TEACHING NOTES FOR LIBERAL STUDIES

NAME OF TUTOR: DANIEL KWAME EMILIO

DEPARTMENT: SOCIAL SCIENCES

LEVEL: 100 & 200

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 UNIT ONE

Definition of Concepts Human Rights, Gender and Inclusion, and Disaster Risk Reduction
in the School Context Introduction

This lesson introduces student teachers to the concepts of human rights, gender and inclusion,
and disaster risk education in the school setting. This lesson will also enable student teachers to
appreciate the linkages among the concepts of human rights, gender and disaster. Student
teachers will then have the opportunity to reflect and evaluate their own perceptions and biases
in relation to these three concepts which likely to impact on their effectiveness as teachers. The
lesson will also help student teachers imply and apply their knowledge of human rights, gender
and inclusion, and disaster risk reduction in teaching and learning.

Human Rights

Rights can be defined as claims recognized by law or conditions that make it possible for an
individual to enjoy the social order in order to realize his/her human dignity. Also, they are claims
that citizens demand from the state (Amoah, 2004).

Human rights therefore are the basic rights and freedoms that belong to every person in the world
from birth until death. These basic rights are based on shared values like dignity, fairness, equality,
respect and independence. These values are defined and protected by law. Human rights are
important means of protection for us all, especially those who may face abuse, neglect and isolation
(Kankam and Dadzie, 2018).

Types of Rights

According to Amoah (2004), the types of rights are classified as follows:

Natural Rights:

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These are the universally accepted moral rights which every individual by his conscience knows that
are his rights. Natural rights include:

 Right of life: This is the most fundamental right; it is the foundation on which other rights
are built. The citizen must have freedom from international deprivation of his life. The state
thus protects the citizens’ right to life through protection the citizens receive from peace
and law enforcement agencies. The state also imposes the maximum capital penalty on
those who attempt to take the life of others or commit murder. The state also imposes
punishment on people who attempt to take away their lives.
 Freedom from torture and inhuman treatment.
 Freedom of privacy and correspondence
 The right to reputation: A man has the right to his good name; he has a right that the
respect that others feel for him shall not be diminished. Consequently, a defamatory
statement made against him is made a punishable offence enforced by the courts.
 Freedom from slavery, servitude or forced labour
 Freedom of worship

Civil Rights: These include:

Freedom of worship, association and movement

Legal Rights:

These rights determine a person’s relationship with the law and courts. They enable a person to
have protection under the law. It includes:

 The right to have access to the courts;

 The right to a fair trial;
 The right to sue and to be sued;
 The right to request trial by a jury in a serious criminal case;
 The right to self- defense;
 The right to equal treatment before the law
 The right to employ the services of a counsel in suits

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Social Rights:

This refers to the rights of citizens to use state facilities. Among these are:

Freedom to use any public facility without discrimination. Such facilities include roads, hospitals and
schools

Political Rights:

These are the rights connected with the political participation of the citizen. By political
participation, we mean the involvement of the citizen in the running of the administration or
government of the state. It is a right given to citizens only. These include:

The right to take part in ruling a country – to vote and be voted for.

 Freedom of speech and of assembly.

 Free access to books, newspapers and broadcasts
 The right to ask for periodic elections
 Freedom of speech and press. This freedom enables the citizen to express his or mind on
national issues such as criticizing the government and expressing opinion on government
policies
 The right to be eligible for state offices provided that individual possesses the required
academic or professional qualifications.

Economic Rights

 The right to secure job, work for income without any discrimination of religion or either
group. Socialist state upholds this right to work more than capitalist states.

 The right to own property and enjoy the fruits of one’s labour
 The right of citizens to be free to choose and pursue the vocation or profession they desire

 Right to dispose of one’s wealth.

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Ways of Ensuring Citizen’s Rights

Amoah (2004), indicated that, in order to make sure that citizen rights are well protected so that
they could not be easily trampled upon, the following institutional and non-institutional safeguards
are employed:

Improvement in level of Development: Improvement in the level of development such as the

provision of social and economic amenities like schools, health services, social securities and legal
aid etc, go a long way in helping to safeguard the social and economic rights of the citizens in a
state.

Democratic Institutions: The adoption of a democratic political system based on the approval of
the people help to make a government responsible to the people. Such a government refrains from
encroaching on human rights; else it would lose the support of the citizen or the people within the
country.

Political Education: Citizens are able to defend their rights and liberties when they are well
educated on their rights and liberties. Knowledge of one’s rights help to keep a person alert against
encroachment or interference on his rights. The use of positive actions like strikes and
demonstrations also helps to protect citizens’ rights.

Existence of principles like Rule of Law, Separation of Powers, Checks and Balances: The
institution and observance of such principles as the Rule of Law, Separation of Powers, Checks and
Balances in a state go a long way in checking violation of citizens’ rights. For instance, the principle
of rule of law would ensure equality before the law.

Most people are very much interested to know their rights but they often forget that rights go with
responsibilities. Every citizen has rights as well as responsibilities.

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Existence of Bold and Independent Press: The existence of bold and independent press help to
safeguard citizens’ rights from being encroached upon by the government; the press normally
criticizes government policies that are aimed at infringing on citizens’ rights. The existence of an
independent press commission, which is free from government control that would look after the
promotion, appointment, dismissal, salaries and conditions of service of the press helps to make the
press free and bold to criticize bad policies of the government that infringe on citizens’ rights
without fear or favour.

Independence of the Judiciary: The existence of an independent, bold, impartial incorruptible

judiciary, in a state helps to protect the rights and liberties of the citizens by ensuring fair
adjudication of cases. The existence of provisions like judicial Review, which enables the judiciary to
examine all laws passed by the legislature and actions taken by the Executive and declare some as
null and void helps to safeguard citizens’ rights and liberties against abuses.

Entrenched Clauses on Fundamental Human Rights: Clauses of Fundamental Human Rights are
normally entrenched in written constitutions. For example, in the 1979 constitution of Ghana, the
clauses covering the Fundamental Human Rights of the citizens were entrenched in the written
constitution. The provision helps to safeguard Fundamental Human Rights because whenever, such
rights are entrenched; their amendment procedure become complex hence, the government
cannot easily and quickly change them to suit their whims and caprices. Also, when entrenched,
these rights become justified and can be enforced by the courts.

Duties/Responsibilities/ Obligations of Citizens

 Obeying the Laws of the Country

 Protecting State Property
 Paying taxes
 Defending the country
 Offering voluntary services such as providing information in a court case when called to
serve as a witness.
 Voting is a political duty of every citizen
 Ready to engage in communal labour

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Limitations of Rights of the Individual

 A person who is insane (mad) is not allowed to vote in an election or be voted for. This is
because; the person has lost the faculty of reasoning and may even be a threat to society.
Sometimes, the right of movement may even be denied such a person.
 Again, people with infectious diseases such as tuberculosis, measles or COVID-19 may be
confined in a hospital. Such people lose their freedom of movement and association until
doctors declare them fit.
 Every country has laws to protect its citizens. When people break such laws, the Police (or
law – enforcing agencies) arrest them and deal with them according to the law. Such law –
breakers when found guilty by court of law may be sentenced into prison and their freedom
of movement is curtailed.
 Again, suspected criminals are denied their right to movement when they are arrested and
detained until they are set free by the law courts.
 Another instance where the rights of citizens are denied is when they are arrested and
detained for unlawful association or assembly. If the state has any cause to believe that
individuals have gathered with the aim of causing public unrest, they will be arrested and
detained for further investigations. That is why citizens who want to stage any
demonstration or go on ‘float’ have to seek the necessary permit from the police before
embarking on such ventures.

 The law of libel, slander and sedition also limit the individual’s freedom of speech and
action. Such laws do not permit the individual to publish anything, say anything or do
anything designed to injure the reputation of another person or incite public disorder or
rebellion against the government (Amoah, 2004).

Human Rights Abuse

When there is infringement of the rights of individuals, it is said that there is human rights abuse.
For example, when a house – help is denied food or rest, we say there is human rights abuse
(Amoah, 2004).

There are instances where Human right abuse occurs. The following are some examples.

 Some men beat their wives or some women beat their husbands.

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  Some people maltreat their house – helps (beating them, pouring hot water or oil on them
and putting their hands in fire).
 Forcing children to do work that is meant for adults.
 Bullying
 Sexual abuse
 Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)
 Rape
 Child prostitution
 Discrimination

Group that are normally abused

Children

These groups of people are sometimes forced into child labour or to be child soldiers. They are
sometimes used as sex workers and suffer assault in the house. Furthermore, some children are
forced into marriages. Some suffer child trafficking.

House Helps

Most house helps are denied necessities of life such as food, clothing, shelter and rest. Most are
denied education. Some suffer sexual abuse.

Women

Most women are denied education and leadership positions. Some suffer assault by their husbands
or men. In marriage, most women have no voice in decision making. Furthermore, widows are
forced to sleep in the same room with the corpse or even drink the water used to bath the dead
husband. Others are forced to marry the brother of the deceased husband. And most widows are
thrown out of their husband’s house and the dead husband’s assets denied the widow and children.

Minority Groups in Society

Sometimes, minority groups in society are discriminated against in job opportunities or schooling.

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 Human rights abuse can be combated through education, commission on Human Rights and
Administrative Justice (CHRAJ), National Council on Women and Development, the National
Commission on Children, National Commission for Civic Education and Women and Juveniles unit of
Ghana Police Service (WAJU)

Why Citizens Obey the State

The following reasons account for the need for citizens to obey the state

1. Fear of sanctions
2. Respect for the law and authority
3. Reflection of our Traditional Practices and Political Culture
4. Promotes social good
5. Creates peace and harmony

Basic human rights principles

Human rights are universal "Human rights are foreign to no culture and native to all nations; they
are universal." Kofi A. Annan, former Secretary-General of the United Nations, Address at the
University of Tehran on Human Rights Day, 10December 1997.

Human rights are universal because they are based on every human being's dignity, irrespective
of race, colour, sex, ethnic or social origin, religion, language, nationality, age, sexual
orientation, disability any other distinguishing characteristic. Since all States and peoples accept
him or her, they apply equally and indiscriminately to every person and are the same for
everyone everywhere. “All human rights are universal, indivisible and interdependent and
interrelated. The international community must treat human rights globally in a fair and equal
manner, on the same footing, and with the same emphasis. While the significance of national and
regional particularities and various historical, cultural and religious backgrounds must be borne
in mind, it is the duty of States, regardless of their political, economic and cultural systems, to

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promote and protect all human rights and fundamental freedoms." World Conference on Human
Rights, Vienna, 1993, Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action.

Why Are Human Rights Important?

Human rights reflect the minimum standards necessary for people to live with dignity and
equality. Human rights give people the freedom to choose how they live, how they express

Themselves, and what kind of government they want to support, among many other things.
Human rights also guarantee people the means necessary to satisfy their basic needs, such as
food, housing, and education, so they can take full advantage of all opportunities. Finally, by
guaranteeing life, liberty, and security, human rights protect people against abuse by individuals
and groups who are more powerful.

According to the United Nations, human rights: Ensure that human being will be able to fully
develop and qualities such as intelligence, talent, and conscience and satisfy his or her spiritual
and other needs.

Human rights are not just theoretical; they are recognized Standards to which governments are to
be held accountable. There are five basic tenets underlying human rights as they apply to all
people. Human rights are:

1. Universal in that they belong to all people equally regardless of status. All people are
born free and equal indignity and rights.
2. Inalienable in that they may not be taken away or transferred. People still have human
rights even when their governments violate those rights.
3. Interconnected because the fulfillment or violation of one right affects the fulfillment of
all other rights.
4. Indivisible as no right can be treated in isolation No one right is more important than
another is.
5. Non-discriminatory in that human rights should be resected without distinction,
exclusion, restriction, or preference based on race, colour, age, national or ethnic origin,

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 language, religion, sex, or any other status, which has the purpose or effect of impairing
the enjoyment of human rights and fundamental freedoms.

Concepts of Gender and Inclusion

Gender is not the biological differences between men and women, boys and girls, rather a set if
the social attributes associated with being male and female learned through socialization. Gender
therefore is a social construct that defines what it means to be a man or woman, boy or girl in a
given society - it carries specific roles, status and expectations within households, communities
and culture. Individuals may also self-identify as neither male or female, or both male and
female (CARE International 2009). Gender also Refers to the social attributes and opportunities
associated with being male and female and the relationships between women and men and girls
and boys, as well as the relations between women and those between men. These attributes,
opportunities and relationships are socially constructed and are learned through socialization
processes. They are context, time-specific and changeable. Gender determines what is expected,
allowed and valued in a woman or a man in a given context. In most societies, there are
differences and inequalities between women and men in responsibilities assigned, activities
undertaken, access to and control over resources, as well as decision-making opportunities.
Gender is part of the broader socio-cultural context. Other important criteria for socio-cultural
analysis include class, race, poverty level, ethnic group and age.

Gender roles are shaped by the different social and cultural contexts they exist in. Factors Like
country/region, ethnic group, age, economic class and religion all affect which roles and
responsibilities that men and women, boys and girls are expected to have. (FAO 2012)

Gender relations are the ways in which a society defines rights, responsibilities and the
identities of men and women in relation to one another. Gender relations are based on power and
negotiations, and gender roles are closely linked, influencing the definition and development of
one another. (FAO 2012)

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Gender-based Violence (GBV): is an umbrella term for any harmful act that is perpetrated
against a person's will and that is based on socially ascribed (gender) differences between women
and men. The nature and extent of specific types of GBV vary across cultures, countries and
regions. Examples include sexual violence; domestic violence; harassment in public and work
space Tape trafficking; honour crimes, etc. Gender-based violence (GBV) is a worldwide
phenomenon – one that transcends the bounds of geography, race, culture, class and religion and
affects virtually every community in every corner of the globe. GBV takes many forms,
including sexual violence, domestic violence; sex trafficking, child marriage and honour crimes.
GBV disproportionately harms women and girls because of their subordinate status. Both tacit
and explicit acceptance of violence against women within laws, institutions, families and
Communities reflects and perpetuates gender inequality. Inequalities of power between women
and men "contribute to an environment that accepts, excuses, and even expects violence against
women."

Gender equity is the process of being fair to women and men. To ensure fairness, strategies and
measures must often be available to compensate for women's historical and social disadvantages
that prevent women and men from otherwise operating on a level playing field. Equity leads to
equality. (CARE International 2009). Gender equity denotes the equivalence in life outcomes for
women and men, recognizing their different needs and interests, and requiring a redistribution of
power and resources. It constitutes a process towards achieving gender equality.

Gender equality or equality between women and men refers to the equal enjoyment by women,
girls, boys and men of rights, opportunities, resources and rewards. A critical aspect of
promoting gender equality is the empowerment of women, with a focus on identifying and
redressing power imbalances. Equality does not mean that women and men are the same but that
their enjoyment of rights, opportunities and life changes are not governed or limited by whether
they were born female or male. (CARE International 2009) Gender equality means that women
and men, and girls and boys, enjoy the same rights, resources, opportunities and protections. it

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also means that girls and women have "... agency to use those rights, capabilities, resources and
opportunities to make strategic choices and decisions" about the course of their lives "without the
fear of coercion and violence. Gender equality is the goal or final objective where women and
men have equal conditions for realizing their rights and for contributing to, and benefiting from
economic, social, cultural and political development.

Gender identity: refers to a person's innate, deeply felt internal and individual experience of
gender, which may or may not correspond to the person's physiology or designated sex at birth.
It includes both the personal sense of the body, which may involve, if freely chosen,
modification of bodily appearance or function by medical, surgical, or other means, and other
expressions of gender, including dress, speech, and mannerisms.

Women's Empowerment involves awareness-raising, building of self-confidence, expansion of

choices, increased access to and control over resources and actions to transform the structures
and institutions which reinforce and perpetuate gender discrimination and inequality.
Empowerment comes from within; women empower themselves. Increase women's power
through power to; power with and power from within which focus on utilizing individuals and
collective strengths to work towards common goals without coercion or domination. (CARE
International 2009). According to Beijing Declaration: "Women's empowerment and their full
participation on the basis of equality in all spheres of society, including participation in the
decision- making process and access to power, are fundamental for the achievement of equality,
development and peace". Empowerment is a bottom-up process of transforming gender power
relations, through individuals or groups developing awareness of women's subordination and
building their capacity to challenge it.

Gender mainstreaming is defined by the United Nations as the process of assessing the
implications for women and men of any planned action in all areas and at all levels. That means
making both the concerns and experiences of women and men an integral dimension of all
agriculture and rural development efforts. (FAO 2012). Gender mainstreaming is a gender
perspective is the process of assessing the implications for women and men of any planned
action, including legislation, policies or programmes, in all areas and at all levels. It is a strategy

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for making women's as well as men's concerns and experiences an integral dimension of the
design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policies and programmes in all political,
economic and societal spheres so that women and men benefit equally and inequality is no
perpetuated. The ultimate goal is to achieve gender equality.

Gender Transformative: Social norms that limit women's and men's opportunities need to be
understood and then changed. Gender-transformative approaches seek to transform gender
relationships roles and promote more gender-equitable relationships between men and women in
a lasting manner, while gender responsive or gender sensitive approaches recognize the specific
needs and realities of men and women based on the social construction of gender roles. It also
refers to program approaches or activities that seek to build equitable social norms and structures
in addition to individual gender- equitable behaviour by addressing both the fundamental causes
and sources of gender inequality for agricultural research for development this approach is
crucial as it is hoped that better and more lasting outcomes will result from interventions that
combine efforts to enhance access to resources, technologies and markets that understand and
challenge the social context that enable inequalities to persist (CARE International 201)

Gender stereotyping: Is a situation that one decides unfairly that a type of person has a
particular qualities or abilities because they belong to a particular race, social class or sex.
Gender Stereotype is generalized view or preconception about attributes or characteristics that
are or ought to be possessed by, or the roles that are or should be performed by women and men.
A gender stereotype is harmful when it limits women's and men's capacity to develop their
personal abilities, pursue their professional careers and make choices about their lives and life
plans. Harmful stereotypes can be both hostile/negative (e.g., women are irrational) or seemingly
benign (e.g., women are nurturing). It is for example based on the stereotype that women are
more nurturing that child rearing responsibilities often fall exclusively on them.

