Discrete Mathematics

1. Define a tautology and contradiction. Prove that the proposition

is a tautology.
2. Define tautology. Prove that for any propositions p , q , r , the compound proposition

is a tautology.
3. Define a logical equivalence. By constructing truth tables, show that

4. Verify that for primitive statements p , q and r .

5. Prove the following by using laws of logic:

(i) ¿
¿
6. Prove the following logical equivalences without using truth tables:

7. Simplify the following switching networks

P P r t

P q

P q r t

8. Simplify the expression and draw the corresponding circuit and give the switching
table.

9. Construct the truth values for NAND and NOR. For any statements p , q prove that

10. Define and write the converse, inverse and contrapositive of the statement given
below: If Kabir wears brown pant, then he will wear white shirt.
11. Express the statement of the following argument in symbolic form and test the

validity of the argument.

(i) All men are mortal
Socrates is a man.
Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
(ii) ∀ x [ p ( x )→ q ( x )]
 ∀ x [q (x ) → r ( x )]
∴ ∀ x [ p ( x )→ r ( x )]
12. Examine the validity of the following two arguments.
(i) If there is a strike by the students, the examination will be postponed
There was no strike by the students
Therefore, the examination was not postponed
(ii) If there is a strike by the students , the examination will be postponed
The examination was not postponed
Therefore, there was no strike by the students
13. Prove that the following argument is valid where ‘c’ is the specification element of
Universe

14. Given that p, q,r are propositions having the truth values 0,0,1 respectively. Find the
truth values of the following propositions.

15. Examine the validity of the following argument:

If I study, I will not fail in the examination.
If I do not watch TV in the evenings, I will study.
I failed in the examination.
Therfore, I ust have watched TV in the evenings.
16. Give i) a direct proof, ii) an indirect proof and iii) Proof by contradiction for the
following statement: “If n is an odd integer, then ( n+ 9 ) is an even integer”.
17. Give a direct proof for each of the following.
(i)If and are both even integers then show that is even.
(ii)If and are both even integers then show that is even.
18. Prove by mathematical induction that for all positive integern ≥ 1 ,
n ( n+1 )
1+2+3+−−−−−∓n=
2
19. Prove the following using the principle of mathematical inductio
n ( 2 n−1 ) ( 2 n+1 )
12 +32 +52±−−−∓( 2 n−1 )2=
3
20. Prove by mathematical induction that for every positive integer n ,
( n ! ) ≥ 2n−1
21. For all positive integers n, prove that if n ≥ 24, then n can be written as a sum of 5’s
and/or 7’s.
22. Determine the number of positive integers n such that 1 ≤n ≤ 100 and n is not divisible
by 2,3 or 4.
23. How many arrangements are there for all letters in the word SOCIOLOGICAL? And
in how many of these arrangements A and G are adjacent?.
24. How many positive integers n can we form using the digits 3, 4, 4, 5, 5, 6, 7 if we
want n to exceed 5,000,000?
 25. In how many ways can the 26 letters of the English alphabet be permitted so that none
of the patterns CAR, DOG, PUN or BYTE occurs?

Solution
Let S denote the set of all permutations of 26 letters of the English alphabet without

repetition. Then |S| = 26!

Let A1 be the sub set of S which contains the pattern CAR. Thus, A1 consists of all

permutations (of above mentioned 26 letters) which contain the 3-letter pattern CAR

as a single object and the remaining 23 letters as 23 objects.

Therefore
|A1| = number of permutations of distinct objects consisting of the single pattern

CAR and the 23 letters not present in this pattern.= (1 + 23)!=24!

Similarly, if A2, A3, A4 are the subjects of S which respectively contain the pattern
DOG, PUN, BYTE, we find that |A2| = 24!, |A3| = 24!, |A4| = 23!
Likewise, we find that:
|A1  A2| = number of permutations of distinct objects consisting of the two
patterns CAR and DOG, and 20 letters not present in these two patterns = (2 + 22)! =
22!

