuit can be
controlled.
• The firing angle determines how long the SCR stays in forward blocking
mode before it turns on, thus influencing the output power delivered to the
load.

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Analysis of Converter Analysis of Converter

Natural Commutation Period Losses

• The period during which the SCR transitions to reverse blocking mode • For Ideal Converter , P =0w
(RBM) from Forward Conduction Mode is the natural commutation • For Practical Converter
period.

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Phase Controlled Rectifiers Analysis of Load
Analysis of Load Expected Questions
• Load must be DC • Waveforms of V & i
• Elements may be R,E,RL,RE,RLE • Average, RMS, Maximum Values of V & i
• P ,Q & S

Keypoints
• In general V & i will not be pure DC without filter.
• V & i will be pulsating DC
• Load must operate in continuous mode. • Here Continuity of Current means that current always flows in the given
• In Steady State short circuit of load is allowed but Open circuit not circuit.(Not the same definition as continuity of graph)
allowed. • The output of the converter contains two components
- DC Component
- AC Component
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Analysis of Load Analysis of Load

Load current Load current

(i) Discontinuous Conduction (iii) Continuous Conduction

• Output current becomes zero for a considerable amount of time in a cycle. • Output current never becomes zero in a cycle.

(ii) Edge/Boundary of Continuous & Discontinuous Conduction (iv) Continuous Ripple Free Conduction

• Output current becomes zero for a instant in a cycle. • Output current is a constant DC.

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Analysis of Load Analysis of Load
Load Power Efficiency of Converter/Rectification Efficiency

• Contribution of DC component to the total power available at output of

converter

Load DC Power/Operating Power

Phase Controlled
Converter

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Analysis of Load Analysis of Load

Ripples Ripples

• All AC components in DC load, called ripples components.

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1-φ half wave Rectifier 1-φ half wave Rectifier
Pure Resistive(R) Load Period of FBM

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1-φ half wave Rectifier 1-φ half wave Rectifier

Analysis of Converter Analysis of Converter

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1-φ half wave Rectifier 1-φ half wave Rectifier
Analysis of Converter Analysis of Converter

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1-φ half wave Rectifier Analysis of load

Waveforms Average Output Voltage

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 Analysis of load Analysis of load
RMS Output Voltage RMS Output Voltage

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Analysis of load Analysis of load

For Uncontrolled Rectifier Efficiency

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Analysis of load Analysis of load
Efficiency Ripple Frequency

• Ripple frequency is also referred to as the frequency at which output

voltage operates.
• Ripple frequency influences the design and size of filters/converters.
Higher ripple frequency simplifies filter design.
• Sometimes called the "first Non Zero frequency signal" in the output.

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Analysis of load Analysis of Supply

Pulse Number Voltage,Current

• As the pulse number increases, the ripple frequency also increases.

• Ripple frequency is related to the number of pulses and supply frequency.
• Higher ripple frequency makes harmonic filtering easier and reduces the
size of filters.
• With an increased pulse number, peak-to-peak voltage fluctuations
decrease, making the output more like DC.
• Practically, 12-pulse converters are commonly used in high-voltage DC
(HVDC) applications.

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Analysis of Supply Analysis of Supply
Power Factor Power Factor

• Power Factor: Due to the design of the converter, the AC supply is subjected
to both DC and AC harmonics.
• The presence of DC current in the alternator can lead to several issues:
• Heating: Increased DC current causes excessive heating in coils.
• Insulation Damage: High currents can weaken insulation.
• Short Circuits: Severe heating can cause short circuits, damaging the system.

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Analysis of Supply Analysis of Converter

Power Factor Parameters

: Maximum reverse voltage that

may appear across a device.

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Points to Note

• Observe whether the supply voltage given is in terms “rms” or “maximum”.

• Identify type of load
• Triggering angle
The End

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Question
Calculate the following if triggering angle of the device is 60,
(A) Peak,average and RMS voltage across the Load

Lecture 1 (B) Peak,average and RMS current through the SCR

(C) Efficiency of converter, Supply Power Factor, Ripple Frequency
(D) Commutation time of SCR and Average Voltage across SCR.

Important Questions on Half Wave Rectifiers

with Pure Resistive Load

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Question
A half-wave controlled rectifier circuit is connected to a purely resistive
load. The latching and holding currents are 10 mA and 5 mA,
respectively. Find the following

(i) The maximum value of load resistance that can be connected.

(ii) The maximum angle of the thyristor in degrees if the value of
resistance obtained from the previous part is used.
(iii) The conduction period of thyristor.

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Question
For the below circuit, The maximum voltage blocked by SCR is 120V
and triggering angle of SCR is 70. Then power consumed by the
load is _____ .