Inclusion: The act of including someone in a larger group or set. Social inclusion is the process
by which efforts are made to ensure equal opportunities that everyone, regardless of their

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background, can achieve their full potential in life. Such efforts include policies and actions that
promote equal access to (public) services

Affirmative action: The practice of choosing people for a job or schooling who are usually
treated unfairly because of their race or sex.

Sexual orientation: A person's sexual identity in relation to the gender or genders to which they
are attracted.

Sexuality: Are things people do, think and feel that are related to their sexual desires. Sex refers
to the biological and physiological characteristics of men and women (Mikkola 2012).

Concepts of Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR)

Disaster risk reduction education is about building students understanding of the causes, nature
and effects of hazards while also fostering a range of competencies and skills to enable them to
contribute proactively to the prevention and mitigation of disaster.

Disaster. Is a sadden event such as flood, storm, or accident which causes great damage or
suffering.

Risk: the possibility that something bad, unpleasant, or dangerous may happen.

Hazards: something that may be dangerous, cause accidents or problem.

Resilience: Ability to become strong, happy or successful again after a difficult situation. It is a
capacity to recover quickly from difficulties as well as the ability to withstand adversity and
bounce back from difficult life events. Being resilient does not mean that people don't experience
any suffering.

Disaster preparedness: Is a way in which one is ready to do something or deal with a situation
as well as the measure taken to reduce the effects of disaster.

Disaster mitigation: Is the reduction in how unpleasant, harmful or serious situation.

Vulnerability: Is the situation in which someone can easily be harm or hurt.

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Capacity: Is the ability to do something to change a situation

Water: Is a clear liquid without colour, smell or taste such as rain, river etc.

Sanitation: the protection of public health by removing and treating waste or dirty water.

Hygiene: Is the practice of keeping yourself and the things around you clean in order to prevent
diseases.

Hygiene promotion: the activity of persuading people to support practice of keeping their
environment clean and safe.

Disease transmission: is the mode or process of sending or spreading thing from one person or
place to another

UNIT TWO

Human Rights Issues in the School Setting

Introduction

This unit introduces you to certain key human rights principles and concepts that guide the
welfare, security and the rights of students in the school setting from both global and national
contexts. Additionally, the unit affords facilitator the opportunity to appreciate the significance
of how human rights principles and practices interact with other factors to enhance or constrain
safety, security, fear, anxiety and depression in the school setting. The unit also places emphasis
on how student can develop better human rights knowledge for building a culture of safety and
inclusive school environment for effective learning outcome and the implication of this for
teaching.

Common human right practices in our schools

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They are human right that every child of school going age is entailed to and practice within any
learning environment especially our school setting. The school system is expected to create and
maintain conditions that foster success for all students and promote fair and equitable treatment
for all.

These conditions include:

 Equitable access to and equitable participation in quality education for all students;
 School cultures that value diversity and respond to the diverse social and cultural needs
of the communities the school systems serve;
 School cultures that promote understanding of others and respect for all;
 Learning and working environments those are safe and welcoming, and free from
discrimination, harassment, and violence;
 Decision-making processes that give a voice to all members of the school community,
and
 Policies and practices in place that promote fair and equitable treatment.
 Freedom of expression: students are given the opportunity to talk freely by contributing
in class by asking and answering questions without difficulties because it is their right.
 Right to education: no child is prevented from school or any form of education whether
been rich, poor, and able or disable or any other reason that might be stated.
 Freedom of association: students are given chances or opportunity mingle with each other
without discrimination based on ethnicity or any other reason.
 Right of individual differences are respected, facilitators take into consideration all
students' abilities before given a task. This shows respects, love and attention to the
learners.
 Right to vote: With the support and guidance of school staff, students co-ordinate and
participate in all activities related to election processes. Following the election at the
school level, students also organize follow-up activities, such as the formation of
Parliamentary Committees or Students Representative Council (SRC). In some cases,
such bodies have become involved in decision-making in relation to student affairs.

Conditions for successful human rights education, including the introduction of new curricula,
courses and materials; new methods and approaches to teaching human rights; new assessment

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strategies and tools; a democratic atmosphere in schools; and corresponding pre-service and in-
service teacher training.

Common human right abuses in the school

Further guides student teachers to discuss the common human rights abuses they experience in
school e.g., Bullying, Physical abuse, Psychological abuse, Sexual and Gender-based abuse.

The following are the examples

1. Strike actions by teachers, which lead to reduction of school time resulting in the inability
to complete syllabus by some teachers.
2. Sexual abuse sexual harassments by some teachers.
3. Corporal punishments, mostly excessive caning.
4. Molestation/harassments by seniors (form threes to form one).
5. Internal suspension preventing students concerned from attending classes.
6. Using students for labour for financial gain for the school.

Emotional Abuse

Davis (1996), points out that, “Teachers" attitudes in the class drive children out of school Davis
asserted that one source of stress in pupils/students is bullying from one person or more pupils in
the same school. It may be in the form of physical abuse that is, hitting or direct verbal abuse that
is, indecent name-calling, incessantly taunting and poking fun. It is therefore an unfavorable
condition, which also does not encourage students to be in school, since it violates their right to
education. Other violations in schools include any act or failure to act by teachers to cause
serious behavioral, cognitive, emotional or mental disorders in children. This can include using
extreme and or bizarre forms of punishment, such as confinement in a closet or darkroom or
being tied to a chair for long period or threatening to terrorize a child or student. Using
derogatory terms to describe the child or student, habitual scape gloating or blaming (Ref. Child
Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act).

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Physical Violations/Abuse

Inflicting physical injury upon a child. This may include, hitting, punching, kicking, beating or
any form of brutal assault or otherwise of harming a child. Over discipline or physical
punishment that is inappropriate to the child's age is a violation. Corporal punishment meted out
to pupils/students have been of major concern to many countries including Ghana and even
contested in a number of cases before European court of Human Rights. European court of
Human Rights Series 'A' Volume 247 c reports that many children are punished by teachers and
parents which violate the rights of children worldwide. Article 3 of the European Convention of
Protection of Human Right and Fundamental Freedom and Article 15 (2a and b), The Ghanaian
Constitution provides that "no one person shall, whether or not he is arrested, restricted or
detained, be subject to:

a) Torture or other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment,

b) Any other condition that detracts or is likely to distract from his dignity and worth as
human being.

Definition of Corporal Punishment

It is an activity of punishing pupils or children by hitting a part of the body often with a stick.
The forms of corporal punishment are caning, hitting, slapping, Weeding, carrying heavy loads
like block and gallon or water, Squatting, hopping for several minutes, running around the fields
and class room and punching, pitching of chins and scrubbing urinal.

Forms of corporal punishment

Caning

The teachers always punish pupils who come to school late. The late comers receive not less than
six lashes. After the pupils received lashes they felt sad in the classroom. They become
inattentive and absent minded whenever the teachers are teaching their lessons pupils normally
received canes on their buttocks while few pupils receive on their palms and their backs.

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Sometimes the teachers do not cane their culprits; they (teachers) rather instruct the offenders to
cane themselves one after the other which they call "exchange caning." If they try to Sympathize
with each other by caning lightly. The teacher will demonstrate by caning the sympathizers hard
this create enmity and division among pupils.

Weeding

The pupils the teachers refer to as storbbons or recalcitrant are given large portion of school
fields to weed. Some pupils are instructed to use blunt cutlasses or hoes to do the work.
Sometimes pupils do the work in the hot afternoon; in the scotchy weather. Late comers or
offenders sweat profusely and also feel thirsty. Some pupils do the weeding at the detriment of
their lessons. Sometimes it takes note less than two days to finish the work. Pupils are sometimes
sent to the school farm or garden to weed under the crops such as maize, cassava and beans.
Those given internal suspension go to school and weed whiles their friends learn. The offenders
go to break when the school breaks for play or rest. The culprits start their work or weeding
when it is break over until the school close for that day. The work goes on or continues until the
specified days forthe punishment is over or elapsed.

Squatting

Another form corporal punishment which is also common practiced at case study school is
squatting. The late comers and other offenders are also ask to squat in the corners of the
classroom or in front of the class or close to the chalkboard until the teacher in charge finishes
teaching. Sometimes the culprits are denied of going out for break. The offenders squat for a
while and raise their hands till they start feeling pains in their thighs and waist. The teachers
developed, discovered, and used another squatting form of punishment known as "tri squatting".
This form of punishment meted out to pupils involves three 13 activities actions at a goal. The
offenders or culprits raise their hands and move forward for a reasonable distance whiles still
squatting.

Kneeling

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Kneeling in the school is another common and easy form of corporal punishment met out or use
by teachers. Teachers ask pupils or a culprit to go down on them kneels for so many hours. The
offenders or culprits usually kneel down at the assembly ground, under the trees, in front the
class and on verandas. The teachers engage the culprits to kneel down until the whole period or
lesson is ends before releasing them (culprits). In some cases, the culprits are also punished to
kneel down in scorch weather especially afternoon assembly whiles inspecting other
punishments given out. Sometimes those who are fortunate to have been released earlier will be
ask to walk on their knees to the classroom, assembly grounds, school field and staff common
room. As a result of kneeling for long, some pupil's knees got swollen and those unfortunate
ones knelt on pebbles sustained injuries on their knees.

Hopping and Running Round the Field and the Classroom

The last form of corporal punishment to be discussed under this case study is hopping and
running round the field and the classroom. This form of corporal punishment is meted out to
Some categories of pupils examples those sleeping in class, inattentive pupils, lazy pupils and
talkative (those who disturb in class). Some pupils do sleep whenever teachers are teaching in
class. They complain of work load in their various homes. They (pupils) give excuses that they
run errands to their parents before coming to school. The teachers do not take such excuses for
that matter; teachers punish those who sleep in class to run round the school field three or four
times to keep them active. Those (pupils) do not focus or concentrate on the lesson delivering are
also meted out similar punishment by running round the classroom for some specified minutes or
time. The teachers call pupils who do not focus or concentrate in class as inattentive pupils. Few
pupils also do not want to learn whenever they come to school nor do exercises given to them by
teachers also fall victims of running round the school field and classroom. The last groups of
victims are those who distract pupil's attention in class by making noise, moving up and down,
having private conversation also end up receiving their share of punishment by running round the
school field and the classroom for a specific time and number until the teachers are content of
punishment.

Carrying heavy loads

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Sometimes, when pupils do wrong or commit an offence, the culprits are punished by carrying
heavy loads like twenty-five (25) liters of gallon of water, cement blocks and bucket of sand. The
offenders are punished fill the uncommented classrooms to level the ground and also reduce dust
in the classrooms. The culprits use mattock and pickaxe to dig the soil or earth, fetch with shovel
and carry themselves without any help from other unoffended pupils. After leveling the
uncemented classroom, they would then fetch water of 25 liters of gallons and buckets to water
dusty classrooms. They fetch as many as the quantity that fill or reduce the dusty nature of the
ground. Another group of miscreants termed as "matso" meaning strong pupils are also engage in
carrying heavy blocks to the school's new site which about half a kilometer from the school.
Whenever the animals like sheep, goats, fowls and cattle dose to drop their downs on the
veranda, the offenders are asked fetch water from nearby stream to scrub, sweep and mop the
place such as veranda.

UNIT THREE

Causes and consequences of human rights abuses in school setting

Introduction

The lesson focuses on exploring the various causes and consequences of human rights abuses in
the school context. Student teachers would also be given the opportunity to interact with
accomplished and seasoned human rights experts and advocates or watch videos of them sharing
their experiences. This would enable student teachers to reflect, re- think and develop ways of

22
identifying and addressing the causes of human rights abuses and its effect on teaching and
learning outcome. The lesson will be delivered through teaching and hands-on activities such as
expert talks and video analyses.

Causes of Human Rights Violations in Schools:

Teachers caned students for a wide range of infractions, some serious, extra ordinarily minor. As
for punishment, students, teachers and head teachers frequently cited tardiness, making noise or
talking in class, truancy or absenteeism, bullying, fighting, stealing, disobedience, rudeness,
leaving the classroom or school, when the Teacher is away as some of the causes, other causes of
human rights violations include:

1. Failure to complete homework or assignment.

2. unpreparedness for class; Using drugs,
3. smoking cigarettes,
4. inattentiveness or falling asleep in class
5. Profanity

Effects of These Violations on Children's Education

Educational experts argue that the long-term costs of corporal punishment outweigh any short-
term benefit that might be gained by its application. Although the application of corporal
punishment may take less than a minute, its effects may last for years, and the family, the local
community and society, pay the price for teachers' actions. According to one author on the
subject, "experts have found out that corporal punishment may produce in children neurotic
reactions such as depression, withdrawals, anxiety, and in older children substance abuse,
interference with schoolwork and precocious sexual behavior". According to many experts in the
field, children feel humiliated and degraded. They become angry and resentful towards those
who punish them. Their repressed anger can be manifested as hatred towards self and for others.
Some psychological and educational research indicates that children who are punished physically
are more likely to bully their peers or juniors.

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"Corporal punishment” may cause children to exhibit increased physical aggressiveness.
Coupling aggressiveness with lack of empathy creates a propensity to hurt others without
compunction, which affects schoolwork.

Kenyan Educations and Children's Rights Activists all over the world agree that the imposition
of corporal punishment promotes bullying. Kenyan children interviewed by Human Rights
Watch affirmed that, they perceive corporal punishment as humiliating, painful, frightening and
anger inspiring. Most children say, "Caning" should be stopped, because most of them do not
like it, they are afraid of it and it hurts. It is also on record that caning contributed a lot to
students becoming rebellious. That anger makes you rebellious to want to revenge after being
caned. The fear of the cane makes some children to drop out of school or become uninterested in
school.

Academically those who are abused in one way or the other normally became dull and look
indifferent in class. It is equally true those students of a school that has bullying or other forms of
abuses/ violations may not perform well in their final examinations

How to Reduce Common Human Right Abuses in Our Schools

 The Ministry of Education through the Ghana Education Service should create
awareness by organizing campaigns and training for practicing teachers on discipline and
alternatives for corporal punishments in schools.
 The Ministry of Education through the Ghana Education Service should;
a) Support the capacity of the school guidance and counseling program to counsel both
offenders and victims of human rights violations in schools.
b) Sponsor workshops to train teachers on methods of disciplining students who physically
abusive.
c) Scholarships should be given to needy but brilliant students who cannot afford to pay fees
and school bills.
d) See to it that classrooms are not over. crowded.
e) Counselors in the schools should be provided with permanent offices so as they will be
regular in the schools.

24
 f) Ghana Education Service should investigate thoroughly every incident of severe corporal
punishment or sexual abuses reported in the Ghanaian media by parents and publish the
result of investigations and the penalties given to the violators.

School authorities and teachers'

a) To refrain from disciplining students corporally.

b) To educate and support other staff members to stop using physical discipline.
c) Report cases of corporal punishments, sexual abuse and harassments to the ministry of
education and the Ghana education service for redress.
d) Teachers should ban the use of the cane.
e) There should be dismissal for offenders (especially male teachers) who propose female
students in the school.
f) Talks on human rights violations in the school should be encouraged or promoted.
g) Counseling of students should be on regular basis in the school to enable students to
comport themselves and dress as decently as possible.
h) Orientation needs to be given to school authorities and teachers on human rights
education.
i) Ghana Education Service should sponsor teachers to further their educations on human
rights education.
j) Ghana Education Service should provide district education human rights offices to deal
with human rights abuses cases.

UNIT FOUR

ISSUES OF GENDER AND INCLUSION IN THE SCHOOL SETTING

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Introduction

This unit introduces student-teachers to the concepts of Gender and Inclusion. The unit throws
lights on the need for gender equality and empowerment of women as well as their active
participation in political, economic, social and cultural life in society. The unit will also lay
emphasis on the misconceptions associated with the term "gender" and its associated issues in
contemporary society.

 Misconceptions associated with concepts of "sex" "gender", and "sexuality"

 Gender roles
 Sexual maturation (puberty, adulthood and human reproduction)
 Healthy sexual lifestyle (age-appropriate sex education to young learners)

Defining Sex, Gender, and Sexuality

Sex refers to biological characteristics, while gender is socially determined based on those
characteristics. "Sex" refers to physiological differences found among, male and female Sex
includes both primary sex characteristics (those related to the reproductive system) and
secondary sex characteristics (those that are not directly related to the reproductive system, such
as breasts and facial hair). In humans, the biological sex of a child is determined at birth based on
several factors, including chromosomes, gonads, hormones, internal reproductive anatomy, and
genitalia.

Example:

 Women can be pregnant and give birth.

 A man can make woman pregnant.

The World Health Organization (WHO) defines gender Trusted Source as: "Gender refers to the
socially constructed characteristics of women and men, such as norms, roles, and relationships of
and between groups of women and men. It varies from society to society and can be changed."
Gender is a term that refers to social or cultural distinctions associated with being male, female,
or intersex. Typically, babies born with male sex characteristics (sex) are assigned as boys
(gender); babies born with female sex characteristics (sex) are assigned as girls (gender).
Because our society operates in binary system when it comes to gender (in other words, seeing

26
gender as only having two options), many children who are born intersex are forcibly assigned as
either a boy or a girl and even surgically "corrected" to fit a particular gender. Scholars generally
regard gender as a social construct-meaning that it does not exist naturally, but is instead a
concept that is created by cultural and societal norms. Gender can be defined as: it is a
description of roles, activities and responsibilities assigned to men and women in a given society,
culture, community or time. It also:

 Refers the expectations of people from someone, because either they are female or male.
 Men and women are expected to perform the fixed roles assigned to them by the society.
 Is socially prescribed roles, and behaviour expected from men and women and in this
prescription women assume lower status
 It is a learned process and can be changed

Example:

 She will be a great cook!

 He will be a great Dr!

As a consequence of this social approval boys become more independent and more reliant upon
internal standards of excellence in achievement situation. While girls do not expect to achieve,
they underestimate their academic abilities. Generally, girls socialize to be more dependents,
more conformist and more vulnerable to interpersonal rejection than boys.