Similarly,
|A1  A3| = |A2  A3| = (26 – 6 +2) = 22!
|A1  A4| = |A2  A4| = |A3  A4| = (26 – 7 +2)! = 21
|A1  A2  A3| = (26 – 9 +3)! = 20!
|A1  A2  A4| = |A1  A3  A4| = |A2  A3  A4| = (26 – 10 +3)! = 19!
|A1  A2  A3  A4| = (26 – 13 + 4)! = 17!
Therefore the required number of permutations is given by

| A 1 ∩ A2 ∩ A3 ∩ A4|=|S|−∑| A i|+ ∑| A i ∩ A j|−∑| A i ∩ A j ∩ A k|+|A 1 ∩ A 2 ∩ A 3 ∩ A 4|

= 26! – (24! + 24! + 24! + 23!) + (22! + 22! + 22! + 21! + 21! + 21!)
– (20! + 19! + 19! + 19!) + 17!
= 26! – (3  24! + 23!) + (3  22! + 3  21!) – (20! + 3  19!) + 17!
26. A certain question paper contains two parts A and B containing 4 questions each,
How many different ways a student can answer 5 questions by selecting at least 2
questions from each part.
27. The number of virus affected files in a system is 1000(to start with) and this increases
250% every two hours use a recurrence relation to determine the number of virus
affected files in the system after one day.
28. Solve the recurrence relation
a n=3 an−1−2a n−2 ∀ n ≥ 2 a1=5 ,∧a2=3 .
29. Solve the recurrence relation
a n+ an−1−6 an−2=0 ∀ n ≥ 2a 0=−1 ,∧a1=8 .

30. Find the generating function for the recurrence relation

n
a n+1−an=3 n ≥ 0 a0 =1 Hence solve therelation .
31. Define Pigeonhole principle, Let ∆ ABC be an equilateral triangle of side 1cm. Show
that if we select 10 points in the interior, there must be at least two points whose
distance apart is less than 1/3cm.
32. A bag contains 12 pairs of socks( each pair in different color) if a person draws the
socks one by one at random determine at most how many draws are required to get at
least one pair of matched socks.
1
33. Let G be the set of all non-zero real numbers and let a∗b= ab show that ¿ is an
2
abelian group.
Solution:
Closure law:
∀ a, b ∈ Z
1
a∗b= ab ∈ Z
2
⸫ closure law is satisfied.

For all a, b, c ∈ G we have (a * b) * c = a * (b * c) as

Associative law:

(a * b) * c = a * (b * c)
ab bc
( )∗c=a∗( )
2 2
abc abc
=
4 4
⸫ Associative law is satisfied
Identitity law:
Let a ∈ Gthen their ∃e ∈ G a∗e=a
ae
=a
2
e=2 ∈ R is the identity element.
Inverse Law:
Let a ∈ Gthen their ∃a−1 ∈ G a∗a−1=e
 −1
aa
=2
2
−1 4
a = ∈ Z . Is the inverse of a
a
Commutative law:

∀ a, b ∈ Z a∗b=b∗a
ab ba
=
2 2
⸫ commutative law is satisfied
⸫ ¿ is abelian group.
34. Let G be the set of all non-zero real numbers not equal to -1 and * be defined by
a∗b=a+ b+ab prove that ¿ is an abelian group.
35. Verify whether ( Z 5 , ¿5 ) is an abelian group.
36. Show that the set G = {1, –1, i, –i} where i 2=1 is an abelian group with respect to
multiplication as a binary operation.
Solution: Let us construct the composition table.

⋅ 1 -1 i -i
1 1 -1 i -i
-1 -1 1 -i i
i i -i -1 1
-i -i i 1 -1

From the above composition, it is clear that the algebraic structure (G, ⋅) is closed and

Associativity: For any three elements a, b, c ∈ G (a ⋅ b) ⋅ c = a ⋅ (b ⋅ c)

satisfies the following axioms:

1 ⋅ (−1 ⋅ i) = 1 ⋅ − i = − i
Since

(1 ⋅ −1) ⋅ i = −1 ⋅ i = − i
⇒ 1 ⋅ (−1 ⋅ i) = (1 ⋅ −1) i

∴ Associative law holds in (G, ⋅)

Similarly with any other three elements of G the properties holds.