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Question
A single phase H.W.R is delivering power to a pure resistive load.
Calculate load power, if turn on resistance of diode is 1Ω, power
dissipated by diode in the conduction period = 10 w

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 Question
A single phase, phase controlled rectifier provides maximum output
voltage of 250V , across the resistive load and maximum voltage
blocked by SCR in reverse mode is 480V. Then firing angle of the
SCR in Degrees will be

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The End

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 1-φ half wave Rectifier
With RE Load

Lecture 2
Half Wave Rectifiers with RE Load
Questions

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1-φ half wave Rectifier 1-φ half wave Rectifier

Period of FBM Period of FBM

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1-φ half wave Rectifier 1-φ half wave Rectifier
Analysis of Converter Analysis of Converter

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1-φ half wave Rectifier 1-φ half wave Rectifier

Analysis of Converter Waveforms

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1-φ half wave Rectifier Analysis of load
Waveforms Average Output Voltage

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Analysis of load Analysis of load

Average Output Voltage Average Current

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 Analysis of load Analysis of load
RMS Output Voltage For Uncontrolled Rectifier

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Analysis of load Analysis of load

Load Power Efficiency

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Analysis of Supply Analysis of Supply
Voltage,Current Power Factor

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Analysis of Supply Analysis of Converter

Total Harmonic Distortion Parameters

• As the firing angle is increased the THD of the supply current will
increase further.

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Analysis of Converter Question
Drawbacks An ideal single phase Half Wave Uncontrolled Rectifier with supply
• Significant ripple components are present in the output. 230V,50 Hz,the maximum voltage blocked by the diode is 425V.
• Large harmonic content in the supply current. Calculate the value of limiting Resistor R (in ohms) to limit the DC
• Good quality filters and harmonic reduction techniques are current of load to 10A.
required.
• Typically assumes constant current, but load current is often
discontinuous.
• Results in poor efficiency due to high ripple and harmonics.

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 Question
An ideal single phase Half Wave controlled Rectifier is shown in the
below figure, The commutation time is 12.5 msec. Calculate the
battery charging current if the triggering angle is 60

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 Question
A single phase, 230 V, 50 Hz AC supply feeds a step-down
transformer with a 4:1 ratio. The transformer is connected to an
uncontrolled half-wave rectifier that charges a 12 V DC battery
through a series current-limiting resistor of 10 ohm. Find the
following
(i) Charging current of the battery
(ii) Average Output Voltage
(iii) Peak Inverse Voltage
(iv) Power Delivered to the battery

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 The End

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Introduction to Filters
Why are filters required?

• In controlled/uncontrolled converters, output voltage

Lecture 3 •
•
(Vo) and current (Io) contain high ripple components.
Filters are used to control these ripples in Vo and Io.
While Power Electronic Devices (P.E. Devices) can be
used to reduce ripples, they are not economical for

Introduction to Filters effective ripple control.

Half Wave Rectifiers with L • Low-pass filters are generally employed to control Vo
and Io ripples, ensuring smoother output.
Questions
• Inductors: Used to control the ripple of the current (Io).
• Capacitors: Used to control the ripple of the voltage
(Vo).

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Inductors Inductors
Quick Recap Quick Recap
• Inductors resist sudden changes in current.The direction of current
cannot change suddenly.(Unless an impulse voltage is applied across
it)
• Inductor voltage can change suddenly. Polarity Depends on the
inductor current.
• When inductor current is constant, voltage will be zero.
• Inductor Voltage depends on the circuit context.
Implications in P.E. Converters:
• High Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) can be introduced.
• Results in heat loss over short periods.

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Inductors
Volt - Sec Criteria

• If the given circuit is stable and steady state is achieved then average
inductor voltage across a cycle will be zero.
• Inductor current should be periodic , charging & discharging both must
occur in same cycle.
• Inductor current must be bounded within finite values.

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Capacitors Capacitors
Quick Recap Quick Recap

• Capacitors resist sudden changes in voltage.

• The direction of voltage cannot change suddenly (unless an impulse
current is applied across it).
• Capacitor current can change suddenly.
• Direction of Current depends on the capacitor voltage.
• When capacitor voltage is constant, current will be zero.
• Capacitor Current depends on the circuit context.

Implications in P.E. Converters:

• High Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) can be introduced.
• Results in heat loss over short periods.

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Capacitors Filters
Current - Sec Criteria

• If the given circuit is stable and steady state is achieved then average
capacitor current in a cycle will be zero.
• Capacitor Voltage should be periodic , charging & discharging both
must occur in same cycle.
• Capacitor Voltage must be bounded within finite values.