However, there is no difference in intellectual level given the same comparable incentives
women could do as well as men in any kind of mental activities. Human are the products of
socialization they behave in a way society expects them to behave, ie, their upbringing dominates
their life style. As indicated above women are brought up to conform and men to achieve.
Moreover, the previous biased educational system favours men and disfavours women.

Gender Awareness is important because:

27
 Decision-making between couples is not carried out in a gender neutral environment.
Biological and social factors do not function Gender Issues separately but; there is a dynamic
interaction among these factors and affecting women in all aspects of life.
 Gender issues function at household, community and national level adhered in society's
social, cultural, economic and political system.
 Gender also affects even the Reproductive Health decision making, because women make
choice within the context of their communities where gender roles, responsibilities and status
are defined. Even the sectors' response is shaped by gender factor.
 Men are controlling over economic, political and reproductive life. Whereas women are
expected to be submissive, obedient, respectful, and vulnerable to abusive treatments.
 This division of role and expectation favours one sex and victimize the other counterpart.
Obviously the party at the disadvantaged wing are women. As a result of gender based notion
and discrimination women have been suffering in many societies including Ethiopia. One of
these sufferings is gender based discriminations including violence which will be highlighted
below.

Gender sensitivity

Definition: Gender sensitivity is the ability to recognize gender issues and especially the ability
to recognize both men's and women's different perceptions, interests and expectations arising
from their different social and economic roles, responsibilities and constraints.

Gender sensitivity/ awareness need the recognition that:

 Women have different and special needs.

 Women have been at a disadvantage relative to men to control over the resources,
welfare...etc
 Development entails working towards increased, equity, equality and empowerment.

Gender equity:

Definition: means a fair share of benefits and responsibilities; equality aims to give women equal
treatment under the law, equal access to education and equal remuneration for work.

Gender Equality:

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Definition: Equality between men and women consists of equal enjoyment by men and women
or opportunities, resource and rewards. A crucial element of equality is the empowerment of
directions.

 Gender equality has been identified as an issue because equality does not exist now.
 There is an imbalance in the relative positions of women and men that is reflected in a
pattern of male dominance over social and economic resources.
 Since women are now generally at a disadvantage or excluded in relation to social and
economic resources, decision making, efforts to identify and redress imbalances have
focused on women: enabling them to have the same opportunities as men.
 One big mistake observed is, gender problem is seen as women's problem which implies that
women are deficient in some way. However, the problem is not women and what they lack
but the social institutions and practices that continue to create a disadvantage for women.
 Social attitude place less value on women and the work they do and discriminatory practices
result inequitable access to resources (land, health services, education, decision making,
positions...etc).
 Other common mistake is gender is, often overlooked as an aspect of men's social identity.
But the lives of men and women are strongly influenced by gender; cultural norms about
masculinity and expectation of men as leaders, lovers, decision-makers ...etc shape high
demands on men and their behaviour for example: men are expected to be aggressive, defend
the nation or community by force of arms...etc.
 Thus it is necessary to consider the possibility of integrating the two parties and social
reconstruction in a way that there could be constructive support that seeks to find new
solutions with the participation of women and men and this can be one of the best
opportunities for positive social change.

Gender mainstreaming

Definition: The process of assessing the implications for women and men by any planned action,
including legislation, policies, programs and projects in all areas and at all levels. Itis a strategy
for making women's as well as men's concern and experiences as integral dimension of the
design and implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policies and societal spheres so that
women can benefit equally and inequality is not perpetuated. The ultimate goal is to achieve

29
gender equality (UN). It also means forging about the conceptual and practical development and
gender equality. It also includes:

 Gender equality goals influence economic and social policies and resource delivery
programs.
 Concepts that gender equality be integrated into mainstream decision-making criteria process
and are pursued from the center.
 Increased involvement of women in decision making process.
 Ideas and practices in the mainstreaming allocation of social resources and opportunities.
One of the aim is to introduce women's concerns related to their position (strategic interest)
in mainstream development agendas so as to transform the agenda. Ex: one of the ways of
ensuring that gender equality concerns are integrated in agriculture is to make sure that
extension services address both men and women, that technological packages are appropriate
for both men and women's role in agriculture. However, the issue might be making sure that
women have control over the land and not as wives or dependents on men. Advocacy for
women's land rights would set the agenda for change of mainstream programmes addressing
gender equality in agriculture.

Sexuality

"Human sexuality” refers to people's sexual interest in and attraction to others, as well as their
capacity to have erotic experiences and responses. People's sexual orientation is their emotional
and sexual attraction to particular sexes or genders, which often shapes their sexuality. Sexuality
may be experienced and expressed in a variety of ways, including thoughts, fantasies, desires,
beliefs, attitudes, values, behaviors, practices, roles, and relationships. These may manifest
themselves in biological, physical, emotional, social, or spiritual aspects. The biological and
physical aspects of sexuality largely concern the human reproductive functions, including the
human sexual-response cycle and the basic biological drive that exists in all species. Emotional
aspects of sexuality include bonds between individuals that are expressed through profound
feelings or physical manifestations of love, trust, and care. Social aspects deal with the effects of
human society on one's sexuality, while spirituality concerns an individual's spiritual connection
with others through sexuality: Sexuality also impacts and is impacted by cultural, political, legal,
philosophical, moral, ethical, and religious aspects of life.

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Sexual orientation refers to a person's emotional and sexual attraction to a particular sex (male or
female). Sexual orientation is typically divided into four categories: heterosexuality, the
attraction to individuals of the opposite sex; homosexuality, the attraction to individuals of one's
own sex; bisexuality, the attraction to individuals of either sex; or asexuality, no attraction to
either sex. Heterosexuals and homosexuals may also be referred to informally as "straight" and
"gay,” respectively. North America is a heteronormative society, meaning it supports
heterosexuality as the norm. Consider that homosexuals are often asked, "When did you know
you were gay?" but heterosexuals are rarely asked, "When did you know that you were straight?"
(Ryle 2011). Each society, however, interprets sexuality and sexual activity in different ways.
Many societies around the world have different attitudes about premarital sex, the age of sexual
consent, homosexuality, masturbation, and other sexual behaviours that are not consistent with
universally cultural norms (Widmer, Treas, and Newcomb 1998). At the same time, sociologists
have learned that certain norms (like disapproval of incest) are shared among most societies.
Likewise, societies generally have norms that reinforce their accepted social system of sexuality.

What is considered "normal" in terms of sexual behaviour is based on the mores and values of
the society. Societies that value monogamy, for example, would likely oppose extramarital sex.
Individuals are socialized to sexual attitudes by their family, education system, peers, media, and
religion. Historically, religion has been the greatest influence on sexual behaviour in most
societies, but in more recent years, peers and the media have emerged as two of the strongest
influences, particularly with North American teens (Potard, Courtois, and Rusch 2008). Let us
take a closer look at sexual attitudes in Canada and around the world. Misconception is term that
is used when someone understands/interprets an issue wrongly. There are some roles that have
been assigned to males or females because of their sex. Some of these gender misconceptions in
the community are:

i. Males are heads and bread winners of families. Provision of money for the up-keep of the
family is thought as the sole role of the father.
ii. Another one is that, males need to be educated and not females. Society holds the thought
that, since a female will be married in the future and taken care of by the husband, then there
is no need for her to be educated.
iii. Females are seen as not having any economic responsibility

31
iv. Females do not need higher formal education.
v. Females are seen to be feeble and too emotional
vi. Females are not to be part of making key decisions for the family or community.
vii. Females are the ones who should perform household chores such as cooking, washing and
sweeping.

Gender issues include all aspects and concerns related to women's and men's lives and situation
in society, to the way they interrelate, their differences in access to and use of resources, their
activities, and how they react to changes, interventions and policies.

Inclusion

Gender equality is a global priority for UNESCO and inextricably linked to its efforts to promote
the right to education and support the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs). Through the Education 2030 Framework for Action, SDG 4 aims to 'Ensure inclusive
and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all' and SDG 5 to
'Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls.'

The Education 2030 agenda recognizes that gender equality requires an approach that 'ensures
that girls and boys, women and men not only gain access to and complete education cycles, but
are empowered equally in and through education.' Large gender gaps exist in access, learning
achievement and continuation in education in many settings, most often at the expense of girls,
although in some regions boys are at a disadvantage. Despite progress, more girls than boys still
remain out of school - 16 million girls will never set foot in a classroom (UNESCO Institute for
Statistics)- and women account for two thirds of the 750 million adults without basic literacy
skills.

Poverty, geographical isolation, minority status, disability, early marriage and pregnancy,
gender-based violence, and traditional attitudes about the status and role of women, are among
the many obstacles that stand in the way of women and girls fully exercising their right to
participate in, complete and benefit from education.

The SDG4-Education 2030 Framework for Action aims to ensure equity and inclusion in and
through education by addressing all forms of exclusion and marginalization, disparity,

32
vulnerability and inequality in education access, participation, retention and completion and in
learning outcomes. More specifically, by 2030, the world aims - among other targets - at
"eliminating gender disparities in education and ensuring equal access to all levels of education
and vocational training for the vulnerable, including persons with disabilities, indigenous people
and children in vulnerable situations" (SDG 4, target 4.5). Gender equality and inclusion are vital
in achieving these aims and leaving no one behind in the education agenda.

Any discussion of inclusion should always pay attention to the gender dimension and the
interactions between gender, social class and ethnic background. In spite of the advances made
by females in school education, there are plenty of ways in which females continue to be
disadvantaged in school education and beyond

Gender Roles

Outcomes of education for female and male students have been the subject of much discussion
and research. In general, females and males experience disparate educational outcomes and
fulfill different gender-specific roles both in school and in the larger society.

As we grow, we learn how to behave from those around us. In this socialization process, children
are introduced to certain roles that are typically linked to their biological sex. The term gender
role refers to society's concept of how men and women are expected to act and how they should
behave. These roles are based on norms, or standards, created by society. In Ghanaian culture,
masculine roles are usually associated with strength, aggression, and dominance, while feminine
roles are usually associated with passivity, nurturing, and subordination.

Healthy sexual lifestyle (age-appropriate sex education to young learners)

Young people are encouraged to delay sexual activity until they are physically, cognitively, and
emotionally ready for mature sexual relationships and their consequences, They should rather
receive education about intimacy, sexual limit-setting, resistance to negative sexual pressures,
benefits of abstinence, prevention of sexually transmitted infections (STIS), contraception, and
delay of pregnancy. Because many adolescents are or will be sexually active, they should receive
support and guidance in developing skills to evaluate their readiness for responsible sexual
relationships.

33
During adolescence, physical changes happen at an increased rate. At the same time, young
people experience cognitive, social, emotional and interpersonal changes. During growth and
development, adolescents must deal with the influences of outside factors such as parents, peers,
community, culture, religion, school, world events and the media. Although each adolescent is an
individual with an individual personality and interests, there are many developmental issues that
almost every adolescent faces during early, middle and late adolescent years,

Spirituality

 Honor the sacred aspect of sexual union

 Understand that sexual energy is not separate from being human
 Understand that sexual union is one-way human beings connect body and soul

Contraception, protection, and body integrity

 Take responsibility for their own bodies and their own orgasms
 If sexually active, use contraception effectively to avoid unplanned pregnancy and use
condoms and safer sex to avoid contracting or spreading a sexually transmitted disease
 Practice health promoting behaviors, such as regular checkups, breast or testicular self-
exams, regular and routine testing for STDs

Values

 Decide on what is personally "right" and act on these values

 Demonstrate tolerance for people with different values
 Are not threatened by others with sexual orientation different from theirs
 Show respect to others whose cultural values, ethnic heritage, age, socioeconomic status,
religion, and gender are different from theirs

Education

 Realize the consequences of sexual activity

 Comprehend the impact of media messages on thoughts, feelings, values, and behaviors
related to sexuality

34
  Understand that the drive for sex is powerful and can be integrated into one's life in
positive and healthy ways
 Only engage in consensual sex and non-exploitive sexual behaviors

Communication

 Interact with all genders in appropriate and respectful ways

 Communicate effectively with family and friends
 Ask questions of other adults about sexual issues, when necessary
 Are able to communicate and negotiate sexual limits
 Communicate respectfully their desires to have sex and not to have sex
 Accept refusals of sex without hostility or feeling insulted
 Can physically express feelings of attraction and desire in ways that do not focus on the
genitals (ex: holding, caressing, kissing, etc.)
 Talk with a partner about sexual activity before it occurs, including limits, contraceptive
and condom use, and meaning in the relationship
 Communicate with partners their intentions for the relationship (ex: only dating, want
marriage)
 Listen to and respect others' boundaries and limits
 Are sensitive to non-verbal cues of others' boundaries and limits

Relationships

 Develop friendships that do not have a sexual agenda

 Avoid exploitative relationships
 Choose partners who are responsible, trustworthy, safe and giving
 Can be sexually intimate without being physical (ex: talk about sexual feelings, verbally
express attraction, do things that awaken desire in partner)
 Take personal responsibility for their own boundaries

Self-esteem and self-worth

35
  Appreciate their own bodies
 Have a developed sense of self, an understanding of who they are
 Enjoy sexual feelings without necessarily acting upon them
 Allow themselves to be vulnerable
 Are becoming aware of the impact of negative sexual experiences such as sexual abuse
 Are taking steps to address issues that have arisen as a result of past experiences
 Feel confident in their ability to set appropriate boundaries
 Realize that, by working through sexual issues, individuals may heal psychological and
emotional wounding from past experiences

Sexual health education for young people (ages 10 to 24) is a challenging topic. Sexually healthy
adolescents decrease the incidence of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), HIV and unintended
pregnancy. A sexually healthy adolescent is able to realize their individual potential around
critical developmental tasks related to sexuality. These tasks include:

 accepting his/her body; gender identity and sexual orientation;

 communicating effectively with family, peers and partners;
 possessing accurate knowledge of human anatomy and physiology;
 understanding the risks, responsibilities, outcomes and impacts of sexual actions;
 possessing the skills needed to take action to reduce his/her risk;
 knowing how to use and access the health care system and other community institutions
to seek information, and services as needed;
 setting appropriate sexual boundaries;
 acting responsibly according to his/her personal values;
 forming and maintaining meaningful healthy relationships

A core premise of youth development/sexual health programming is that young people gain more
from an experience when they are actively involved. Research also suggests that programs that
are developed through a partnership of youth and adults may be highly effective in building
young people's skills and reducing their sexual risk taking behaviors. Such programs benefit the
youth who help to develop them and also have a greater impact on the young people served.
Sexual health education is responsive to the specific needs of young people and allows young

36
people the opportunity to be active participants in the development and delivery of sexual health
education.

Positive youth development is a way to think about young people which focuses on their assets
(capacities, strengths and developmental needs) and not on their deficits (risks, negative
behaviors and problems). This approach calls for the shifting of attention away from a focus on
the elimination of problems. It develops strategies that increase young people's exposure to
positive and constructive relationships and activities that promote healthy, responsible and
compassionate choices. A program that uses a positive youth development approach works with
young people to help them realize their fullest potential

Sexual health education is most effective when it takes a positive youth development approach
that builds on young people's existing strengths, skills and external assets. Sexual health
education provides a full range of scientifically accurate information and options for sexual
health and for reducing the negative outcomes of sexual behavior.

Effective sexual health education interventions are those that have been proven effective by
demonstrating positive effects on behavior with the intended participants.

Sexual health education provides young people with opportunities to learn practice and apply the
skills required to maintain optimal sexual health.

Sexual health education provides information and skills that are appropriate to the physical,
intellectual and emotional development, as well as the sexual orientation, of the intended
participant.

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 UNIT FIVE

Common Gender-Based Violence in Schools and their Causes

Introduction

This lesson focuses on the concept of common gender-based violence in and outside the school
environment. It is also intended to provide the opportunity for student teachers to become
conscious of the common violence in the school and home as a result of inequalities experienced
by people in terms of a their (dis)ability, age, social class, religion and sexuality.

Meaning of Gender Based Violence (GBV)

Gender Based Violence is defined by the inter-Agency standing committee (IASC) task Force on
gender and humanitarian Assistance as a "...term for any harmful act that is perpetuated against a
person's will, and that is based on socially ascribed (gender) differences between males and
females."

GBV is both an expression of and a reinforcement of the often-subordinate status of females with
respect to males. Patriarchy a system under which the family and state are governed by
hierarchical relationships established and led by men is an essential factor in the perpetuation of
gender-based violence in many settings, for example, men use violence as a way to exert control
over women whom they regard as property or to show other men their relative strength.

Causes of School Related Gender Based Violence (SRGBV)

1. Cultural beliefs: In most communities there is general belief that men are superior and
should also be lord over women. Therefore, children from this culture background grow
up with such belief, hence treat their colleague’s girls anyhow.
2. Physical differences: It is an indisputable fact that, boys become stronger and is of bigger
stature than girls in terms of development. For that matter some boys abuse their
colleagues of the opposite sex unlawfully.
3. Religious norms: In some religions it is belief that women are unclean and should always
be left behind or isolated in public places. Therefore, children who are brought up in this

38
 religion try to avoid colleagues of the opposite sex by not mingling with them in class
and other social gathering
4. Low level of women empowerment: In most communities in Ghana, it is believed that
some particular occupations and standards are for boys, hence discourage girls from
building self-confidence and high self-esteem, therefore some girls do not attach
importance to formal education because they were brought up to believe the home is
where they belong and cannot go far in life if educated.
5. Substance abuse: when substances are abuse makes people to do anything to their
colleagues which turns to abuse knowingly or unknowingly.

Types of School Related Gender Based Violence (SRGBV)

 Verbal abuse
 bullying
 Sexual abuse
 Harassment

Effects of School Related Gender Based Violence (SRGBV)

Damage Pupils Self-Esteem: Nansel (2001) explained that, a child comes to know himself
through the things they can do. If a teacher calls a school child names that are hurtful, if they yell
at the child and tell them they cannot do anything right when they fail an examination or make a
mistake, it affects the child's self-esteem. Even if the teacher occasionally offers some praise to
their pupils, it leaves the school child astonished and confused because they are unsure of the
teacher's behavior. Verbal abuse can be highly dangerous because it leaves no bruises on the
child. Instead, the bruises are left on the child's self-esteem. It is a slow form of abuse, yet very
detrimental to the school child (Bandura, 1977). Some of these insults ruin on pupils by adults
turn to be fulfilled in the life of the pupil. Labelling a person can affect an individual's self-
conceptions. Sociological theories of interaction have long held that we see ourselves as others
see us. If others see us as deviants, we may come to accept their judgment (Lawrence, 1998).