Existence of identity: 1 is the identity element (G, ⋅) such that 1 ⋅ a = a = a ⋅ 1 ∀ a ∈

Existence of inverse: 1 ⋅ 1 = 1 = 1 ⋅ 1 ⇒ 1 is inverse of 1

G

(−1) ⋅ (−1) = 1 = (−1) ⋅ (−1) ⇒ –1 is the inverse of ( –1)

i ⋅ (−i) = 1 = − i ⋅ i ⇒ –i is the inverse of i in G.
−i ⋅ i = 1 = i ⋅ (−i) ⇒ i is the inverse of –i in G.
Hence inverse of every element in G exists.

Commutativity: a ⋅ b = b ⋅ a ∀ a, b ∈ G hold in G
Thus all the axioms of a group are satisfied.

1 ⋅ 1 = 1 = 1 ⋅ 1, −1 ⋅ 1 = −1 = 1 ⋅ −1
i ⋅ 1 = i = 1 ⋅ i; i ⋅ − i = − i ⋅ i = 1 = 1 etc.
 Hence (G, ⋅) is an abelian group.
commutative law is satisfied

37. Show that the set G = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} is an abelian group with respect to addition
modulo 5.
Solution: We form the composition table as follows:

+5 0 1 2 3 4
0 0 1 2 3 4
1 1 2 3 4 0
2 2 3 4 0 1
3 3 4 0 1 2
4 4 0 1 2 3

Since all the entries in the composition table are elements of G, the set G is closed

Associativity: For any three element a, b, c ∈G (a + b) + c and a + (b + c) leave the

with respect to addition modulo 5.

same remainder
when divided by 5.
i.e., (a +5 b) +5 c = a +5 (b +5 c)
We have (1 +5 3) +5 4 = 3 = 1 +5 (3 +5 4) etc.

0 ∀a ∈G.
Existence of identity: Clearly 0∈G is the identity element we have 0 +5 9 = 9 = 9 +5

Existence of inverse: Each element in G is invertible with respect to addition modulo

5.
0 is its own inverse
4 is the inverse of 1 and 1 is the inverse of 4
2 is the inverse of 3 and 3 is the inverse of 2 with respect to addition modulo 5 in G.

a +5 b = b +5 a ∀a, b ∈G
Commutativity: From the composition table it is clear that

Hence (G, +5) is an abelian group

38. Show that the identity and inverse elements in a group is unique.
Solution:
(i) Let us assume that there exists two identical elements of G.ie.,e and e/.
Since, Let and is an identity element,
We have
Also t and is an identity element. We have

(ii) Let us assume that be an element. Also , assume that and be two
inverse elements of a.

Then we have, and

Now
Thus, the inverse of an element is unique.
 39. Define Subgroup of a group. If (H1, *) and (H2, *) are both sub-groups of the group
(G, *), then prove that (H1 ∩ H2 , *) is also a sub-group.
Soln : Let (G, *) be a group and H, be a non-empty subset of G. If (H, *) is itself is a
group, then (H, *) is called sub-group of (G, *).

The set, H1 ∩ H2 ≠ ∅, since e ∈ H1 ∩ H2 . Suppose that a, b ∈ H1 ∩ H2 , then a, b

Proof:

∈ H1
and a, b ∈ H2 , since (H1, *) and (H2, *) are sub-groups.

a, b ∈ H1 ⇒ a * b−1 ∈ H1 and
a, b ∈ H2 ⇒ a * b−1 ∈ H2
That is a * b−1 ∈ H1 ∩ H2 which implies (H1 ∩ H2 ) is a sub-group of (G, *).
40.
41. If H is a non-empty subset of a group G, then prove that H is a subgroup of G iff
and for all .
Solution: (i) Let H is a sub group of G . Then H itself is a group .

Thus, (closure property)

and for all ( inverse property)
(ii) Suppose and for all .
Now,

i) For any that is H is closed under the binary operation .

ii) Let For any be any 3 elements, since and since G is

a group, we have .Thus, the associative law holds.

iii) For any (by (2)) thus every element has inverse in H.

iv) For any and therefore, thus .

Hence H is a group and since H is a sub group of G.