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1-φ half wave Rectifier 1-φ half wave Rectifier

Pure Inductive(L) Load Analysis of Converter

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1-φ half wave Rectifier

Analysis of Converter

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 1-φ half wave Rectifier
Waveforms

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1-φ half wave Rectifier 1-φ half wave Rectifier

Analysis of Converter Pure Inductive(L) Load

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1-φ half wave Rectifier 1-φ half wave Rectifier
Period of FBM Analysis of Converter

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1-φ half wave Rectifier

Analysis of Converter

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1-φ half wave Rectifier 1-φ half wave Rectifier

Analysis of Converter Analysis of Converter

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1-φ half wave Rectifier 1-φ half wave Rectifier

Waveforms Waveforms

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Analysis of Converter Analysis of Converter
Inductive Loads Parameters

• When an inductive load is present, the device may not get turned
off even though supply voltage has become negative,due to the
stored energy in the inductor.
• This is because the energy previously stored in the inductor is still
present.

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Analysis of Converter Analysis of Converter

Parameters Extinction angle

• Represented by angle "β" (beta).

• Introduced in AC-DC converters with inductive loads.
• Determines the point at which the inductor gets fully discharged.

• Maximum reverse voltage that may appear across a device. P

Conduction angle

• Represented by angle "γ" (gamma).

• Determines the duration for which a device conducts.

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Analysis of Converter Question
Advantages Determine the following for the given below circuit.

• Continuity of Load current Increases (A) Maximum current through the diode in the first cycle & Steady

• Ripples of Load Current Decreases State

• Power Factor Improves (B) Power Factor of Source & Load

• Operates in two Quadrants (C) Average Output Voltage

Disadvantages

• Average Output Voltage Decreases

• Efficiency Decreases

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 Question
Determine the following for the given below circuit.
(A) Conduction period of SCR
(B) Extinction angle

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The End

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 1-φ half wave Rectifier
With RL Load

Lecture 4
Half Wave Rectifiers with RL/RLE Load
Questions

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1-φ half wave Rectifier 1-φ half wave Rectifier

Period of FBM Analysis of Converter

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1-φ half wave Rectifier 1-φ half wave Rectifier

Analysis of Converter Analysis of Converter

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1-φ half wave Rectifier 1-φ half wave Rectifier

Analysis of Converter Analysis of Converter

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1-φ half wave Rectifier 1-φ half wave Rectifier
Analysis of Converter Analysis of Converter

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1-φ half wave Rectifier 1-φ half wave Rectifier

Analysis of Converter Analysis of Load Current

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1-φ half wave Rectifier 1-φ half wave Rectifier

Analysis of Load Current Analysis of Load Current

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1-φ half wave Rectifier 1-φ half wave Rectifier

Waveforms Waveforms

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Analysis of Converter Analysis of load
Keypoints
Average Output Voltage
• In a Single phase Half Wave converter it is impossible to achieve
continuous conduction.

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Analysis of load Analysis of load

RMS Output Voltage RMS Output Voltage

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Analysis of load Analysis of Supply
Efficiency Voltage,Current

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Analysis of Supply Analysis of Converter

Power Factor Parameters

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1-φ half wave Rectifier 1-φ half wave Rectifier
With RLE Load Period of FBM

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1-φ half wave Rectifier 1-φ half wave Rectifier

Analysis of Converter Analysis of Converter

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1-φ half wave Rectifier 1-φ half wave Rectifier
Analysis of Converter Analysis of Converter

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1-φ half wave Rectifier 1-φ half wave Rectifier

Analysis of Converter Analysis of Converter

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1-φ half wave Rectifier 1-φ half wave Rectifier
Analysis of Converter Analysis of Load Current

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1-φ half wave Rectifier 1-φ half wave Rectifier

Analysis of Load Current Waveforms

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1-φ half wave Rectifier 1-φ half wave Rectifier
Waveforms
Waveforms

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Analysis of load Analysis of load

Average Output Voltage Efficiency

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Analysis of Supply Analysis of Supply
Voltage,Current Power Factor

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Analysis of Converter Question

Parameters
For the given below circuit.

Find the value of V

(i) just before the instant SCR is triggered.
(ii) at ωt = β
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Question
Determine the battery charging current for the given below circuit.
Given :

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 Question
Draw the Inductor Voltage waveform for the below circuit.

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Question
For a single phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifier with RL load.
Which of the following statements is true ?

(A) Load Current will be continuous for firing angle = 0 only

(B) Average Voltage across Inductor in one cycle will be zero.
(C) DC power delivered by source will be equal to average power
dissipated by resistance of load.
(D) The D.C voltage of RL Load will be lower if Instead of RL we have
a Pure Resistor.

