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Chapter 7 class 11
1. What is meant by Rights? Do you agree with the view that rights change with time and
place?
Answer: Rights are regarded as an essential characteristic of citizenship, defining the position of
an individual within a state. In earlier times, rights were known as ‘Civil Liberties, which
included such freedoms as freedom from arbitrary arrest, freedom of speech, and freedom of
religion. Later, the concept evolved into the ‘Rights of Man,’ which included both civil and
political rights.
Yes, rights change with time and place. They are not absolute and are subject to the socio-
political and cultural context of a society. For instance, the rights recognized and upheld in one
country may not be the same as those in another. Similarly, the rights that are considered
important in the present time might not have been recognized in the past and vice versa.
Therefore, it is accurate to say that rights are dynamic and evolve with time and place.

2. How Rights are different from Claims? (or) Comment on the statement that “Right Claim
that is just and reasonable and society recognizes it as a right.”
Answer: A right is a claim, but it is a claim that is just and reasonable. A claim cannot become a
right unless it is recognized by society. According to Bentham, the State is the sole creator of
rights. However, Laski views that there are two types of rights, those that have been recognized
and others that demand recognition by the State.
Every person has many desires which they seek to satisfy, and therefore, they claim many things.
Every right arises from a “claim to something of value”, such as land, job, facilities, services, etc.
However, these claims should be reasonable and morally justifiable. There may be many such
claims as are opposed to one’s true welfare or to the interests of society. Reason and morality
alone would transform a ‘Claim’ into a ‘Right’.
Moreover, a claim cannot become a right unless it is recognized by society. This is for two
reasons. Firstly, the idea of rights arises only in a society. Man has to live and work in
cooperation with others. These others put forth the same claims as he does. Secondly, rights can
only be sustained and supported by society. Society by its collective moral or physical force
would do everything possible to make my right safe from assault or loss. Society’s recognition to
a claim is essential before it can become a right.
However, it’s important to note that there are two types of rights, those that have been recognized
and others that demand recognition by the State. Thus, even if a right has not been recognized in
many states, it shall always be claimed as the genuine right of a person. Rights arise from the
moral nature of man. Human consciousness presupposes liberty and liberty involves rights.

3. Explain:
(a) Any three political rights
Answer: Any three political rights are:
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The Right to Vote: Normal practice in all democratic States is that all adults have the right to
vote, except those who are of unsound mind or are disqualified under some law of the land. In
India the 61st Amendment Act (1989) lowered the voting age from 21 to 18 years.
The Right to be Elected: Right to participate in political process implies the right to contest an
election, although that right may be subject to having attained a particular age. Members of the
Lok Sabha in India should have attained the age of twenty-five years. Right to political process
includes the right to form or join a political party also.
The Right to Public Office: In a democracy every citizen has the right to hold government office,
provided that the necessary professional or technical qualifications are satisfied.

(b) Any three civil rights and liberties

Answer: Any three civil rights and liberties are:
Right to Personal Liberty: A person should not be imprisoned or detained, except according to
procedure established by law. Personal liberty also means that privacy of homes and
correspondence, etc., should be protected by law.
Freedom of Speech, Expression and Assembly: This means the right to say or write what one
chooses and the right to attend any lawful public meeting. These freedoms enable us to
participate in cultural and political activities.
Freedom of Religion: Freedom of Religion: The right to practise one’s religion has come to be
recognised as a basic right in all civilized societies. State should not be wedded to any Church or
religious Creed. The right to freedom of religion is clearly recognised by the Constitution of
India.

4. Explain the Socio-economic rights of the citizens.

Answer: Democratic societies insist on the following socio-economic rights of the citizens:
Right to Work: Every citizen has a right to be occupied in producing some goods or service. The
two other aspects of this right are as follows: First, an individual has the right also to be paid an
“adequate wage” for his work. He should have an access to clean water, housing, health care and
educational opportunities. Second, everyone has “the right to security” in the event of
unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood or old age. The Rural Employment Guarantee
Act, 2005 provides 100 days of guaranteed employment in every year to every rural household in
India. The Act came into force in all the 619 districts of the country on April 2008.
Right to Property: Liberal-democratic societies recognise the right to property, subject to the
provision that the property may be acquired for public purposes.