42. If f: G  H and g: H  K are homomorphisms. Prove that gof: G  K defined by

gof(x) = g{f(x)} is a homomorphism.
Solution:
Take any a, b  G, then ab  G and
gof(ab) = g{f(ab)}
= g{f(a) f(b)} |Since f is homomorphism
= g{f(a)} g{ f(b)} |Since g is homomorphism
= gof(a) gof(b)
 This proves that gof is a homomorphism
43. Define (i) Homomorphism ii) Ring and (iii) Field with an example each.
Homomorphism and Isomorphism:
Let G1 and G2 be two groups and f be a function from G1 to G2. Then f is called a
Homomorphism from G1 to G2 if f(ab) = f(a) f(b),  a, b  G1.
Example: the groups (R, +) and (R+, ). Define the function f: R  R+ by f(x) = ex 
x  R. is an homomorphism.
Ring:
Let R be an non-empty set which is closed under two binary operations “+” and “.” Then
R together with these operations is called a Ring if the following conditions holds good.
i) R is an abelian group under the operation +.
ii) The operation “.” Is associative in R.

.
iii) The operation “.” Is distribution over the operation “+” in R.

Example: The set M of all 2X2 matrices over integers under matrix addition and
multiplication forms a ring .

Field: An algebraic system (R,+,.) , where F is the set with two binary operations + and . , is

called a field if it satisfies the following conditions

i) (F,+) is an abelian group.

ii) Every non-zero element has a multiplicative inverse.

iii) The operation is distributive over the operation +.

Example1: In a ring for all is a field.

44. Prove that the set Z with binary operations and define by x y=x + y −1,
x y=x+ y−xy Is a commutative ring with unity.
Solution: For all x , y ∈ Z , we note that x + y−1 ∈ R∧x+ y−xy ∈ R there fore R is
closed under the addition . Also we note that, for any x , y , z ∈ Z ,
x y=x+ y−1= y+ x −1= y x ,
( x y ) z=( x + y−1 ) z= { ( x + y −1 )+ z }−1

={ x + ( y + z−1 ) } −1=x ( y z ) ,
x 1=( x+ 1 )−1=x= (1+ x )−1=1 x
 x (2−x )=( x +2−x )−1=1={ ( 2−x )+ x } −1=(2−x )x
The above facts show that (Z, ) is a commutative group with 1 ∈ Z as the
identity and (2−x )∈ Z
As the inverse of x ∈ Z .
Further, we note that, for any x , y , z ∈ Z ,
x ( y z )=x ( y + z− yz)

¿ x + ( y + z− yz )−x ( y+ z − yz)

¿ { ( x + y−xy )+ z } −(x + y−xy ) z

¿ ( x + y−xy ) z=(x y )z
And x ( y z )=x ( y + z−1 )=x + ( y + z−1 ) −x( y+ z−1)
¿ ( x + y−xy ) + ( x + z−xz )−1
¿ ( x y )( x z )
( x y ) z={ ( x+ y )−1 }z
¿ ( x + y−1 ) + z−( x + y−1 ) z
¿ ( x + z−xz ) + ( y + z− yz )−1
¿(x z)( y z)
The above facts show that the multiplication is associative and distributive
w.r.t .
Accordingly, (Z, , ¿ is aring.
Also, for any x , y ∈ Z , we have
x y=x+ y−xy= y+ x − yx= y x .
This shows that (Z, , ¿ is commutative.
We further observe that, for any x ∈ Z ,
x 0=x +0−0=x=0+ x−0=0 x .
This shows that 0 is the identity in Z under . Thus, (Z, , ¿ is a commutative
ring with unity, the unity being 0.
45. State and prove Lagrange’s theorem.
The order of any sub-group of a finite group divides the order of the group.
OR
If G is a finite group and H is a subgroup of G, then the order of H divides the
order of G.
Proof:
Since G is a finite group, H is finite. Therefore, the number of cosets of H in G is
finite. Ha1, Ha2,….Har be the distinct right cosets of H in G. Then by the right coset
decomposition of G, we have
G=H a 1 ∪ H a2 ∪ H a3 ∪ … … … ∪ H ar
So that o ( G ) =o ( H a1 ) + o ( H a2 ) +o ( H a3 ) +… … …+ o(H a r)
But o ( H a 1 )=o ( H a2 )=o ( H a3 )=…=o ( H ar ) =o(H )
Therefore o ( G ) =o ( H ) +o ( H )+ o ( H ) +… … …+ o( H ) (r terms)
=ro(H )
This shows that o(H) divides o(G).
This completes the proof of the theorem.
 46. Let G be a group with sub groups H and K .If |G|=660 ,|K|=66 and K ⊂ H ⊂ G what
are the possible values of |H|.
47. Define (i) Homomorphism ii) Semi group (iii) Monoid with an example each.
Soln:
Let G1 and G2 be two groups and f be a function from G1 to G2 . Then f is called a homomorphism
from G1 to G2 if f ( ab )=f ( a ) f ( b ) , for all a ,b ∈ G1.