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Question
For a single phase Half Wave Controlled Rectifier with pure
Inductive load. Which of the following statements is true ?

(A) Load Current will be almost continuous for firing angle = 0 only
(B) Average Voltage across Inductor in one cycle will be zero for firing
The End
angle = 0 only.
(C) Converter will operate in Two Quadrants
(D) Maximum Conduction Period of SCR will be 2π

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Introduction of Free Wheeling Diode (FWD)

Definition

• Free Wheeling Diode is a low switching frequency power diode (like

Lecture 5 •
•
SCR).
Conducts based on load conditions, which causes it to freewheel.
FWD conducts due to the charged inductor of the load; it never
conducts R/RE loads.
Concept of Freewheeling Diode • FWD is always connected in an antiparallel manner with the load.

Half Wave Rectifiers with Freewheeling Diode

Capacitive Filter

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Introduction of Free Wheeling Diode (FWD) Introduction of Free Wheeling Diode (FWD)
Functionality: Drawbacks:
• In any AC-DC converter (1Φ/3Φ HW/FW), it operates in two • Application of FWD is good upto moderate power rating converters.
quadrants. • Switching Problems increases.
• Prevents power flow from load to source, ensuring electrical braking • Continuity of load current still depends on the load components(R,L)
mode does not counteract.
• Essential for continuous load operation in HW rectifiers.
Advantages:

• Average value of Output Current Increases

• Average Value of Output Voltage Increases
• Reduces ripple in the output.
• Efficiency of converter Increases
• Improves Power Factor of source

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1-φ half wave Rectifier with FWD 1-φ half wave Rectifier with FWD
With RL/RLE Load
Analysis of Converter

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1-φ half wave Rectifier with FWD 1-φ half wave Rectifier with FWD
Analysis of Converter Analysis of Converter

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1-φ half wave Rectifier with FWD 1-φ half wave Rectifier with FWD

Analysis of Converter Analysis of Converter

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 1-φ half wave Rectifier with FWD 1-φ half wave Rectifier with FWD
Analysis of Converter Analysis of Converter

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1-φ half wave Rectifier with FWD 1-φ half wave Rectifier with FWD
Condition for Load Current to be Continuous/Constant Analysis of Converter

• Load Inductance must be very high.

• Minimum Conduction Period of Freewheeling Diode must be (π to
2π + α)

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1-φ half wave Rectifier with FWD
1-φ half wave Rectifier
Waveforms
Analysis of Converter

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1-φ half wave Rectifier 1-φ half wave Rectifier

Waveforms Waveforms

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Analysis of load Analysis of load

Average Output Voltage Average Load Current

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Analysis of load Analysis of load

RMS Output Voltage RMS Output Voltage

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Analysis of load Analysis of load
Load Power Efficiency

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Analysis of Supply Analysis of Supply

Voltage,Current Power Factor

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Analysis of Freewheeling Diode Analysis of Converter
Current Parameters

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Analysis of Converter Question

Keypoint
The block diagram of an AC-DC one pulse converter is shown in
the figure below. If the average output voltage is zero then discuss
about the following parameters.
(A) The load is R/RL/RLE/LE/L/RE
(B) Load Current is Constant/Continuous/Discontinuous
Conduction.
(C) Freewheeling Diode Present/Absent.

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 Question
The block diagram of an AC-DC one pulse converter with
Freewheeling Diode is shown in the figure below.Calculate Power
Consumed by the load If the load current is ripple free, maximum
current through the freewheeling diode is 10 A and output
voltage waveform is as shown below.

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Question
In the circuit shown in figure, the value of inductance L is large
and the average value of load current is 100 A.
(A) Find the delay angle at which the thyristor is gated.
(B) Power Consumed by the load.

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Question Question
Which of the following statements is/are correct for the circuit shown in figure? Calculate converter efficiency and supply power factor for the circuit
(A) Load Current can be continuous for any value of α, given ratio of Load shown in figure, if load current is considered constant.
inductance to resistance is very high.
(B) Load current can be constant for α < 120 , given ratio of Load inductance to
resistance is very high.
(C) Load current can be discontinuous if the ratio of Load inductance to
resistance is very low.
(D) Load current will always be discontinuous.

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Question
A single-phase half wave uncontrolled converter circuit is shown in figure.
A 2-winding transformer is used at the input for isolation. Assuming the
load current to be constant and v = V sin t, the current waveform
through diode D₂ will be

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 Question

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Question
A single-phase one-pulse converter with an RLE load has the following
parameters: supply voltage is 230 V, frequency is 50 Hz, load
resistance is 30 Ω, E = 110 V, extinction angle is 235°, and firing
angle is 45°. What is the anode to cathode voltage across the SCR
when the current decays to zero?

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