5. Rights and responsibilities are correlative. Mention the four principal duties of Citizens of a
country. (Or) “Rights imply Duties.” Mention the duties which Citizens owe to natural
surroundings, their fellow citizens and state and nation.
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Answer: Duty to Protect and Improve the Natural Environment: Urbanisation, over population
and industrialization have made the problem of pollution very acute in modern times. It is the
duty of every citizen “to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes,
rivers and wild life.” One should have compassion for living creatures.
Duty to respect Others’ Rights and to Observe Rules of Civic Behaviour: Everyone is expected to
observe rules of civic behaviour. He should not cause any discomfort and inconvenience to his
neighbours. Loud harsh sounds made by the car horn or the radio and the TV sets become
unpleasant to hear. We must also avoid criticising others’ life-styles, the way one has dressed up
or the food one liked.
Restrictions on the Freedom of Speech and Expression: The right to freedom of expression does
not include the right to say things that are obscene, seditious or defamatory of someone’s
reputation. The privacy of one’s own home should never be disturbed. Moreover, full frontal
nudity on stage and screen can never be treated as a natural thing. Therefore, in all civilized
societies laws exist to prevent the misuse of freedom of speech and expression.
Duty towards State and the Nation: Citizens are obliged to observe the Constitution and laws of
the land. They should preserve and protect public property. If someone has become a ‘security
risk’, restrictions shall naturally be put on his possible movements or actions. Citizens may be
called to uphold the sovereignty and integrity of the country. All countries have laws pertaining
to compulsory conscription in the event of a War.
Attitude towards Values: Robert A. Dahl has spoken of “the democratic personality”. According
to him, democracy flourishes best if there was a feeling of “Tolerance” and “Co- existence”
amongst the people. Moreover, they should have “a disposition to share rather than to hoard or
monopolize.” In the event of a war or during periods of scarcity the essential goods like
foodgrains, oil or sugar are made available against ration cards. Citizens are required to avoid
waste of public funds.

B. Short answer questions

6. Differentiate between Negative and Positive Rights.
Answer: Negative rights impose restrictions upon the behaviour of others, particularly the
government. Civil liberties, such as freedom of speech and freedom of movement, are of speech
and freedom of movement, are negative rights. They require that the government and fellow
citizens do not encroach on such freedoms.
On the other hand, socio-economic rights, such as the right to a education or the right to work,
are positive rights. They require that the government provides us with such services or such
social support.

7. Why some rights are considered to be Universal in nature? Mention any four rights included
in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
Answer: The UN charter declared its faith in “fundamental human rights, in the dignity and
worth of the human person.” On December 10, 1948, the UN General Assembly adopted and
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proclaimed the Universal Declaration of Human Rights’. Human rights refer to those freedoms
which should be available to all persons, irrespective of their religion, race, caste, sex, nationality
or any one of them. These rights include:
The right to life,
Right to education,
Right to own property
And equality before the law and many other rights.
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Class 12 chapter 9
1. Examine any six factors that led to the disintegration of the Soviet Union.
Answer: The six factors that led to the disintegration of the Soviet Union are:
Negation of Political Democracy: After the death of Lenin in 1924, Stalin established himself as
an absolute dictator. The Parliament of the Soviet Union (Duma) had been reduced to a mere
rubber-stamp for giving approval to his decisions. The government exercised strict control over
newspapers, radio, and other means of communication. Under the Communist regime, there was
absolutely no scope for freedom of thought and expression. The Communist Party that had ruled
the nation for more than 70 years could not be held accountable for its actions. The dictatorial
character of the regime caused restlessness in the country.
Economic Failures: Because of the emphasis on heavy industries, the Soviet economy failed to
meet the expectations of the people, especially in terms of food-production and consumer goods.
People’s standard of living was far below in comparison to that of the advanced countries in the
West. The management and control of agriculture and industry were in the hands of State
officials. The food situation went from bad to worse.
Militarism: To make itself militarily strong, the Soviet Union spent a large portion of its
resources on the manufacture of weapons. Soviet leaders forgot that they did not have as many
resources as the USA or other Western Nations possessed. Because of militarization, a great
shortage in respect of things of basic necessities occurred.
Gorbachev’s Policies: In 1985 Gorbachev was elected General Secretary of the Communist Party
and in 1988 he became President of the country. He wanted to reform the Soviet system through
the policies of Glasnost and Perestroika. Glasnost means “openness, i.e., freedom of expression
and criticism”. Perestroika means “restructuring, i.e., all matters should be resolved by people’s
representatives.” When Gorbachev pursued a policy of ‘perestroika’ the corrupt officials opposed
it. They wanted to run the economic and political system in the way they had been doing in the
past. They all tried to weaken Gorbachev’s authority, though he was pursuing the correct
policies.
Fall of Communist Regimes in East European Countries: Gorbachev had withdrawn the Soviet
forces from the East European countries. He also took the decision to end the Warsaw Pact. This
culminated in lessening the hold of the Soviet Union over the East European countries (Poland,
Hungary, Romania, etc). In all these countries a wind of change was blowing. Earlier in 1989 the
Berlin Wall (constructed in 1961 to prevent people getting into or out of East Germany) was
pulled down. Finally, the Communist governments in East Europe fell. This hastened the break-
up of the Soviet Union.
National Aspirations of the Union Republics: The national aspirations of the Soviet Republics
also led to the collapse of the Soviet Union. First of all, the three Baltic Republics (Estonia,
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Lativa, and Lithuania) demonstrated their anger. These republics declared their Independence
between 1988-1990. Their allegation was that in 1940 Stalin after entering into a secret Pact with
the German dictator Hitler had merged these states into the Soviet Union. In 1991 Georgia too
declared itself independent. Besides the three Baltic States and Georgia, nationalist aspirations in
Armenia and Moldavia also had soared high. Their nationalistic passions sounded the death knell
of the Soviet Union.