Early Dropout of School: In research carried out by save the Children, an NGO in 2006, sexual
abuse was one of the most. frequently cited reasons for early drop out, alongside gender
discrimination and poverty. The same source states: Even less severe forms of sexual

39
advancement could damage a child's education. The sexual harassment and abuse of girls in
school by their teachers and other pupils is perceived to be common in Ghana. If a teacher, with
unique power to advance a pupil interests or ruins her hopes, puts sexual pressure on a girl in his
class, very few of them can resist. The findings of a study conducted by Hazler (2000), found
that boys who are sexually abused tended to have more suicide attempts, abusive acts, alcohol
and other drug abuse, and run away from home more often than sexually abused girls. In general,
younger children experiencing child sexual abuse tend to be a greater risk for long-term
emotional and social problems. The school girl may become pregnant after sexual abuse or rape
by a teacher or a fellow pupil. This may also spread HIV and AIDS through their sexual
activities with a pupil or an adult. This may force the pupil out of school (Schwartz et al, 2002).

Poor Academic Performance:

Particular concern has been the proof that frequent bullying among children has negative impact
on victim's school achievement. This issue has been examined through a large scale study of
bullying in USA by Nansel, et al (2000). They found from the observation of 15,000 pupils in
grade 6 - 10 that there is a significant association between bullying involvement and lower self-
perceived academic achievement:

In addition to this, Schwartz et al (2002), notes that those who are frequently involved in abusing
others show poor academic performance in school. A healthy mind lies in a healthy body.
According to World Health Organization (WHO), health is a state of complete physical, mental
and social wellbeing and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. The right to health is
therefore an inclusive right that not only relates to personal physical health, but also overlaps
with many other human rights and various human rights issues. This therefore explains that when
a child's right to health is abused, it has a direct effect on his studies

Frequent Sickness: Child right abuse affects children of all gender, ages, cultures and from all
socioeconomic backgrounds Hazler (2000). Basic School Pupils, because of their age, if they are
made to do certain type of work, if affects their health Children are susceptible to both physical
and psychological harm and may undertake jobs that inappropriate to their age and physical
strength, for example, carrying heavy buckets of water, bamboo and firewood. When working in
the kitchen, children may be exposed to toxic cleaning chemicals, boiling liquids, extreme heat

40
or cold. They may have to operate equipment they are not equipped to handle, as well as sharp
knives, woodcutting implements or other tools inappropriate for a child (ILO, 2008). These
words may affect the health of the child or render him vulnerable to health problems.

Fear and Insecurity: According to Farrington (1993), pupil whose rights are always abused
become fearful and insecure. The right to privacy protects individual autonomy and entitles
individuals to isolate themselves from their fellow human being and withdraw from public life
into their own private spheres in order to shape their own lives according to their personal wishes
and expectations. Certain institutional guarantees, such as protection of home, family, marriage
and the secrecy of correspondence support this aspect of the right to privacy. If the right to
privacy is not respected, children become fearful. Children who are often beaten and scolded
tend to miss school more often because of fear and illness. These children also have a much
higher rate of accidents than do other children and they are twice as likely to have impaired
vision and hearing, iron deficiency anemia, and higher than normal levels of lead in the blood,
which can impair brain function (Hazler, 2000).

Humiliate and Degrade Pupils: Article 1 of Committee Against Torture (CAT) defines torture
as any act committed by a public official or other person acting in an official capacity or at the
instigation of or with the consent of such a person by which severe physical or mental pain or
suffering is intentionally inflicted on a person for a specific purpose, such as extortion of
information or confession, punishment, intimidation or discrimination. This definition shows that
severe caning in schools is torture, "torture is intended to humiliate, offend and degrade a human
being and turn him or her into a 'thing' (Bandura, 1977, p. 24). As articulated in the United
Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) which was ratified by Ghana in 1990 and
the children’s Act of 1998 (Act 560), children in Ghana have a right to education and should be
free from being subjected to harmful or degrading punishment and any type of abusive or
exploitative labour that shall deny the child of his/her right to education. Teachers, as duty
bearers and members of Ghana Education Service have a responsibility to uphold and protect
children's rights (Ghana: GES, 2008).

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Prevention of School Related Gender Based Violence (SRGBV)

 There is need for clear legislation stating children's rights in school and educators and
teacher’s responsibilities to protect, preserve and promote those rights.
 The Ministry of Education should push for the legislators to design appropriate
disciplinary measures that can be taken when children's rights are violated.
 The Ghana Education Service should design systems to support students to seek redress
when their rights are violated. This may include identifying teachers who could serve as
human rights laisons in schools.
 It may be important for the Ghana education Service to develop a human rights barometer
instrument that can be used to conduct annual school census which can be published to
show the human friendly nature of each school.
 The National Commission on Civic Education and non- governmental organizations
involved in child protection issues should help the Ghana Education Service to develop
pre-service and in-service human right education programmers for teachers
 Child protection agencies such as UNICEF, the Ministry of Gender, Children and Social
Protection, the Department of Social Welfare to work with the Ghana Education Service
to develop safety nets for protecting children from further abuse when those children take
action to seek redress because their rights have been violated.
 Human rights education should be carried in schools to education students on their rights
and responsibilities in school.
 The Safe School for Girls campaign by UNICEF and other child protection organizations
should continue to ensure that violence that girls suffer in education is addressed.

UNIT SIX

42
 GENDER EXCLUSION/DISCRIMINATION

Introduction

The purpose of this lesson is to introduce student teachers to the meaning, examples, causes and
consequences of gender exclusion and gender equality. This will equip the student teacher to
shape and help develop society devoid of discrimination toward the vulnerable in society by
providing equal opportunities in education, employment etc. It will also give student teachers the
opportunity to relate well with their students and colleagues by being reflective, objective, offer
more gender neutral responses to students and also use gender-neutral language when teaching.

Gender is a socio-cultural constructed difference between the two sexes. It refers to the way
society encourages and teaches the two sexes to behave in different ways through socialization.
Whereas sex refers to whether someone is biologically male or female, the terms for gender are
masculine and feminine. Sex is biologically dependent but gender is socially and culturally
dependant. In other words, it does not necessary follow that being a woman means neither being
feminine nor being a man is behaving in a masculine way. Thus girls are not necessarily caring
and compassionate; boys do not have to be aggressive and competitive.

Meaning and Concept of Gender Exclusion Discrimination

Gender exclusion is a means by which one gender is blocked from having the rights and
privileges that other gender is enjoying. Gender discrimination describes the situation in which
people are treated differently simply because they are feminine or masculine rather than the basis
of their individual skills competences and capabilities. Gender discrimination in the school and
classroom setting is especially defined in terms learning opportunity inequalities which may arise
from social or cultural norms.

Gender Inequality

The differences between the sexes (men and women have sometimes been seen as the basis for
inequalities between them. The development of feminism has led to the attention being focused
on the subordinate position of the woman in many societies. Gender inequality is therefore the
outcome of a combination of different factors such as socialization processes and some cultural
practices. There are themes characterize gender inequality such as: men and women are situated

43
in society not only differently but also unequally; women get less from the material resources,
social status, power and learning opportunities for self-actualization than men. Also when
women and men share their social location; be it a location based on class, race, occupation,
ethnicity, religion, education, nationality or any intersection of these factors men are well
position than women.

This inequality results from the organisation of society, not from any significant biological or
personality differences between women and men. Although individual human beings may vary
somewhat from each other in their profile of potential and traits, no significant pattern of natural
variation distinguishes the sexes. Instead, all human beings are characterized by a deep need for
freedom to seek self-actualization and by a fundamental malleability that leads them to adapt to
the constraints or opportunities for the situation in which they find themselves.

To say that there is gender inequality, then, is to claim that Women are 'situationally less
empowered than men to realize the need they share with men for self-actualization. All
inequality issues assume that both women and men will respond fairly easily and naturally to
more egalitarian social structures and situations. They affirm, in other words, it is possible to
change the situation.

Examples Gender Exclusion in the School

In the school system and for that matter in the classroom setting, gender discrimination of goes
on in varying degrees being it conscientiously or unconsciously. Some examples are

o Leadership (Prefect-ship) given to boys and girls may be assistants.

o Course/Programme selection: girls are not given attention in some study areas in the
classroom such as mathematics, engineering science, technical subjects etc.
o Inequality distribution of oral questions during instructional or contact periods
o Stereotyping subjects based on gender. For instance boys do well in some subjects so
teachers/facilitators focus on the boys when teaching such subjects.
o Ridiculing girls when they get it wrong whiles encouraging the boys 'you can do better.
Etc.

Types of Gender Discrimination in the School Setting

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Four types of gender discrimination can be seen in the school setting and these are: Direct
discrimination, indirect discrimination, harassment and victimization.

Direct Discrimination

Direct discrimination happens when a person is treated less favourably because of his or her
gender. Often it is the feminine that is discriminated against in the school setting as a social
institution. Direct discrimination can be intentional or unintentional.

Indirect Discrimination

Indirect discrimination is normally unintended. This occurs when rules and institutional norms
tums to be gender bias Here there is a provision, criterion or practice that governs the System.
Example: Senior school prefect should always be a male, class prefect is always a boy whiles
assistant should be a girl.

Harassment

Harassment is unwanted conduct being put up against someone because of the person's gender in
the school setting. This unwarranted conduct violates the person's dignity and intimidates,
degrades, humiliates the person etc. Harassment creates an offensive learning environment for
the victims. Examples are bullying, nicknames, pet-names, degrading comments, gossips, etc.
based on gender.

Victimisation

Victimization in the school setting occurs when a learner suffers a detriment because of his or
her gender. Some examples of school based victimisation includes; unfair distribution of
privileges based on gender, denying some learners their due marks in assessments, deliberately
eliminating people based on their gender.

Causes of Gender Discrimination is the School Setting

It is sad that some people surfer discrimination based on gender in the educational system. The
primary causes of gender discrimination in the schools setting is cultural based fuel by male
domination in the school. Both teachers and learners are dominated by males and the. females

45
are often on the minority. In such situations, the minority is often discriminated against whether
intentionally or unintentionally.

Secondly, cultural influences such as patriarchal bias cultural traditions where men are always
right. Most of the schools are located in patriarchal societies where leadership and other
positions of influence are the preserve of men. In such instances, school leadership becomes the
preserve of men.

Again religious factors such as leadership roles and influence also are reserved for the men. Most
of the schools are faith based institutions and some of these faith based organizations have
doctrines that encourage intentionally or unintentionally, female suppression. These ideas end up
forming the policies of such faith based schools.

There are individual causes of gender discrimination in the school settings too. Some individuals
have personal orientations and hte experiences that turn to fuel gender discrimination in the
school settings.

Consequences of Gender Exclusion/Discrimination in the School Setting

Gender discrimination/exclusion is a social cancer that is eating into the fibre of the nation and
hampering development and productivity. This makes sense why the educational system must
eschew gender discrimination and exclusion. Some of the effects or consequences of gender
discrimination/exclusion are as follows:

o The school becomes a less attractive for the (feminine) mostly female learners which may
result in them dropping out or becoming truants.
o Females are not motivated to study some subjects or pursue some academic programmes.
These kill girls potentials and study courses below their potentials.
o Female students keep some misconception about school leadership positions. This denies
them to take up roles on leadership.
o Etc.

Solution for Gender Exclusion/Discrimination in the School Setting

46
Although there are no gender one-size-fits-all answers, for all gender discrimination in the
schools setting, few remedies can be suggested.

o Teachers must create the awareness of the hazards of gender discrimination in schools.
o Enforce policies that deals with gender exclusion/discrimination
o Uphold gender inclusion over gender exclusion
o Give equal opportunity to both girls and boy
o Etc.

Gender Inclusive Education

Gender inclusive education is not in any way equating boy and girls to become the same, but that
their rights, responsibilities, privileges and opportunities. The assignment of educational
opportunities is independent of whether a person is born male or female. When the educational
system is familiar with the similar gender concept in behaviour, aspirations and needs of both
women and men and how they are considered, valued and favoured equally. It promotes
development and national unity.

Importance of gender inclusive education

Gender equality prevents violence against women and girls. It's essential for economic prosperity
societies that value women and men as equal are safer and healthier. Inclusive education when
practice well is very important because, all children are able to be part of their community and
develop a sense of belonging and become better prepared for life in the community as children
and adults. It provides better opportunities for learning.

Evidence shows that educators need to have gender awareness to be open to girls and boys
choices explore who they are and make connections to people around them, as well as gain self-
confidence, wellbeing, peer acceptance and social support. Base on the concept that education
should address and respond to the diverse needs of all learners, inclusive education is about
quality education, equal participation and safety to learn without fear of discrimination or
violence.

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 UNIT SEVEN

Methodologies for addressing gender inclusion in schools

Concepts for addressing gender inclusion

The concept of inclusion in the schools is one of the biggest challenges in any educational
system all over the world. Inclusive education is about developing and designing schools,
classrooms, educational programs and activities to enable students with different learning
abilities participate together. Inclusive education stipulated that all learners attend their
neighborhood schools and equal opportunities given to them with supportive services that
promote learning. Dakar Frame work for Action (2000) among its six (6) goals ensures that by
2015 all children of Primary School age should have more access to and complete free schooling
of acceptable quality and reduction by 50% adult illiteracy among others. UNESCO (2004)
emphasized the right of every individual to education regardless of colour, creed or any form of
differences in physical appearance or nationality. Inclusion has been incorporated into almost
every educational system, but there is still the need to learn and understand the real meaning of
“Education for All" with quality and equity and recognize the fundamental role of teachers in the
advancement of social Justice, human rights, and opportunities for welfare of students in the
educational system. Every educational system needs to face the challenges in providing equitable
education in order to consolidate inclusion for the benefit of the community. Inclusion requires a
large vision and specific competencies for all teachers in the education system. Teachers need to
know that diversity is in the classroom, and that they should attend to learners with a range of
diverse needs. It is not sufficient to have a neighborhood school or building without a balanced
curriculum that serves the needs of individuals included in the schools. In the field of education,
inclusion (or inclusive education) is a model of instruction consisting on providing educational
services to students with special needs without having to leave the regular education classroom.
The main principle of inclusion is that all students must be appreciated by their diverse qualities,
and that the term 'normal" is no longer a measurable trait. Within the 21st century model of
teaching and learning, all students must be taught hrough standards designed by their
developmental level of skill.

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Addressing gender-based abuses with children with special needs and disability

General ways for addressing school-based gender abuses outside the immediate classroom
setting, efforts within other school spaces also can shape school climate, address inequality, and
affect student performance. Nevertheless, in this respect there has been little research on school-
based extracurricular groups focused on issues of social inclusion and justice. This promote
social inclusion and justice for sexual and gender minority youth.

Special Education Needs is a restriction in the capacity of the person to participate in and benefit
from education on account of an enduring physical, sensory, mental health or learning disability,
or any other condition which results in a person learning differently from a person without that
condition. Special Education Needs is the practice of educating students with special needs in a
way that addresses their individual differences and needs. Ideally, this process involves the
individually planned and systematically monitored arrangement of teaching procedures, adapted
equipment and materials, accessible settings. These interventions are designed to help learners
with special needs achieve a higher level of personal self-sufficiency and success in school and
their community, than may be available if the learners were only given access to a typical
classroom education.

Meaning of Inclusive education

Is a process of addressing and responding to the diversity of needs of all learners through
inclusive practices in learning, cultures and communities and reducing exclusion within and from
education. It involves changes and modifications in content, approaches structures and strategies,
with a common vision which covers all children of the appropriate age range and a conviction
that is the responsibility of the regular system to educate all children" (UNESCO,2005 a, p.13).

Strategies for promoting Inclusion in schools

 School administrators clearly support and actively participate in providing leadership,

guidance, and policies consistent with an inclusive philosophy.
 School Improvement Plans address school-based needs for including students with
disabilities.

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 All students receive instruction within an age-appropriate general education curricular
framework.
 General educators, special educators, and related service providers have time for
collaborative planning.
 Students with disabilities receive most, if not all, of their special education and related
services (e.g., physical therapy, occupational therapy, and speech/language therapy)
within the general education classroom, based on their Individual Education Program
(IEP).
 There is cooperative learning. Cooperative learning is a process whereby the teacher
gives a task to a small group of students (typically four to six), who are expected to
complete the task by working Cooperatively with one another. The teacher may assign
different responsibilities to different members of the group or ask each child to play a
specific role (such as recorder, reporter, and searcher). Group instruction may actually be
more advantageous than one-on-one instruction because of the economy of teacher effort,
students learning how to interact with peers, and students learning from peers. Small
group instruction is the mode for the regular classroom if the students with special needs
are to be included (King-Sears & Carpenter, 2005).
 Teacher can scaffold and models the expected behaviour and then guides the learner
through the early stages of understanding. As the learner's understanding increases, the
teacher gradually withdraws aid (hence the name scaffolding). The goal is to have the
learner internalize the knowledge and operate independently whether abled or disabled.
 Social skills are developed. Social skills are a critical component of the primary school or
preschool curriculum for children with disability especially those with ID. Children can
learn to take turns, share, and work cooperatively as part of their daily activities. The
lunch table for young children is an excellent location for teaching social skills. Here,
youngsters learn table manners, as well as how to pass and share food, help others
(pouring juice, for example), and wait their turn.
 Barriers to inclusive education has been discussed earlier. let us look at how We can
support to overcome these barriers.

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3. Addressing school-based gender issues relating to the girl child

To promote gender base related issues in relating to girl child in schools the following ways can
be considered:

6. Be reflective and be objective.

7. Get feedback from colleagues and students.

8. Use gender neutral language when appropriate.

9. Explain the context

10. Seat and group students intentionally.

11. Use project base learning.

National/ School-Based Gender Policies

Historically, since the attainment of independence in 1957, (and in recognition of the role played
by women activists during the struggle for independence) 10 women were nominated and
appointed to the legislature 8 based on the introduction of the Representation of the People
(Women Members) Bill in 1960. This appointment established a consciousness for gender
equality and women's empowerment.