Example1
+¿¿
Consider the groups ¿ Define the function f : R → R by f ( x )=e x for all x ∈ R . then, for
all a , b ∈ R , we have
a+b a b
f ( a+b )=e =e e =f ( a ) f (b)
Hence f is a homomorphism.

Semi group
A non-empty set S together with a binary operation * is called as a semigroup if
(i) Binary operation * is closed(closure)
(ii) Binary operation * is associative
We denote the semigroup by (S, *)
Example : The N of natural numbers is a semi-group under the operation of usual
addition of numbers.

Monoids
Let M be a nonempty set with a binary operation * defined on it. Then (M, * ) is
called a monoid if
(i) * is associative
(i.e.) a * (b * c) = (a * b) * c ∀ a , b , c ∈ M and

(ii) There exists an element e in M such that

a * e = e * a = a ∀a∈M
e is called the identity element in (M,*).
It is easy to prove that the identity element is unique. From the definition it follows
that (M,*) is a semigroup with identity.
Example: Let N be the set of natural numbers, then (N,+), (N, X) are monoids with
the identities 0 and 1 respectively.

48. Let R be a relation on the set A={1, 2, 3, 4} defined by xRy if and only if x divides
y. Prove that (A, R) is a poset. Draw its Hasse diagram.
Solution:
From the definition of R, we have
R={( x , y ) /x , y ∈ A∧x∣y }
¿ {( 1 , 1 ) , ( 1 , 2 ) , ( 1 , 3 ) , (1 , 4 ) , ( 2, 2 ) , ( 2, 4 ) , ( 3 ,3 ) , ( 4 , 4 ) }
 We observe that ( a , a ) ∈ R for all a ∈ A . Hence R is reflexive on A.
We verify that the elements of R are such that if ( a , b ) ∈ R∧a ≠ b , then ( b , a ) ∉ R .
Therefore, R is antisymmetric on A.
Further, we check that the elements of R such that if ( a , b ) ∈ R∧( b ,c ) ∈ R then ( a , c ) ∈ R .
Therefore, A is transitive on A.
Thus R is reflexive, antisymmetric and transitive. Hence R is a partial order on A; that is,
(A, R) is a poset.
The Hasse diagram for R is as shown below.
4

2 3

1
49. Consider the Hasse diagram of a poset (A, R) given below.
g h
f

d e

c
a b
If B={c, d, e} find (if they exist)
(i) All upper bounds of B, (ii) all lower bounds of B,
(ii) the least upper bound of B. (iv) the greatest lower bound of B.

Soln:
a. All of c,d,e which are B are related to f,g,h. Therefore, Upper bounds of B are
f,g,h.
b. The elements a,b and c are related to all to c,d,e which are in B. Therefore, a,b
and c are lower bounds of B.
c. The upper bound f of B is related to the other upper bounds g and h of B.
Therefore, f is the least upper bound of B.
The lower bounds a and b are related to the lower bound c of B. Therefore, c is the
greatest lower bound of B

50. Find the maximal , minimal, least and greatest elements of the posets.
 5

3
5 4
4
3 7
6
2 3 2 8
4
5
6 Fig(ii)
1 Fig(i) 1 2 9
1 Fig(iii)

Solution:

Figure 1 Figure2 Figure 3

Maximal elements: 3,5 5 4,7
Minimal elements: 1,6 1,2 1,9,8
Greatest element: nil 5 nil
Least element: nil nil nil

51. Let A= {1,2,3,4,6,12}.On A define the relation R by aRb if “a divides b” prove that R
is a partial order on A and draw the Hasse diagram of this relation.
52. Draw the Hasse diagram for the set of all positive divisors of 36 i.e
D36={1,2,3,4,6,9,12,18,36}

53. Given A={2,3,6,12} and the relation R defined on A by the Hasse diagram as show
below find, lub{2, 3}, glb{2,3},lub{2, 12} and glb{6, 12}. Is (A, R) is a Lattice? If
not give reason.

12

6
Solution: By observing the given Hasse diagram carefully
we find that
2 3
does not exist.

Since the meet for 2 and 3 does not exist. Therefore (A, R) is not lattice.

54. Use logic gates to represent

(a) ┐ p˅ q
(b) (x ˅ y )˄ ┐ x Draw up the truth table for each circuit.
55. Verify for these two combinatorial circuits are equivalent.

.
56. Let S= { a , b , c }∧P(S) be the power set of S. define the relation R by XRY if and only
if X ⊆ Y . Show that this relation is a partial order on P(S). Draw its Hasse diagram.
Soln:

57. Define lattice , Consider the poset whose Hasse diagram is shown below.is this lattice
Lattice A poset〈 A,≤ 〉is a lattice iff every pair of elements in have both a meet
and a join.
In other words, A poset 〈A,≤ 〉is lattice, if for all , the elements
and exist in A.

Let (A, R) be a poset. This poset is called a lattice if , for all x, y ∈ A, the elements
Soln:

LUB{x, y} and GLB{x, y} exist in A.

Consider the elements 1 and 3.
• Upper bounds of 1 are 1, 2, 4 and 5.
• Upper bounds of 3 are 3, 2, 4 and 5.
• 2, 4 and 5 are upper bounds for the pair 1 and 3.
• There is no lub since
- 2 is not related to 4
- 4 is not related to 2
- 2 and 4 are both related to 5.
• There is no glb either.
The poset is not a lattice.
58. Define (i)Lattice (ii) Sub Lattice (iii) Complement Lattice (iv) Lattice
homomorphism.
Soln
Lattice A poset〈 A,≤ 〉is a lattice iff every pair of elements in have both a meet
and a join.
In other words, A poset 〈A,≤ 〉is lattice, if for all , the elements
and exist in A.
 Example1:Consider a poset 〈N,≤ 〉wher N is the set of natural numbers. Then for
any , we note that and both of
these belong to . Therefore , the poset is a latiice.

Definition:

a + b ∈ A and a ⋅ b ∈ A whenever a ∈ A and b ∈ A.

Let (L, ≤) be a lattice. A non-empty subset A of L is called a sub lattice of L if

If A is a sub lattice of L, then A is closed under the operations of ‘’ ⋅ and ‘+’.

relation “division” in Z + such that for any a, b ∈ Z + , a D b if a divides 6. Then (Z

Example 1: Let Z + be the set of all positive integers and let D denote the

, D) is a lattice in which a + b = LCM of a and b and a ⋅ b = GCD of a and b.

Definition : Let (L, ⋅, +, 0, 1) be a lattice L is said to complemented lattice if
+

every element has at least one complement.

Example 7: Let (L3, ≤3 ) be a lattice of 3-tuples of 0 and 1. The complement of an
element of L3 can be obtained by changing 1 by 0 and 0 by 1 in the 3-tuples
representing the element.
The complement of (0, 1, 1) is (1, 0, 0), the complement of (1, 0, 1) is (0, 1, 0)
and so an. The bounds of (0, 0, 0) and (1, 1, 1).
Lattice homomorphism: Let (L, * , +) and (S, ^, V) be two lattice. A mapping g: L

a, b ∈ L,
 S is called a lattice homomorphism from the lattice (L, *, +) to (S, ^, V) if for any

g(a*b)=g(a) ^ g(b) and g(a+ b) = g(a) v g(b).

59. Simplify the expression and draw the corresponding circuit and give the switching
table.

Ans:
and table