2. Describe as to how new countries did emerge in Post-Cold War era.

Answer: The emergence of new countries in the Post-Cold War era occurred as follows:
The Baltic republics of Lithuania, Estonia, and Latvia: These were the first to declare their
Independence. In December 1991, the Soviet Republics of Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus also
cancelled the 1922 Treaty that led to the formation of USSR. The other Republics to declare their
Independence were Georgia, Armenia, and Moldavia. All these countries had their own national
aspirations. They, therefore, became members of the United Nations. This led to an increase in
the number of members of this world body. These new States had apprehension that Russia
might again occupy and seize control of them. Therefore, they found it to be in their interest to
join NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization).
The Central Asian countries such as Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan: These countries took a middle
course. In addition to establishing good relations with the USA and the Western nations, they
continued to have a close relationship with Russia also.
Czechoslovakia: In 1992, the Czechoslovak Republic was dissolved and the two independent
republics of Czech and Slovakia were born on 1 January 1993.
Yugoslavia: In 1990, a Civil War broke out in Yugoslavia. The racial religious conflicts presented
a horrible scenario. Yugoslavia’s various provinces like Slovenia, Croatia, and Serbia declared
their Independence. Consequently, in 1991 the UNO terminated Yugoslavia’s membership and
directed the various regions to apply afresh for UN membership. In 2003, the country called
Yugoslavia ceased to exist. In its place, a new federation called ‘Serbia and Montenegro’
emerged. In 2006, Montenegro seceded from Serbia. Thus two independent states came into
being, one called Serbia and another named as Montenegro.
Russia’s regions of Chechnya and Dagestan: After the disintegration of the Soviet Union, these
regions also faced a terrible situation. In Chechnya, the Civil War had started in the year 1994.
Russian forces bombarded guerrilla-controlled areas. Russia had to face conflict in Dagestan
also. But the government effectively suppressed the revolt in that region.

3. What were the consequences of Shock Therapy after the end of the Communist rule in
Russia?
Answer: The consequences of Shock Therapy after the end of the Communist rule in Russia were
as follows:
Economic Crisis: The transformation of ‘Collective Agricultural Farms’ into ‘Private Farms’ and
bringing State industry under ‘Private Sector’ was not an easy one. It was because of this that
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Boris Yeltsin’s years in office turned out to be the period of economic crisis. The friends and
relatives of President Yeltsin and other high officials bought industrial units and agricultural
farms dirt cheap. This was called “the largest garage sale” in the history of the world.
A High Rate of Inflation and a Condition of Bankruptcy: In Russia, there were not enough
persons who could efficiently run ‘Private Companies. This resulted in an unusual increase in
‘inflation’ and the value of ‘Rouble’ (unit of money in Russia) came down to a considerably low
level. During the period between 1992 and 2000, Russia’s foreign debt had risen to the tune of
160 billion dollars. The country was facing bankruptcy. Because of non-payment of salaries to
doctors and government employees on time, a series of demonstrations were staged throughout
the nation.
Collapse of Social Welfare Schemes: The Soviet Union was the first-ever country where the
citizens had the Right to Work. They were also getting State assistance in the event of old age
and illness. Free medical treatment and medicare facilities were available to the poor and the
needy. But now poverty increased and health services were almost paralyzed.
Economic Inequalities: With the privatization of agriculture and industries, economic inequalities
also increased. The new economic order divided Russia between ‘the haves’ and ‘the have-nots!
Political Crisis: Democratic institutions grow slowly. The Constitutions of Russia and newly
independent Central Asian countries (Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, and others) had been framed in a
hurry. In all these countries, the Executive (President) was made much stronger than the
Legislature.)