Also, following the first United Nations Conference on Women in 1975, Ghana set up the
National Council on Women and Development (NCWD) [now known as the Department of
Gender as the national machinery. The main task of the national machinery then was to support
government-wide efforts in the empowerment of women through income generation, social
mobilization and social development After the Beijing Conference in 1995, NCWD submitted a
proposal for Affirmative Action and Gender mainstreaming to the Office of the President. This
led to the formulation of guidelines for the promotion of Gender equality, rights and
opportunities for women in Ghana. Eventually, the NCWD was placed Within the Office of the
President; with linkages relevant MDAs to enable it play an active and catalytic role in
facilitating cooperation between all agencies of government, Non-Governmental Organizations

51
(NGOS) and Civil Society Organizations (CSOs). It set the pace for the establishment of an
improved administrative framework for addressing women's affairs by creating Gender Desk
Officers (GDOS) in most MDAs. Their role was to ensure that gender concerns are incorporated
into sector policies, plans and programmes of MDAs.

National gender policy (2004) outlines strategies for addressing violence against women and
gender base violence. The main objective is to promote equal advancements of Women and men
in all sectors. Create equal opportunities for women and men in decision making in all areas and
at all levels. The goal of the National Gender Policy is to build a just society devoid of
discrimination, harness the full potentials of all social groups regardless of sex or circumstance,
promote the enjoyment of fundamental human rights and protect health, social, economic and
political wellbeing of all citizens.

What does the gender policy framework do?

To provide for the development and implementation of public education programmes on

practices on practices that unfair discriminate on grounds of gender as contemplated in
applicable legislation and in international agreement in order to promote gender equality and
social cohesion. The national Gender Policy is important for the country to promote gender
equality and women empowerment for reducing gender inequalities to facilitate attainment of
sustainable social and economic development. Gender is an important consideration in
development. It is a way of looking at how social norms and power structures impact on the lives
and opportunities available to groups of men and women. Globally more women than men live in
poverty.

How do you develop a gender policy?

1. Establish a task a force and a work plan. Develop a draft.

2. Policy and consult, across the board undertake. A comprehensive.
3. Gender audit. Lobby for support make sure the policy is adapted and voted on.
4. By the relevant body, ensure that other relevant policies.
5. Review and adapted, ensure that the policy informs the party's.

52
Challenges Identified Through National Consultation

The following are the challenges to achieving targets of Gender Equality and Women
Empowerment in Ghana discussed and derived through reviews and national consultations. In no
order of importance, they are:

1. Competing government priorities and Political Will: A major challenge facing gender equality,
social protection and women's empowerment is not only the limited acceleration of the
implementation of Gender Responsive Budgeting initiative that government agreed to undertake
through the Ministry of Finance; but the Ministry (MoGCSP) is perceived as "a consuming
machinery", and not a Ministry in the priority value chain of government.

2. Weak Gender mainstreaming coordinating role of the Ministry: The Ministry, as the highest
authority in the gender machinery, is not providing the required effective and inclusive national
coordination role for gender mainstreaming in Ghana mainly because of budgetary and capacity
constraints.

3. Conceptual clarification of Gender Equality in the public sector: There is enough evidence that
government/public sector structures and some Development Partners still demonstrate
insufficient understanding and knowledge of gender equality and gender mainstreaming. Lack of
professional knowledge and skills on gender causes conceptual clumsiness, and it is a key
accountability challenge in the sector.

4. Feminization of poverty: Poverty is a major problem for Women and girls in Ghana especially
rural women. Female-headed household's more than male-headed households are performing
better in poverty ratings as Compared with males. This notwithstanding, the incidence of poverty
is much more among females than males.

5. Socio-cultural, traditional beliefs and socialization: Due to the patriarchal structure of most
societies in Ghana, systemic male domination and female subordination, socio-cultural and
discriminatory institutions and structures restrict women (including the marginalized and the
vulnerable) from access to equal opportunities including productive resources, such as land,
credit, education and training opportunities among other support systems

53
6. Inadequate basic social services: There exists inadequate basic social service such as
education, health, water and sanitation in a number of communities to enable the majority of
ordinary citizens to have decent livelihood.

7. Weak informal GE-WE social protection mechanisms and targeting challenges for government
initiatives: Social protection at the local and informal levels using the extended system has
broken down at the expense urbanization. Successive governments have initiated a number of
social protection measures as discussed which aimed at alleviating and subsequently, eradicating
poverty, thereby guaranteeing the rights of the vulnerable and the marginalized. However,
targeting has been a challenge for these initiatives

8. Limited attention to issues and aspirations of women with disability: Existing interventions for
women have not adequately and specifically addressed the concerns of Women with Disability
(WWD). There is insufficient information and understanding of the situation of WWD and this
affects the planning, implementation and monitoring of women's initiatives with the WD lens.

9. Violence against women: Violence against women and human trafficking is a major emerging
problem in Ghana that needs more aggressive and a quicker policy response. The high incidence
of rape and other sexual offences from the DOVVSU records is alarming. Even though reported
cases have been legally dealt with, there is the need for national policy action to curb the
prevalence of rape, sexual abuse, serial women and wives killings, maiming and human
trafficking.

10. Lack of effective monitoring and evaluation systems and practice within the sector
machinery: The absence of developing effective gender responsive M&E system and ensuring its
operationalization results in several problems including 'limited or no tracking of implementation
and results', 'poor learning and direction for success', 'outright failure of projects. It is necessary
to develop and

of operationalize an M&E system in a results oriented manner to promote regular tracking of

progress and sector policies, programmes and actions for effective transformation of lives of the
citizenry.

54
11. Weak strategic gender partnership: The limited budgetary arrangements in the sector are
manifestations of insufficient partnership between government/public sector, civil society,
private sector and Development Partners. Strategic partnerships, constituency building and
networking are essential in the implementation of all the strategies identified to address emerging
issues. This effort requires facilitative support from the highest level of governance particularly
the Executive, Legislature and the Judiciary.

12. Low representation of women in politics: This is still a challenge because the required 40%
female representation has not been achieved. Women are still under represented in all the major
sectors of the economy, particularly in the three arms of government, public sector institutions,
and other key decision making structures. More challenging is the limited collective power of
women to speak for themselves on their issues in a democratic manner. Women's empowerment
networks and mechanism must reinvigorate their energies to spearhead efforts in this direction.

13. Discriminatory customary practices: systemic gender and social biases in cultural practices
over- expose the girl child especially to abuse including early and forced marriages, sexual
violence, denial of education and cultural servitude.

14. Slow implementation and enforcement of laws: There is evidence that law enforcement is
very slow to the detriment of the vulnerable and the marginalized. Implementation and
enforcement of laws must therefore be accelerated through the gender policy, encouraging the
reportage of crimes against women and children particularly.

15. Women have limited access to justice: weak legal frameworks, poor institutional
infrastructure, non-compliance, lack of knowledge about service delivery points, inadequate
legal aid scheme and personnel worsen women's access to justice. These Continue to limit
progress towards the empowerment of women in Ghana, and results in failure to attain the
required gender justice and human development targets.

16. Limited access to land and other productive resource by Women for agricultural purposes:
Customary law predominantly, governs the land tenure system in Ghana. Customary law
considers property as a family asset to be administered by the family head, who is usually a man.
As a result, women's access to land and to agricultural inputs is relatively poor. This partly has
roots in inheritance systems that are largely based on patrilineal systems emanating from

55
patriarchal societies. Irrespective of this, to some extent, women in matrilineal communities do
inherit land from either their female ancestors or fathers. On the whole, women need credit or
finance to prepare the land if they access it. This is due to the fact that they do not have
collateral, they are unable to access formal credit from the financial institutions and they depend
on the informal ones which are expensive. Even if they are able to access the formal ones the
amount is so small and cannot cater for their agricultural needs. Women need the credit to hire
labour and extension services for information on improved technology but extension services are
also skewed to men due to the limited number of female extension officers and other socio-
cultural issues.

17. Maternal mortality and reproductive health: Ghana's maternal mortality ratio remains quite
high despite several efforts and interventions by government and Development Partners to
achieving the MDG 5 targets. A large number of women are dying annually because of
pregnancy related complications: severe bleeding (hemorrhage), hypertensive diseases,
infections and unsafe abortions.

18. Engendering HIV/AIDS Biases: Stigma and discrimination against people living with
HIV/AIDS is quite high, coupled with misconceptions about the disease and lack of gen der
analysis in tackling the epidemic. Also, availability of adequate treatment is a primary challenge.

19. Women's limited access to wage employment and decent livelihood: Achieving gender
equality and empowerment of depend largely women's access to wage employment and decent
work. Women's employment remains in low pay jobs", because they are predominating in the
informal sector, domestic work and traditional farming ventures. The main challenge here is the
need to engender Ghana's macro-economic policies and strategies that promote accelerated
economic growth in conjunction with improved education and affirmative action interventions
among others.

20. Access to science and technology: Gender gap exists in access to science and technology,
digital knowledge and skills. The challenge is how to bridge the gap to include women's needs
and strategic interests in the establishment of digital knowledge-based society.

21. Limited support of the media for gender activism: The Media space for gender activism has
not been effectively engaged. In addition, the media also continues to portray women in

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stereotyped and sexualized roles. Gender activists and the media need to work together as a
constituency through partnerships on projects. The media has also not been engaged as a
regulatory body for gender and democracy, to address issues of women such as poverty,
reproductive health matters and sexual violence. The power of the media should be. explored to
benefit all, especially the ordinary men and Women, girls and boys in communities.

22. Weak accountable governance: Existing governance institutions and democratic structures
are weak in gender and social protection. It is not clear how gender equality and social protection
are accounted for in governance and democracy. The greatest threats to good accountable
governance come from corruption, violence, especially violence against women and girls and
poverty. All of these undermine transparency, security, participation and fundamental freedoms

5. General ways for addressing school-based gender abuses

 Outside the immediate classroom setting, efforts within other school spaces also can
shape school climate. address inequality, and affect student performance.
 Nevertheless, in this respect there has been little research on school-based extra-
curricular groups focused on issues of social inclusion and justice. This promote social
inclusion and justice for sexual and gender minority youth.
 Formation of school-based gender club by teachers under the skilled guidance of experts
the school authorities order to create awareness of gender inclusion.
 Teachers may adapt the gender club and be patrons of them.

Role of teachers in challenging gender inequalities

 Teachers must provide seating arrangements as per their irrespective of their gender or
cast or religion etc.
 Teachers should arrange names in the attendance register as alphabetical order
irrespective of the gender.
 Teachers must ensure equal participation in the classroom activities.
 Teachers must ensure equal opportunities in classroom activities.
 Teachers must assign roles the students irrespective of gender.
 Teachers should distribute learning materials equally
 Create awareness in health education considering both the gender.

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  Sighting gender fair examples in classroom.
 Provide moral stories for mutual respect.
 Ensure your students aware of gender equality.
UNIT EIGHT

Common Hazards that Pose Disaster Risks in Schools

Introduction

During the development of human beings, people have experienced and gradually understood all
kinds of hazards. From different perspectives, disaster risk scientists studied on the classification,
temporal and spatial patterns, and causes of hazards on the earth surface. Hazards in the school
context are potential triggers of disasters that can disrupt schooling for children and pose danger
to their lives. It is therefore important for school management and stakeholders to ensure that the
school environment is safe for learners and school workers. This unit intends to introduce
student-teachers to Common hazards that pose disaster risks in school environments and help
them appreciate the need to eliminate, minimize or monitor these hazards in order to reduce
disaster risk and create a safe learning environment for the school, Community as well as protect
the lives and schooling of learners.

Concepts of hazards and disasters

United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) (2009) defines hazard
as a dangerous phenomenon, substance, human activity, or condition that may cause loss of live,
injury or other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and
economic disruption, or environmental damage. This definition includes events that occur:

a) suddenly, such as an earthquake, flood, or fire; and

b) overtime, due to multi-level causes such as an economic shock, violent conflict, and/or
climate change. Hazards are the origins of disasters. Hazards are detrimental to the development
of human beings and hinder the sustainability of the world.

Hazards can be single, sequential or combined in their origin and effects. Each hazard is
characterized by its location, intensity, probability and likely frequency. Typical examples of

58
hazards can be the absence of rain (leading to drought) or the abundance thereof (leading to
flooding). Chemical manufacturing plants near settlements can also be regarded as hazardous;
similarly, incorrect agricultural techniques will in the long run lead to possible disasters. Hazards
can either be a creation of humans (anthropogenic) or the environment (natural). Although the
former can more easily is planned for than the latter, in both cases the management of the hazard
will remain the same. Our development efforts and attention should therefore be focused on the
presence of various hazards and this must inform our planning.

The World Health Organization (WHO) defines a disaster as a sudden ecological phenomenon of
sufficient magnitude to require external assistance. Landsman (2001) define it as any event,
typically occurring suddenly, that causes damage, ecological disruption, loss of human ife,
deterioration of health and health services, and which exceeds the capacity of the affected
community on a scale sufficient to require outside assistance. Disaster include event in which a
society or a community undergoes acute deprivation of food and other basic necessities due to
natural and man-made calamities to such an extent that the normal function of the society or the
community is disrupted and that it cannot subsist without outside intervention.

A disaster is a serious disruption of the functioning of a society, causing or threatens to cause,

widespread human, material, or environmental losses which exceed the ability of affected
community to cope using only its own resources (South Africa, 2002). Disasters can be sudden
(flash floods) or progressive (drought). Disasters are caused due to the interaction of humans
with their environment. A disaster is a function of the risk process. It results from the
combination of hazards, conditions of vulnerability and insufficient capacity or measures to
reduce the potential negative consequences of risk (ISDR, 2002). Extreme natural phenomena do
not in themselves constitute hazards. It is only when such phenomena occur in an environment
where they pose a threat to human life, property, infrastructure or the environment that they can
be classified as hazards.

Similarly, in the case of technological developments, it is only when such developments pose a
danger e.g. industrial accidents, infrastructure failures. In essence, a disaster result of a hazard's
impact on society. So the effects of a disaster are determined by the extent of a community's
vulnerability to the hazard. Hazards in themselves do not constitute disasters. The magnitude of
disaster is usually described in terms of the adverse effects which a disaster has had on lives,

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property and infrastructure; environmental damage; and the costs attached to post-disaster
recovery and rehabilitation. Hazards are increasingly dynamic and with highly varying potential
impacts. A wide range of geographical, meteorological hydrological, environmental,
technological, biological and socio-political hazards can threaten livelihoods and sustainable
development.

Classification of hazards by causes

There are all kinds of hazards in human society. However, from the perspective of causes,
hazards can be divided into two types, that is, hazards caused by natural factors and hazards
caused by human factors that are associated with natural environments. In fact, the percentage of
the former type of hazards is dwindling, while that of the latter type of hazards is increasing.
Natural hazards natural events or occurrences that have the potential to cause disaster in the
environment. According to Palm (1990), natural hazards are those triggered by climatic and
geographical variability, which is at least. Examples are such as thunderstorms, floods and
droughts. Human-made hazards human-induced conditions that have the potential to cause
disaster in the environment. Examples include fire, dilapidated buildings, defective structures,
uncovered wells/rivers/ lakes/cliffs on the way to/near the schools, armed attack, transportation
accidents, industrial disaster, structure collapse, power failure, fire, explosion, and mine disaster

On the basis of their origin, natural hazards are grouped into many types including the following.

Geophysical hazard: A hazard originating from solid earth. This term can be used
interchangeably with the term geological hazard. Examples are earthquake, rock and snow
avalanche, landslide, mudflow, tsunami, volcanic eruption, etc. An uncontrolled fire fuelled by
natural vegetation.

Hydrological hazard: A hazard caused by the occurrence, movement, and distribution of the
surface and subsurface freshwater and saltwater. Examples are flood, water shortage and
drought.

Meteorological hazard: A hazard caused by short-lived, micro- to mesoscale extreme weather

and atmospheric conditions that last from minutes to days. It includes thunderstorm, heat wave,
and fire.

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Meteorological and hydrological disasters: Natural disasters resulting from the abnormal or
anomalous quantity, intensity temporal and spatial distribution, and combination of
meteorological and hydrological elements, causing adverse impacts on people's lives and
properties, industrial and agricultural production, and ecological environment. Hydro-
meteorological hazards are the combination of hydrological and meteorological hazards. It
includes thunderstorm, flood, drought, water shortage, heat wave, and fire

Climatologically hazard: A hazard caused by long-lived, meso-to macro-scale atmospheric

processes ranging from intra-seasonal to multi-decadal climate variability.

Biological hazard: A hazard caused by the exposure to living organisms and/or the toxic
substances or vector-borne diseases that they may carry. These are natural disasters in the forest
or grassland resulting from activities of living being, lightning, or spontaneous combustion,
causing damages to crops, woods, cultivated animals and related facilities. Examples are
epidemics/pandemics (e.g. HIV/AIDS, COVID-19, hepatitis, cholera, typhoid, Ebola), snakes
and other dangerous animals.

Eco-environmental disasters: Natural disasters induced by the damage to ecosystem or

ecological imbalance, bringing out negative impacts on the harmony between human beings and
nature and on the living environment of human beings.

Extra-terrestrial hazard: A hazard caused by asteroids, meteoroids, and comets as they pass
near earth, enter the earth's atmosphere, and/or strike the earth, or change in interplanetary
conditions that affect the earth's magnetosphere, ionosphere, and thermosphere.

Space hazard: It is the perturbation of thee earth's magnetosphere because of changes in space
weather. Thus, the intensity of solar wind. Space hazards are caused by collisions between space
debris and satellites, space weather generated by the Sun, and potential strikes by natural objects
such as asteroids that cross Earth's path. Examples are geomagnetic storm and extra impact
events.

Shallow earth processes hazard: Hazards that originate within 60 km (40 miles) of the Earth's
outer surface. It is the sudden or gradual, downward vertical movement of the surface over a
regional spatial extent. These hazards are associated with and caused by shallow earthquakes.