4. What is the relevance of the Non-Aligned Movement after the end of the Cold War? (Or)
The usefulness and effectiveness of the Non-Aligned Movement continued. Comment on this
statement.
Answer: The relevance of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) after the end of the Cold War is
as follows:
Identity of Poor and Small Countries: The spirit of the Non- aligned Movement is that the poor
and small countries of the world should not lose their sense of identity. They should be free to
take decisions that affect their interests without being under pressure from even a Super Power
like the USA.
Core Issues: The core issues like Neo-colonialism in the form of pressure from Multinational
Companies, democracy, and human rights are as relevant today as ever.
International Terrorism: It is time that NAM countries agree on a comprehensive plan to crush
International Terrorism.
Shift from Political to Economic Matters: With the relaxation of the Cold War, the NAM leaders
did rightly shift their emphasis from political to economic matters. They stressed the importance
of a New International Economic Order (NIEO). The developed countries of the world have
established their hold over International Monetary Fund, World Bank, and the World Trade
Organization. It is therefore, necessary that there existed a forum where there is discussion on
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such matters as democratizing the World Bank, trade and investment, and fighting poverty and
hunger which caused suffering and death.
Reshaping the UN Security Council: The NAM has now seriously taken the question of
reshaping the UN Security Council, in order to make it a more democratic and a more
representative body.
Turbulent Times: We have had a turbulent time because of the emergence of Talibans in
Afghanistan and ISIS threatening the sovereignty of Iraq and other nations. Talibans are still
effective and powerful. For a safer world, we have to defeat ISIS completely. That shows there is
still the space for members of the Non-Aligned Movement, especially for countries such as India.

B. Short answer questions

5. How far Gorbachev’s policies responsible for the disintegration of the Soviet Union?
Answer: In 1985 Gorbachev was elected General Secretary of the Communist Party and in 1988
he became President of the country. He wanted to reform the Soviet system through the policies
of Glasnost and Perestroika. Glasnost means “openness, i.e., freedom of expression and
criticism”. Perestroika means “restructuring, i.e., all matters should be resolved by people’s
representatives.” When Gorbachev pursued a policy of ‘perestroika’ the corrupt officials opposed
it. They wanted to run the economic and political system in the way they had been doing in the
past. They all tried to weaken Gorbachev’s authority, though he was pursuing the correct
policies. He attempted to set right the system and country’s political and economic structure, but
the officials of the Communist Party of Soviet Union (CPSU) did not want him to succeed.

6. What was Shock Therapy after the end of the Communist rule in Russia?
Answer: Russia was to be transformed economically and politically. This transformation caused
a great upheaval. Therefore, it was called ‘Shock Therapy. It led to an (1) economic crisis, (ii)
high rate of inflation (iii) Social Security system (free medical aid and relief in the event of
unemployment, old age, etc.) fell to pieces. (iv) economic inequalities, and (v) Political Crisis. In
1999 Yeltsin resigned from his office. Vladimir Putin became the Acting President. There was a
state of conflict and tension in Chechnya and other regions (Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan,
Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia).

7. There are writers who argued against the relevance of Non- Aligned Movement. What did
they say?
Answer: There are writers and statesmen who say that NAM has no relevance now because (a)
Cold War ended, (b) with the disintegration of the Soviet Union bipolarity has also come to an
end, (c) the process of decolonization is over because all former colonies or less powerful nations
have gained Independence, (d) the struggle against apartheid in South Africa, Zambia and
Zimbabwe also ended, and € there is a growing trend towards Peaceful Coexistence and
economic cooperation among nations.
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C. Very short answer questions

8. Name any two Baltic Republics that first declared their Independence.
Answer: The Baltic republics of Lithuania and Estonia were among the first to declare their
independence.

9. Name any two new countries that appeared on map of the world after Yugoslavia’s break up.
Answer: Two new countries that appeared on the map of the world after Yugoslavia’s break up
were Serbia and Montenegro.