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Most parts of the World experience at least occasional shallow earthquakes. Examples are
regional subsidence and uplift, local subsidence and heave, and ground collapse.

Atmospheric hazard: those that can interfere with the body's ability to transport and utilize
oxygen, or that have negative toxicological effects on the human body. Atmospheric hazards
include things such as oxygen deficiencies, dusts, chemical vapours, welding fumes, fogs, mists,
tropical cyclone, tornado, hail, snow, high winds, fog, hurricane, typhoon, mid-latitude storm,
lightning and thunderstorm, long-term climatic change, and short-term climatic change.

Biophysical hazard: Hazards are range of hazards created by the interactions between the
geophysical environment and humans that are threats to the social-ecological system (Smith
2004). It could be an uncontrolled fire fueled by natural vegetation. For example, epidemics of
diarrhea occur regularly in tropical countries when floods contaminate drinking water supplies or
destroy sewerage systems. Public health disasters also occur when a pathogen (virus, bacteria or
parasite) creates a disease outbreak amongst a human population lacking immunity. Other
examples are examples are disease, extreme temperature, wildfire,

Technological hazards include hazardous materials, destructive processes, and hazardous

designs.

Social violence hazards include weapons, crime, and organized violence.

Compound hazards include fog, dam failure, and gas explosion.

Complex disasters include famine, refugees, poisonous flood, nuclear wastes and explosion of
nuclear power plants

Atmosphere including drought, typhoon, rainstorm, hailstorm, extreme low temperatures, frost,
Ice and snow, sandstorm, and dry-hot wind.

Hydrosphere including flood, waterlogging, storm surge, sea wave, and tsunami.

Lithosphere, including earthquake, landslide, debris flow, subsidence, and wind-drift sand.

Biosphere, including crop diseases, crop pests, forest diseases and pests, rodents, poisonous
weeds, and red tide.

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Geosphere, including Soil erosion, desertification, soil salinization, frozen soil, endemic disease,
and environmental pollution.

Social sphere including include fire, traffic accidents, engineering and factory accidents

Ocean disasters: disasters resulting from the abnormal or drastic change of the ocean
environment and occurring on the sea or coast. Example are Tsunamis, storm surge, extreme
waves, sea ice, red tide.

Seismic and geological disasters: Natural disasters resulting from the sudden energy release or
violent mass transport in the lithosphere of the earth or long term accumulative geological
changes, causing damages to human lives and properties and ecological environment

Agricultural disasters- Agricultural diseases and pests, weeds.

Forest disasters: Forest diseases and pests, rodents, forest fires

Hazards may also be classified as rapid onset or slow onset.

Rapid onset hazards occur and function rapidly without warning. Examples are fire outbreak,
earthquake, volcanic eruption, armed attack and transportation accidents. Slow onset hazards
occur and function slowly. Examples are storm, flood and drought.

Risk is the probability of disaster loss in a future period of time in a region, or the future disaster.
Essentially, risk is the probability of occurrence of a future hazardous event and its impacts (loss
and/or damage). UNISDR (2004) defines risk as the probability of harmful consequences
resulting from interactions between natural or human-induced hazards and vulnerable conditions.
Two aspects that need special attention are the influence of social factors on risk and the
estimation of hazard intensity and distribution.

Disaster risk usually refers to natural disaster or environmental risk that is associated with
natural factors. The wide attention which disaster risk receives is related to the disaster
(especially catastrophic disaster) insurance and the risk governance ol emerging rIsks and very
large-scale disasters.

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Category Risks

1. Fiscal crises in key economies

2. Failure of a major financial mechanism or institution
3. Liquidity crises
Economic
4. Structurally high unemployment/underemployment
5. Oil price shock to the global economy
6. Failure/shortfall of critical infrastructure
7. Decline of importance of US dollar as a major currency

1.Greater incidence of extreme weather events e.g., floods, storms, fires)

2. Greater incidence of natural catastrophes (e.g., earthquakes, tsunamis,
volcanic eruptions, geomagnetic storms)
3. Greater incidence of man-made environmental catastrophes (e.g., oil
spills, nuclear accidents)
Environmental
4. Major biodiversity loss and ecosystem collapse (land and sea)
5. Water crises
6. Failure of climate change mitigation and adaptation

1. Global governance failure

2. Political collapse of a nation of geopolitical importance
3. Increasing corruption
Geopolitical 4. Major escalation in organized crime and illicit trade
5. Large-scale terrorist attacks
6. Deployment of weapons of mass destruction
7. Violent interstate conflict with regional consequences
8. Escalation of economic and resource nationalization

Societal 1. Food crises

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 2. Pandemic outbreak
3. Unmanageable burden of chronic disease
4. Severe income disparity
5. Antibiotic-resistant bacteria
6. Mismanaged urbanization (e.g., planning failures, inadequate
infrastructure, and supply chains)
7. Profound political and social instability

Technological 1. Breakdown of critical information infrastructure and networks

2. Escalation in large-scale cyber attacks
3. Massive incident of data fraud/theft

Global risk classification system of Davos World Economic

Forum (WEF, 2014)

Resultant effects of disasters

Mortality: Number of people killed or missing from a hazardous event. The death toll refers to
the number of death population during or after the event, while the missing toll only refers to the
total number of missing people during the event. Besides counting the total number of dead and
missing people, it is also important to calculate the percentage of killed and missing people per
100,000 people. Thus, the effect of population base can be eliminated in temporal and spatial
comparison of mortality

Affected people: It refers to the total population that are affected directly or indirectly by
disasters. Directly affected people are those whose health was affected, such as injured and sick
people, and those evacuated, displaced or relocated, and those who suffered from the disaster-
induced direct damages to livelihoods, infrastructure, social culture, environment, and properties.
At the same time, disaster statistics also need to include people whose houses were destroyed or
collapsed and people who receive food aid.

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Indirectly affected population are those suffered from the additive effects of disasters, namely
people affected by disaster-induced disruption or modification of economy, critical facilities,
basic services, business, work, society, and health. In practice, due to the difficulty in counting
indirectly affected population, only directly affected population are included in the disaster
statistics. Likewise, it is al so worth calculating the percentage of affected people per 100,000
people. In additions to counting the killed and missing people and affected people, it is also
common to specify their ages, genders, residence addresses, and disabilities.

Direct economic loss: Direct economic loss refers to disaster-induced loss of materials or
properties, such as houses, factories, and infrastructures. Usually after the occurrence of a
disaster, it is advised to assess the property loss as soon as possible to facilitate the cost
estimation for disaster recovery and insurance claims processing. It is also recommended to
calculate the percentage of direct economic loss accounting for the global or national gross
domestic product (GDP).

Direct economic loss can be further divided into agriculture loss, loss of industrial and
commercial facilities, houses, critical infrastructure damaged or destroyed by disasters. Direct
agriculture loss: It refers to crop and livestock losses and also includes the losses of poultry,
fishery, and forestry.

Industrial facilities damaged or destroyed: It refers to the loss of manufacturing and industrial
facilities damaged or destroyed by hazardous events.

Commercial facilities damaged or destroyed: It refers to the loss of commercial facilities

(including storage, warehouse, cargo terminal, etc.) that are damaged or destroyed by hazardous
events.

Houses damaged: It refers to the loss of houses slightly affected by hazardous events and
subject to no structural or architectural damages. After repair or clean up, these damaged houses
can still be habitable.

Houses destroyed: It refers to the loss of houses that collapsed or were burnt, washed away, and
severely damaged and are no longer suitable for long-term habitation.

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Critical infrastructure damaged or destroyed: It refers to the loss of educational and health
facilities and roads damaged or destroyed by hazardous events.

Educational facilities damaged or destroyed: It refers to the number of educational facilities

damaged or destroyed by hazardous events. Educational facilities include children's playroom,
kindergarten, elementary school, high school (junior and senior), vocational school, college,
university, training center, adult education school, military school, and prison school.

Health facilities damaged or destroyed: It refers to the number of health facilities damaged or
destroyed by hazardous events. Health facilities include health centers, clinics, local or regional
hospitals, outpatient centers, and facilities that provide basic health services.

Roads damaged or destroyed: It refers to the length of road networks in kilometers that are
damaged or destroyed by hazardous events.

Infrastructure damaged or destroyed: It refers to the loss of infrastructures other than the
critical infrastructures, such as railways, ports, airports.

Railways damaged or destroyed: It refers to the length of railway networks in kilometers that
are damaged or destroyed by hazardous events.

Ports damaged or destroyed: It refers to the number of ports that are damaged or destroyed by
hazardous events.

Airports damaged or destroyed: It refers to the number of airports that are damaged or
destroyed by hazardous events.

Basic services: Basic services refer to the disruption of public services or time loss due to low-
quality services, which are caused by hazardous events. Basic services include health facilities,
educational facilities, transportation system (including train and bus terminals), ICT system,
water supply, solid waste management, power supply system, emergency responses, etc.

The health facilities, educational facilities, transportation system are mentioned above in the
critical infrastructure loss and infrastructure loss sections.

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ICT system refers to communications and the associated equipment network, including radio and
TV stations, post offices, public information offices, Internet, landline and mobile telephones.

Water supply includes drinking water supply and sewerage systems. Drinking water supply
system includes drainage System, Water processing facilities, water transporting channels
(channels and aqueducts) and canals, water tank, or tower. Sewerage system includes public
sanitary facilities, sewerage treatment system, collection and treatment of solid wastes from
public sanitation.

Solid waste management refers to collection and treatment of solid wastes that are not from
public sanitation. Power/energy system includes power facilities, electrical substations, power
control centers, and other power services. Emergency response includes disaster management
offices, fire departments, police stations, military and emergency control centers.

UNIT NINE

Disaster Risk Assessment in the School

Introduction

Disaster risk reduction begins with identification of existing disaster risks in the school
environment. The objective of this unit is to equip student-teachers to be able to identify the
disaster risk(s) faced by the school due to natural or human induced hazards, and vulnerabilities,
and assess the existing capacities of the school community to cope before, during, and after the
onset of a disaster. Student-teachers will learn the steps involved in conducting disaster risk

68
assessment in the learning environment as a step towards improving the school's disaster
preparedness.

Key concepts for child-centered risk-informed programming

Hazard – Hazard is a rare or extreme event in the natural or human made environment that
adversely affects human life, property or activity to the extent of causing a disaster. It is essential
to make a distinction between hazards and disasters, and to recognize that the effect of the
former upon the latter is essentially a measure of the society's vulnerability.

United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) defines hazard as a
dangerous phenomenon, Substance, human activity, or condition that may cause loss of life,
injury. or other health impacts, negatively impact education programmes, property damage, loss
of livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, or environmental damage. This
definition includes events that occur:

a) suddenly, such as an earthquake, flood, or fire; and

b) Overtime, due to multi-level causes such as an economic shock, violent con flict, and/or
climate change.

Risk – UNICEF defines risk as the function of how much the population is vulnerable and the
likelihood that the country will be exposed to hazard, shock or stress, adjusted for how much
capacity exists in the hands of national and local actors to cope by themselves. Risk is the
product of hazard and vulnerability. It is the expected losses (lives lost, persons injured, damages
to property and disruption of economic activity) due to a particular hazard. It is the probability
that a person will experience an event in a specified period of time. Risk as a function of hazard
and vulnerability, a relationship that is frequently illustrated with the following formula,
although the association is not strictly arithmetic: Risk = hazard x vulnerability. Risk is the
probability of being affected by the unwanted consequences of a hazard. It combines the level of
hazard and degree of vulnerability.

Risk assessment is a term used widely for a systematic approach to characterizing the risks
posed to individuals and populations by potentially adverse exposures.

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Risk-informed education programming- A risk-informed education program is one that:

a. Is informed by an analysis of hazards, shocks, an stresses; exposure; vulnerabilities; and

capacities.
b. Employs strategies that reduce the vulnerabilities of populations and systems to hazards,
shocks, and stresses, and promotes capacities to prevent, prepare for, and respond to
hazards, shocks, and stresses.
c. This makes education programs, populations, and systems more resilient to cycles of
hazards, shocks, an stresses.

Shock - A sudden event that affects the vulnerability of a system and its components or the
moment where a slow-onset process passes its tipping point and becomes an extreme event.

Stress- A longer-term trend that undermines the potential of a given system and increases the
vulnerability of actors and elements within it.

Exposure- The presence of people, property, livelihoods, service delivery systems, or other
elements in areas that can be impacted by various shocks or stresses.

Emergency is a state in which normal procedures are suspended and extra-ordinary measures are
taken in order to avert a disaster. An emergency can be defined in the context of the social,
political and epidemiological circumstances in which it occurs.

Mitigation: is permanent reduction of the risk of a disaster. Primary mitigation refers to reducing
the resistance of the hazard and reducing vulnerability. Secondary mitigation refers to reducing
the effects of the hazard (preparedness). Mitigation includes recognizing that disasters will
occur; attempts are made to reduce the harmful effects of a disaster, and to Iimit their impact on
human suffering and economic assets.

Disaster prevention refers to measures taken to eliminate the root causes that make people
vulnerable to disaster. Prevention is defined as those activities taken to prevent a natural
phenomenon or potential hazard from having harmful effects on either people or economic
assets. Delayed actions drain the economy and the resources for emergency response within a
region. For developing nations, prevention is perhaps the most critical components in managing
disasters, however, it is clearly one of the most difficult to promote.

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Prevention planning is based on two issues: hazard identification (identifying the actual threats
facing a community) and vulnerability assessment (evaluating the risk and capacity of a
community to handle the consequences of the disaster). Once these issues put in order of priority,
emergency managers can determine the appropriate prevention strategies.

Preparedness: Are the measures that ensure the organized mobilization of personnel, funds,
equipment, and supplies within a safe environment for effective relief.

Disaster preparedness is building up of capacities before a disaster situation prevails in order to

reduce impacts. Its measures include inter alia, availability of food reserve, emergency reserve
fund, seed reserve, health facilities, warning systems, logistical infrastructure, relief manual, and
shelves of projects.

Reconstruction is the full resumption of socio-economic activities plus preventive measures.

Rehabilitation is the restoration of basic social functions.

Response is the set of activities implemented after the impact of a disaster in order to assess the
needs, reduce the suffering, limit the spread and the consequences of the disaster, open the way
to rehabilitation.

Susceptibility is exposure to danger.

Vulnerability - Vulnerability is the degree of loss resulting from a potentially damaging

phenomenon. The characteristics and circumstances of a community, system, or asset that make
it susceptible to the damaging effects of a hazard, shock, or stress. It is the susceptibility of a
population to specific type of event. Vulnerability is also associated with the degree of possible
or potential loss from a risk that results from a hazard at a given intensity. The factors that
influence intensity include demographics, the age, and resilience of the environment, technology,
social differentiation and diversity as well as regional and global economics and politics.

Capacity: The combination of all the strengths, attributes, and resources available within a
community, society, or organization that can be used to achieve agreed-upon goals.

Resilience- Resilience is adaptability, capacity to recover. UNICEF also defines resilience as the
ability of children, communities, and systems to anticipate, prevent, withstand, adapt to, and

71
recover from stresses and shocks while advancing the rights of every child, with special attention
to the most vulnerable and disadvantaged children. Risk informed programming is one of
UNICEF's pathways to resilience; it is not synonymous with resilience.

Resilient Development - Resilient development means providing children and families with
what they need to better prepare for and better manage crises, and recover from them more
rapidly. It requires addressing the underlying drivers of inequity and fragility that cause
environmental, economic, and social deprivation and stresses. It means bridging the arbitrary
divide between development and humanitarian assistance, integrating risk factors such as climate
change into programming, and strengthening systems that can anticipate as well as absorb shocks
in the event of disasters.

Definition Examples Example of impacts related

to education

Natural hazard -A natural Severe weather, hurricane, Individual: Death or injury

process or phenomenon that earthquake and aftershock, of children, youth, and
may cause loss of life, injury typhoon, flooding, fire, teachers. Psychological stress
or other health impacts, droughts, windstorms, or trauma of children, youth,
property damage, loss of volcanic eruption, landslides, and Teachers. Students
livelihoods and services, storms, cyclones missing exams, not receiving
social and economic credits or certificates. Loss of
disruption, or environmental instructional time.
damage.
School community:
Displacement of school
community, Loss of family
and social support network,
Damage or destruction of
school or route to school,
Increased vulnerability to
other hazards, shocks and
stresses Break in continuity

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 of education system,
Disruption of payroll, teacher
training, or inspections, Loss
of administrative data and
records, increased costs for
reconstruction, retrofitting, or
provision of alternative
learning environments

Climate change - A change Increase in natural hazards, Individual: Displacement of

of climate that is attributed Loss of biodiversity, Changes children and youth, e.g., due
directly or indirectly to in ecosystem, Spread of to coastal inundation, Decline
human activity, which alters climate-sensitive disease, in food security means
the composition of the global Temperature increases, children and youth are not
atmosphere and is in addition Changes in rainfall, ready to learn, Increased
to natural climate variability Desertification, Coastal disease reduces attendance
observed over comparable inundation, Melting glaciers, and possibly enrolment
time periods. Shorter growing seasons.
School community: Loss of
livelihoods pulls children and
youth from school to work or
causes displacement,
Destruction of learning
environment or route to
school, Scarcity of natural
resources triggers violent
conflict, resulting in school
closure or use as base or
barracks

System: Increased costs for

retrofitting or moving schools
from affected areas (e.g.,

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 coastal)

Biological hazard - A Ebola, Avian Flu, MERS, Individual: Increased disease

process or phenomenon of Coronavirus, SARS, Non- reduces attendance and
organic origin or conveyed by Communicable diseases, such possibly enrolment,
biological vectors, including as malaria and dengue, Malnourished and sick
exposure to pathogenic Hunger and malnutrition, children are not ready to
micro-organisms, toxins, and Worms, diarrhea, cholera, learn, Children and youth
bioactive substances that may Dehydration drop out, teachers are absent
cause loss of life, injury, to care for sick family
illness,,or other health member
impacts, property damage,
School community: Parents
loss of livelihoods and
fear sending their children to
services, social and economic
school, ill suffer psychosocial
disruption, or environmental
trauma from stigmatization
damage.
and exclusion, schools are
used as clinics or morgues
and thus contaminated or,
stigmatized, uncontaminated
schools are overwhelmed by
increased demand

System: Disruption of
government capacity to
manage system (payment,
oversight, support)

Violent conflict: Violent Terrorist attacks, violent civil Individual: Injury and death
conflict occurs when two or demonstration, armed conflict to teachers, children, and
more parties believe that their between state and/or non- youth, psychosocial harm
interests are incompatible and state actors, inter-group making it difficult to teach
take violent action that violence, violent attacks, and to learn, prohibition of

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damages other parties' ability killings, rape and other sexual access to exams, certificates,
to pursue their interests violence as a weapon of war, displacement of students from
attacks against schools and school catchment area
education personnel,
School community:
abduction, recruitment into
Destruction or damage to
armed forces
school buildings and routes to
them, schools caught in the
crossfire, overcrowding of
surviving schools, disruption
of school activities,
disruption of household
livelihoods causing dropouts

System: Politicization of
schools, humanitarian access
blocked, diversion of funds
from education to address
conflict, destruction of
administrative systems or
school records, perpetuation
of grievances due to
inequitable access to quality
education.

School-related gender based In or on the way to school: Individual: Injury or death of

violence: School-related rape, bullying, attacks, teachers, children, and youth,
gender-based violence abduction, femicide, Psychological and emotional
(SRGBV) is defined as acts transactional sex, pedagogy trauma, Diminished
or threats of sexual physical, biased towards one gender, educational achievement,
or psychological Violence touching, groping, Lower enrolment,
occurring in and around molestation, insults, persistence, and participation
schools, perpetrated as a humiliation, harassment, rates, Lowered self-esteem,

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result of gender norms and corporal punishment, self- efficacy 26 of children,
stereotypes, and enforced by psychological, physical, youth, or teachers, Sexually
unequal power dynamics. emotional abuse, systemic, transmitted diseases, Higher
structural exclusion, violence, rates of absenteeism,
marginalization, textbooks Expulsion (e.g., in cases of
with discriminatory messages pregnancy), Early marriage
about women and men, causing drop-out
preference for sending one
School community: Fewer
gender to school over
mothers with literacy skills,
another, violence against
Increased maternal and child
gender and sexual minorities
mortality rates, Lower
household earning potential
and education

System: Fewer skilled female

labourers, female teachers in
market

Economic shock: Economic Disruption of terms of trade Individual: Students pulled

shock is an unexpected event Global financial Crisis, Food from school to work, Lack of
that affects the economy. and oil price volatility, food means students come to
Financial institution school hungry and are more
interruption, Unemployment, vulnerable to illness
Underemployment, Unequal
School community:
access to productive assets
Reduction in livelihoods
resulting in parents inability
to pay direct or indirect
school fees, Increase in
teacher absenteeism, Hiring
freezes, layoffs, reduced
salaries, Closure, merging, or

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 reorganization of schools,
increase in parent stress,
depression, household abuse

System: Reduction in tax

base for investment in
education, Reduction in
education achievement

UNICEF: Sample of hazards, shocks, and stresses that impact education

Hazard assessment in the school

Risk assessment is a term used widely for a systematic approach to characterizing the risks posed
to individuals and populations by potentially adverse exposures. Disaster risk is dynamic and
evolving, requiring systematic monitoring in order to be able to adapt risk management policies
to the changing situation. Regular assessments of disaster risks, capabilities to manage them and
sharing risk information are important aspects of the disaster risk management in schools.
Disaster management aims at motivating societies at risk to be more involved in the conscious
management of risk and reduction of vulnerability in our various communities. As a cross cutting
issue, it demands substantial commitment frompublic authorities/civil society and a greater inter-
sectoral and policy coordination at all levels.

In 2008, UNISDR shared Disaster Prevention for schools Guidance for Education Sector
Decision Makers. This document differentiated the various physical, educational, economical
and psychosocial impacts that disasters have on the education sector. It identified three goal of a
comprehensive school disaster prevention programme:

1. To save lives and prevent injuries

2. To prevent interruption of education due to recurring natural hazards
3. To develop a resilient citizenry able to reduce the social, economic and cultural impacts
of recurring hazards.
4. To safeguard investments in school infrastructure

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A framework for Comprehensive School Safety from Disaster

This framework contains three overlapping area of focus. Each of these involves a significantly
different (though sometimes overlapping) set of decision-makers, developers, stakeholders and
implementers as well as indicators, activities and actors responsible for implementation.
Enveloping these three pillars are education policies and plans at the government level, ideally
undertaking systematic analysis of threats to school and system safety and developing policy and
plans that address each of these three areas:

1. Safe School Facilities: This includes: building codes and standards, safe site selection,
hazards and vulnerability assessment, standard disaster-resilient designs, construction trades
training and supervision for code compliance, capacity development, funding and procedures for
maintenance, verification, inspection and certification, retro-fitting of education infrastructure,
both public or private, procedures and safeguards for structural alterations, remodeling,
conversion and repairs, assuring safe access to facilities including road, bridge, transport
conditions, access for people with different functional needs and finally safety from violent
attack.

2. School Disaster Management: This includes: system, policies, guidelines and standard
operating procedures, school-based safety committee, school based risk reduction and safety
plans adapted from guidelines, school disaster drills, school continuity planning, staff capacity
development

3. Disaster Prevention and Risk Reduction Education in Schools: This includes: holistic
infusion of disaster prevention and risk reduction education into formal school curricula to
develop both knowledge and practical experience, expansion of regular extra-curricular disaster
risk reduction activities to increase school and local community resilience, capacity development
of teaching staff and teacher training college faculty.

Typology of Assessments for Disaster Risks to Schools

1. Macro hazards assessment is typically the domain of the much broader national. They include
meteorological, geophysical, hydrological and other assessments of natural and climatic
processes as well as the vulnerability of human settlements and environment. Education sector

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authorities need to be educated consumers of this regional and local information, and partners in
linking this specifically to both safety of school sites and facilities as well as the routes to access
them.

2. Education sector diagnosis is recommended as a foundation, for all humanitarian and

development interventions in the education sector. This provides the essential background for
understanding the system in place and for how to work effectively within it. Guidance Note for
Educational Planners: Integrating conflict and disaster risk reduction into education sector
planning from UNESCO IEP/ UNICEF. It involved: context analysis (which should include
hazards and vulnerability at the macro level), historical review of disasters and emergencies
affecting the education sector, performance of the education system in relation to the risks and
the management and policy environment.

3. Geo-spatial inventory of schools is comprehensive school mapping. as the foundation for an

Education Management Information Systems (EMIS). It is typically the most significant missing
piece required for progressing to scale. Without it, school authorities are not able to process the
data needed for rational planning. resource allocation and monitoring. To plan for mitigation and
response, education authorities need to handle school data such as location, name, Contact
information, school type, school occupancy (all demographics), school calendar, and key school
facilities and school disaster management data. Hazard exposure and vulnerability to conflict
must also be recorded. In large jurisdictions with hundreds or thousands of schools Education
Cluster partners find it next to impossible to consolidate data on damaged school infrastructure
and therefore to thoroughly assess education sector needs. This in turn makes it impossible to
progress from general to rational and specific plans for school reconstruction and implementation
of educational continuity plans.

4. National or Sub-National Assessment of Vulnerability of School Infrastructure describes a

top-down, low-cost, triage assessments to identify only the most vulnerable schools for the more
labor-intensive on-site technical assessment. In those places where a program ot school structural
safety (retrofit and replacement) is currently underway, this strategy provides critical information
to narrow the held of focus. It is conducted by education authorities and/or public works agencies
at the national or Sub-national level. To be meaningful, however, the schools must be identified
and geo-located ideally with visualization through a geo-spatial database. Where central school

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construction records exist, this on paper assessment can identify those buildings of a certain
construction type, design, age and hazards exposure that therefore require closer (on-site)
scrutiny.

5. Non-Technical School-Site "Sidewalk" Assessment is a bottom-up" approach to low-cost

triage. Ideally, it is used to supplement the information from the "top-down" approach described
above. Where no such systematic data exists, this may be the primary source of triage
assessment. This requires a simple approach that can be implemented by non-technical staff on
site, or with support of easily identifiable local technical support. Risk RED's 1-page, Principal's
School Building Safety Checklist on the next page, is an example of this.

School Vulnerability and Capacity Assessment are participatory assessment Strategies typically
promoted 'at the local community or school-site level. These have traditionally been designed
primarily for local sensitization and local decision making. There have been occasional efforts to
expand these tools to guidance tools specifically to reduce disaster risks in school facilities are
currently superficial in these tools. Most of these processes have typically not been linked to
broader decision-making and support processes by education authorities. We must be developing
a broader-based child-led. Child Friendly Schools Assessment. All of these can be valuable for
Post-Disaster Needs Assessment, however, not all collect sufficient data on school facilities
safety.

6. School Site Technical Risk Assessment or Damage Assessment is a detailed school site
technical assessment requiring professional inputs. When done prior to construction, for the
purpose of site selection decisions may requires geotechnical and engineering expertise. When
conducted on existing schools, it is the basis for definitively determining risks and then
prioritizing schools for de-occupancy, and retrofit, or replacement. Since immediate school site
assessment of every school is deemed impossible from a resource perspective, the prior 'triage
step, and the fifth type described below, become essential to narrow the focus. It is also
important to note here that large schools typically have several buildings, constructed during
different periods and with different levels of vulnerability. Retrofit and site-specific. Most
replacement are building-specific, not authorities have found that resources will go much further
if the problems with the highest probably consequences are addressed first, rather than tied to
school-wide refurbishment.

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7. Post Disaster Needs Assessments are typically conducted in the first month following a
sudden onset emergency. The UN Inter-Agency Standing Committee's Global Education Cluster
guided by the Education Cluster working Group (ECWG) is often the main actor facilitating
collection and rapid dissemination of information to accurately define needs, map existing
resources, and identify gaps and priorities for educational continuity. The main tool in use for
this is the Join Education Needs Assessment Toolkit, introduced in 2009 and piloted in 2010.
The purpose of these is to provide a snapshot of education-related needs. They are not baseline
studies, do not provide background information, are not school surveys, and do not replace
existing education data from sources such as EMIS. It recognizes that it must place greater
emphasis on the documentation and sharing of knowledge, and is working on an Education
Cluster Knowledge Management Strategy and tools, systems and guidance for data collection
and sharing. This type of assessment typically leads to rapid recognition of the need for post
disaster damage assessment, and sometimes hybrid assessments are the result.

8. Cost-Benefit Analyses are traditional tools for economic decision-making. While under-
utilized in the field of school safety, these may be of critical importance to ministries of finance
and other economic decision-makers who must relied upon to allocate sufficient funds to
implement school safety.

Core commitments to school safety from disasters

Assessment & planning - Education authorities must take steps to develop and implement plans
and policies addressing each of the three pillars of comprehensive school safety. Schools should
be identified as part of an Education Management Information System, including their exposure
to natural and human-caused hazards and structural vulnerabilities. This information must be
understood by both education authorities, and school Communities. School facilities'
vulnerability must be triaged to identify priorities for technical on-site assessment. The most
vulnerable must be fully assessed for retrofit or replacement. Schools should regularly reassess
their vulnerabilities and capacities in relation to new information

Safe school facilities - Every new school must be a safe school: This mean: a) school sites are
selected for safetyb) designed to meet at least "infrastructure protection" performance objectives

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to withstand known hazards c) constructed in compliance with building codes by construction
workers educated in disaster resilient construction and non-structural mitigation skills and
supervised by a qualified engineer and d) school construction is used as an opportunity for
community education in disaster-resilient construction. Legacy schools should be prioritized for
replacement and retrofit:a) assessed by a triage process b) the most vulnerable given full
technical assessment c) identified for implementation of retrofit or replacement to meet at least a
"life-safety performance objectives d) all remodeling efforts should incorporate disaster risk
mitigation. Lifeline infrastructure and non-structural safety should be assessed locally and
measures taken to assure: safe access (roads and bridges), clean water for drinking and hygiene,
and non-structural mitigation practices in anticipation of ground movement, wind and water
hazards. School furnishings and equipment should be designed and installed to minimize
potential harm they might cause to school occupants.

School disaster management - Education authorities must make continuity plans to insure that
school operations continue in case natural or human-caused hazards disrupt the school year. This
may include alternate calendar, sites, transport or shelter, delivery methods, mutual aid and surge
capacity. An ongoing school disaster management or safety committee must meet regularly to
guide the school disaster management process at the school level, with responsibility for ongoing
assessment of local risks and planning for disaster risk reduction to reduce deaths and injuries,
support educational continuity and safeguard investment in school infrastructure. Responsibility
for maintenance of school physical infrastructure and non-structural safety must be established
by school authorities with mechanisms for financing and execution. Education authorities and
schools should have and practices, policies and procedures for expected disasters and
emergencies. These include standard operating procedures for fire and other fast and slow onset
hazards, includinga) drop and cover and drop, cover and hold positions b) building evacuation c)
site evacuation to identified safe haven d) shelter-in place e) lockdown, and f) safe family
reunification. School personnel should have the opportunity to develop response skills for
disasters and emergencies. These include: a) response organization eg. Incident Command
system or similar b) fire suppression c) light search and rescue d) first aid e) student supervision
and family reunification f) logistics and g) psychosocial support. School disaster simulation drills
should be held at least annually, for each expected hazard, to practice and improve skills and

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plans. In primary schools, lire drills should be practiced four times per year. School should have
a minimum of 3-7 days of provisions for emergencies and disasters.

Disaster risk reduction in school curricula - Disaster risk reduction and climate change
adaptation should be integrated, holistically and taught as part of school curricula from pre-
school through secondary school. Disaster risk reduction should be part of regular co-curricular
school activities. Consensus-based key messages for disaster risk reduction at household and
family and organizational levels should be standardized, harmonized, and contextualized.
Education personnel should have opportunities for development of skills and access to materials
for teaching and competencies, disaster risk reduction through formal and co-curricular methods

Definition of Disaster Risk Management (DRM): The systematic process of using

administrative directives, organisations, and operational skills and capacities to implement
strategies, policies and improved coping capacities in order to lessen the adverse impacts of
hazards and the possibility of disaster (UNISDR, 2009). In the context of this unit, the term
Disaster Risk Management refers to legal, institutional and policy frameworks and administrative
mechanisms and procedures related to the control of both risk (ex-ante) and disasters (ex-post);
therefore, it also includes the management elements. Various frameworks have been proposed to
understand the phases and process of disaster risk management. However, we will consider only
two (2) of such frameworks in this unit.

Disaster Risk Management Framework - In this framework the disaster risk management process
(cycle) comprises the following main elements:

Risk identification and assessment: This involves determining and analysing the potential,
origin, characteristics and behaviour of the hazard - e.g. frequency of occurrence/magnitude of
consequences. Application of risk reduction measures in mitigation: Planning and
implementation of structural interventions (e.g. dams, sea defense) or non-structural measures
such as disaster legislation.

Disaster preparedness and emergency management: Activities and measures taken in advance
to ensure effective response to the impact of a hazard, including measures related to timely and
effective warnings as well as evacuation and emergency planning.

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Recovery/Reconstruction: Decisions and actions taken in the post-disaster phase with a view to
restoring the living conditions of the affected population.

Steps involved in conducting disaster risk assessment in the learning environment

The starting point for reducing disaster risk lies in the knowledge of the hazards and the physical,
social, economic and environmental vulnerabilities and of the ways in which hazards and
vulnerabilities are changing in the short and long term, followed by action taken on the basis of
that knowledge. The process of determining the nature and extent of risk by analyzing potential
hazards and evaluating existing conditions of vulnerability and capacity or disaster risk
assessment is a process to determine the nature and extent of such risk, by analyzing hazards and
evaluating existing conditions of vulnerability that together could potentially harm exposed
people, property, services, livelihoods and the environment on which they depend. In this way,
informed decisions can be made regarding steps to reduce the impacts of disasters. A
comprehensive risk assessment not only evaluates the magnitude and likelihood of potential
losses in case of a disaster but also provides full understanding of the causes and impact of those
losses. DRA is an integral part of the decision making process. It therefore needs to engage
multi-stakeholders from various disciplines and requires close cooperation and collaboration of
different organizations and institutions of the target area. Steps in Risk Assessment consist of the
following steps:

Hazard Assessment: Identifies the types of hazards that have occurred in the area in the past or
can occur in the future. This is usually the first step which then defines other steps because for
each hazard, different tools and techniques are used for analysis and assessment. Earthquakes,
for example, require different instruments and specializations for analysis than e.g. landslides or
floods. The next steps are to find the frequency, seasonality, magnitude, intensity, extent and
causes of the occurrence of hazards.

Vulnerability Assessment: This step is performed to determine the elements at risk, degree of
vulnerability and the causes of the elements at risk. All elements (people, building, resources etc)
which are prone to the hazard are identified and an inventory is prepared. Then the degree of
their vulnerability is analyzed and causes of their vulnerability are determined. Critical facility

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analysis is also performed by determining the critical facilities (that play major role in daily
routine life e.g. schools, hospitals, mosques, civic centers, etc.) at risk, causes of their
vulnerabilities and analyzing historical records of hazard occurrence in the identified facilities.

Capacity Assessment: Capacity assessment means to identify the strengths and resources
available to reduce the level of risk, or the effects of a disaster. in this step, resources of a
Community are evaluated by analyzing the available strengths like skills, expertise, equipment,
infrastructure etc. Then the availability of these resources is evaluated to know how soon these
resources can be deployed and become available to use. Another important step is to find out
how durable and long lasting these resources are and what is the level of their operational
integrity, thus, ability to complete tasks without supervision.

People's perception of Risk: The process of finding out the perceptions of heterogeneous
groups in the community regarding the disasters, hazards and risks that they are facing. Other
steps of risk assessment are identifying the hazards, decide who might be harmed and how,
evaluate the risks and decide on precautions, record your findings and implement them and
review your risk assessment and update if necessary.

Vulnerability and capacity assessment in the school

Hazard identification and safety assessment: a) Assessment of Existing Hazards: Structural

safety of the building needs to be assessed with regard to its vulnerability from hazards like
earthquakes, cyclones, floods and fire. The school authorities need to contact their architect!
engineer or the nearest local disaster management authority I district administration, for guidance
in getting their building assessed. b) Identification of Potential non-structural hazards: Frequently
occurring hazards will be identified in the plan. A period of 20-25 years can be taken into
account. Based on the hazard assessment, the members will prepare the School Disaster
Management Plan. It should include a description of the school's location and can include details
on whether the school is located in an urban/rural, a residential or industrial environment. Hazard

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assessments, both within the school and outside the school can be carried out by students under
the guidance of a teacher, by taking a walk. The teacher can walk the class through the
designated evacuation route(s) to the appointed reception area(s) outdoors. Students can make
mental notes of other things that may become hazardous in the event of an earthquake, as they go
along. On returning to the classroom, discussions can be held with the students on probable ways
to reduce the hazards, and I or how they could cope with them if it happened. The seasonality of
hazards shall also be listed so that the school and the children are well prepared to face it. During
hazard assessment the existing coping mechanisms of the hazards identified must be reviewed. If
the mechanisms are found inadequate, necessary measures should be incorporated while
developing the response plan at the school.

Ways of minimizing hazards in the school environment

Four parallel and complementary lines of actions can be Considered to reduce exposure to
disasters and achieve a more sustainable approach to development: community/stakeholder
participation, public policy actions, safer construction and urban development, and development
of a culture of prevention. The components of a comprehensive disaster preparedness
strategy/elements include the following: hazard, risk and vulnerability assessments, response
mechanisms and strategies, preparedness plans, coordination, information management, early
warning systems, resource mobilization, public education, training& rehearsals and community-
based disaster preparedness.

Disaster awareness group - The Awareness generation team composition are teacher covering
disaster management subject, art teacher, crafts teacher, drama teacher, music teacher, 1-2parents
(preferably working in the print/electronic media/NGO) and students active in the creative arts
and public speaking.

Roles and Responsibilities disaster awareness group

Pre-disaster Obtain IEC materials posters, pamphlets, simple tips on do's and don'ts in different
disasters, street plays. Conduct awareness generation activities systematically in the whole
school, targeting different classes and also staff and teachers. Organize innovative activities and
exercises tor Students and teachers on disaster management to ensure continuing interest on the
issue during normal times. The school can organize Art Work: Posters, bulletin boards,

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exhibitions, wallpaper, cards, bookmarks, creative writing competitions Essays, Poetry, Slogans.
Organize demonstrations on fire safety, first aid, and search and rescue through linkages with
Fire Brigade, Health officials and Civil Defense and Home Guards. Assist in organization of the
Evacuation Drills for various hazards. Work with the warning & information dissemination team
in making students, faculty, and staff aware about the different warning levels and the colour and
locations of flags signs that will be used.

During the disaster - Duck, cover and hold at first sign of earthquake. Hold on to furniture legs
if furniture moves. If outside, move away from buildings. In case of other hazards, assist the
Evacuation Team in evacuation of the school building. For a chemical hazard, assist the Warning
Team in disseminating the required safety tips to the entire school.

Post Disaster- Disseminate information on do's and don'ts so that the situation doesn't worsen.
This can be done in coordination with the Warning and Information Dissemination Team.

UNIT TEN

REDUCING DISASTER RISK IN SCHOOLS

Introduction

This unit is intended to expose student teachers to strategies to reduce disaster risk in the schools
and promote disaster preparedness among the school community. This will enable the student
teacher to acquire the needed knowledge and skills to be able to address DRR issues in their

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schools of practice thereby creating safe school environment for learners, school staff and
visitors.

Meaning and the need for safe school environment

Safe school environment: A healthy and safe physical school environment promotes learning by
ensuring the health and safety of students and staff. The physical school environment
encompasses the school building and its contents, the land on which the school is located, and
the area surrounding it. Again, a safe school is one where teaching and learning are not
distracted. Disruptions are minimized violence, drugs, bullying and fear are not present, students
are not discriminated against, expectations for behavior are clearly communicated, and
consequences for infractions are consistently and fairly applied. A healthy school environment
will address a school's physical condition during normal operation as well as during renovation
(e.g., ventilation, moisture, temperature, noise, and natural and artificial lighting), and protect
occupants from physical threats (e.g., crime, violence, traffic, and injuries) and biological and
chemical agents in the air, water, or soil as well as those purposefully brought into the school
(e.g, pollution, mold, hazardous materials, pesticides, and cleaning agents). The essence of safe
school environment is to create and maintain a positive and safe environment that supports the
learning and development of all students; an environment guided by the principles of respect and
understanding where the dignity of all students is recognized and protected.

Aspects of a safe school environment are good anti-bullying policy that is practiced, school
leadership (administrative) that supports staff, students and parent, community/parental
involvement, culture of cooperation-social and emotional skills modeled and taught, great school
communication, a safety committee made up of key stakeholders (union, public safety officials,
parents, community, students, administrators, etc.), a safety/emergency preparedness plan in
place, ongoing evaluation and practice of the plan; and early identification and intervention for
students at risk.

Programs that improve safety for all students

Conducting safety audits of school buildings, and developing plans to correct deficiencies (e.g.,
installing safety cameras and other security measures). Creating school wide crisis plans and
Youth Violence Prevention. Implementing research-based violence prevention curricula for all

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students, hiring school resource officers, Creating and publicizing student disciplinary policies,
promoting good citizenship and character as part of a plan to improve overall school climate.
Selective Prevention programs that focus on students who are at risk for disruptive, destructive,
or violent behaviors, including those with behavioral and emotional problems, and those who are
victims of or witnesses to violence. Conducting intensive violence prevention programs with
small groups of at risk students, teaching staff how to recognize the early warning signs of
violence. Creating district wide policies for assessment and referring at risk families to parenting
programs, training staff and students on conflict resolution skills. Indicative Prevention programs
for students who exhibit disruptive, destructive, or violent behavior.

Providing case management and other services for students reentering school after leaving the
juvenile justice system, holding student courts, creating alternative programs and schools.

The need for safe school environment or relationship between disaster risk reduction and
safe school environment

Keeping schools safe allows children to look forward to being in an encouraging environment
that promotes social and creative learning. When their basic safety needs aren’t met, children are
at risk for not feeling comfortable at school and may stop showing up, or they may remain on
edge throughout the day. School safety is important to protect all students and school personnel
from violence that includes assaults, bullying, victimization, theft, classroom disorder, fights,
robbery, use of Weapons, sexual attacks and violent crime. Encouraging healthy environments
safety in schools is necessary to support the academic success of each child, giving them the
opportunity to learn and achieve in a safe and nurturing environment. Schools need to move in
the direction of making a durable and safe condition where the children have a sense of safety
physically, mentally and emotionally. Every child should be allowed to question and express
themselves in a non-threatening environment.

Working to create a more positive school culture may seem like a waste of time to some school
administrators who face a host of more pressing issues at school. However, creating a happier
place for people to work and learn can help prevent some of the more pressing issues from
occurring in the first place, In fact, some states see school climate as such an important matter
that they have included school climate. A positive school atmosphere encourages student

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attendance, a factor that helps cure many school woes. It also helps reduce stress in teachers and
students and boosts a more positive mindset in everyone involved. Some studies even suggest
that school climate is a key factor in student achievement and teacher retention.

Since supporting student achievement is educators primary goal, finding ways to improve school
climate and culture should be a top priority. A school's environment and the degree to which
students feel connected, accepted, and respected heavily influences students' academic
achievement, mental health, and overall school success.

Prevention: Activities undertaken to avert disasters or conflicts. Examples: carefully locate and
build hazard-resistant schools; change attitudes and behaviour through raising risk awareness and
conflict resolution; peace education; environmental protection. An inclusive, quality education in
itself can reduce risks of conflicts and disasters.

Mitigation: Measures undertaken to minimize the adverse impact of potential natural and man-
made hazards. Examples: retrofit schools according to multi-hazards resistance standards;
educate learners, teachers, education personnel and community members on hazards and risk
reduction; promote inclusive education and participation; establish a child protection network
ahead of the typhoon/flood season.

Preparedness: Activities and measures taken before and between hazard events to warn against
them and to ensure an effective response, Examples: a functional early warning communication
mechanism; evacuation drills; skills in fire suppression, first aid and light search and rescue;
stockpiling of food, water and educational supplies ahead of the drought/hurricane season or
Worsening conflict; safe keeping of records, teachers' guides and curriculum materials; a
national emergency preparedness and response plan; a provincial contingency plan and a school
safety/preparedness plan. The above examples are given to illustrate the concepts. The practical
steps in Section Il below will elaborate on actions top be taken. As each country and community
is different, national/local ideas, adaptation, ingenuity and learning from other experiences are
essential.

Sexual health risk (STIs/HIV and AIDS)

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The discovery of the underlying cause of AIDS (the human immunodeficiency virus) was
discovered in 1984 by Robert Gallo and his co-workers at the National cancer institute of the
NIH (USA) and by Luc Montagnier and his co-workers at Pasteur institute (France). Since the
discovery of the infectious agent that causes

AIDS (in1984) HIV has spread to almost all corners of the world and is in this present time most
prevalent in sub-Saharan Africa where AIDS is the major cause of death (WHO 2009). In this
geographical area the prevalence amongst adults is over 7%. In comparison to the world total
adult HIV prevalence which is 1.1%, 7% is very high.

HIV can be transmitted in a variety of ways, through sexual intercourse, through intravenous
drug use, from mother to child (parental exposures), through blood transfusion and blood
products, through organ transplants and through occupational transmission. Transmission
through sexual intercourse accounts for approximately 75% to 80% off all HIV infections
globally. In sub-Saharan Africa there exist a lot of infectious diseases, these diseases interact
with HIV. It is estimated that 12 million individuals are affected by STDs globally each year
(Shim, 201D, and in the United States alone, it is estimated that 19 million new infections are
diagnosed each year, with half of new infections occurring in young people age 15 to 24. The
following factors contribute to the HIV/AIDS stigma. HIV/AIDS is a life-threatening disease.
People are afraid of contracting HIV. The disease is associated with behaviours (such as sex
between men and injecting drug use) that are already stigmatized in many societies. People
living with HIV/AIDS are often considered responsible for becoming infected. Religious or
moral beliefs lead some people to believe that having HIV/AIDS is the result of moral faults
(such as promiscuity or deviant sex) that deserve to be punished.

HIV/AIDS prevention involves simultaneously tackling individual risk-taking and contextual or

societal vulnerability, using various strategies to decrease infection rates including (UNESCO
2005). Social marketing of condoms. Education for groups with highest infection rates (such as
sex workers). Media coverage regarding social and cultural customs that expose participants to
heightened risk (such as wife inheritance or circumcision ceremonies). Voluntary counselling
and testing for those who believe themselves to be infected and school-based programmes. Most
youth in sub Saharan Africa initiate sexual activity while still of school-going age, whether or
not they are in school. Initiating prevention programmes in primary schools prior to sexual debut

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is the most effective strategy in reducing STI rates. Schools provide an established venue for
intervention.

UNIT ELEVEN

METHODOLOGIES FOR PROMOTING DISASTERPREPAREDNESS IN SCHOOLS

Introduction

This unit exposes student-teachers to some of the methodologies for effective promotion of
disaster risk reduction or disaster preparedness in schools. It will equip student-teachers with
skill for disseminating the school disaster management plan and for conducting mock drills to
improve on the disaster preparedness of the school community.

Promoting disaster preparedness in schools

Many students spend a significant amount of time outside their homes. They spend their days at
schools, in community programs, and at recreational facilities, which are responsible for their
temporary care until they are reunited with their families. Schools and programs also often
provide additional services for students, including health care and meals. These need to be
considered as part of preparedness planning. For example, schools need to determine whether
they have enough food for a lock down and that they are sufficiently prepared to meet the health

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care needs of all their students for an extended period, if evacuated, or if the power is out.
Therefore, it is important that these locations plan for crises or disasters and share their
emergency preparedness plans with parents and legal guardians. Emergencies can also happen
when youth are in transit between home and school or other programs; therefore, it is important
that school and youth serving programs include this time in their emergency plans. Without
written procedures for disaster preparedness, any emergency response effort can falter due to
variables such as staff changes, communication failures, or misunderstandings about staff roles
and responsibilities. School disaster plans should be in writing, easily available, practiced often,
and consistently improved. The ministry and department of Education in Ghana emphasizes the
importance of safe schools and encourages schools and districts to conduct vulnerability
assessments and develop crisis plans. Vulnerability assessments can help schools and districts
identify risk factors and potential areas of weakness in order to ensure that they are adequately
prepared to address potential hazards. It is important that these assessments occur on an ongoing
basis and the data identified inform comprehensive plans for school emergency management.
Emergency management plans to help ensure the best foundation for all school emergency
management planning efforts. There should be a comprehensive school emergency management
plan that incorporates the four phases of school emergency management (prevention-mitigation,
preparedness, response and recovery), and uses an all-hazards approach. A comprehensive plan
would also be based upon the following tenets:

1. Work from a multidisciplinary team approach, i.e., include school-based specialists from
a variety of disciplines, including but not limited to school nurses, facilities,
transportation, and food personnel, administrators, educators, and family services
representatives;
2. Customize school emergency management plans based on hazard/vulnerability
assessments, and incorporate the unique resources of the district and school as well as its
community partners;
3. Collaborate, coordinate, and communicate with community partners (including, but not
limited to law enforcement and fire personnel, health, public and mental health
practitioners, and);
4. Integrate students and staff with disabilities and other access and functional needs
including communication;

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 5. Support the implementation of the National Incident Management System and the
Incident Command System and
6. Train and practice using both tabletop and full scale exercises with school and
community partners on responses to hazards facing the school based on a
hazard/vulnerability assessment specific to that school.

Just as it is important for families to practice their disaster preparedness plans, it is also essential
that schools and youth serving programs practice implementing their disaster preparedness plans
so that adults and youth will be more comfortable, effective, and efficient in the event of an
actual emergency. When practicing, schools should provide realistic and organized exercises that
increase in complexity over time. These exercises allow schools to identify potential
vulnerabilities, partners to practice effective and efficient responses, and schools to recognize
resources that might be needed for recovery

Some common hazards and how to prevent them: do's and don'ts of selected disasters

Fire hazards - Fire can be one of the most devastating disasters on campus, so prevention is key.

 Overloaded power strips or outlets: phones, laptops, lamps, TVs, hair tools and other
electrical devices all plugged in at once can cause fires. Provide information on fire
prevention in dorm welcome packets.
 Clutter: excessive clutter blocks exit routes and can catch fire if it comes in contact with
electrical or heat-producing items such as hot hair tools and heating systems. Residence
staff should conduct room walk-throughs each semester to spot hazards like this.
 Kitchen fires: students may not have cooked for themselves before, may be under the
influence of drugs or alcohol, feel sleep-deprived or just have a kitchen accident. Prepare
for grease and regular fires by providing fire extinguishers in dormitory kitchens and
installing smoke alarms.

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  Problems with fire exits: each semester, check to make sure the required number of fire
exit signs are installed and the exits are in working order.
 Problems with alarm or fire suppression systems: test these systems each semester in
every room.

Infectious diseases - an outbreak of infectious disease decreases performance in both academics

and sports, puts students' futures in danger and can even damage the university's reputation.

 Flu: hold a flu shot clinic on campus. Encourage students and staff to participate using
posters and a school-wide email campaign.
 Colds, stomach virus and other illnesses: at the beginning of each semester, send out a
campus-wide email with information on good hygiene habits that reduce the risk of
illness. Include this information in dorm welcome packets, too. In addition, hang posters
encouraging healthy habits (e.g. hand-washing, how to cough and sneeze properly).
 Blood-borne illnesses: recommend that all students get vaccinated against diseases such
as the different strains of hepatitis. To boost efforts, hold a vaccination clinic on campus.
Provide information on safe sexual and injection practices.
 Sexually-transmitted infections: provide information on safe sex at your campus health
center. Offer free sexual barriers. Include, low-cost STI screenings and tests in health
center services.
 Meningitis: require all students living in residence to get a meningitis vaccine.

Poorly-lit areas - poorly-lit areas pose two main risks: accidents and crime. With low visibility,
students may trip on uneven surfaces or other hazards, veer off a path, fall down stairs or even
get lost. Dark areas also make it easy for criminals to hide, increasing the risk of robbery and
assault. To reduce risk, take these preventive actions:

 install more or better lighting on pathways, in stairwells, in parking lots and in hallways
 encourage students to use "the buddy system" when walking on campus at night
 have security officers on call who can walk students to their car or dorm
 assign campus police officers to patrol poorly-lit areas

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  Install emergency phones or buttons around campus with direct lines to campus police,
local law enforcement.

Lab and workshop accidents - campus labs and workshops pose unique hazards for students.
Chemical burns, inhalation of dust and noxious fumes and wounds from broken materials, tools
and equipment all call for strong preventive strategies. To protect students from lab and
workshop accidents:

 provide training on tools, equipment and materials before they start projects
 don't allow students to work alone
 practice good housekeeping and cleanup, including disposal of hazardous waste and lab
coat cleaning
 require students to wear personal protective equipment such as gloves, lab coats or
aprons, safety glasses and ear protection when appropriate
 keep inventory of tools, equipment and chemicals
 equip labs and workshops with emergency supplies (e.g. first aid kit, eye wash station)

Weather-related hazards - common hazards related to weather pose a risk to students all year
long

 Ice, snow and rain: plow Sidewalks, pathways and roads in a timely fashion. Use ice
melt around campus to prevent slippery walking conditions. Lay down mats on hard
floors in campus buildings and put up "caution: wet floor" signs to prevent slips and falls
indoors.
 Extreme temperatures: conduct bi-annual tests of heating and cooling systems in
campus buildings. To prepare for extreme cold, put together an emergency store of
supplies including shelf-stable food, blankets and outerwear. In heat waves, set up
stations around campus where students can grab water and cool towels.
 Natural disasters and severe storms: create emergency plans in your university policies
and procedures for events such as hurricanes, earthquakes, wild fires, tornadoes and
winter storms.

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