Gunology 1

GUNOLOGY- A STUDENT SUPPLEMENT

Gunology was written by Paul Doane as a study guide for firearms salesman. The intent of this study
guide was to “inspire its readers to become better and more valuable members of the firearms trade.”
The information presented in Gunology provides a strong foundation for those interested in this
industry. Despite the sometimes aged appearance of the diagrams and illustrations, the information
is still very relevant and applicable today. Gunology is an intimate look at the Winchester Western
models. As a classic American brand and blueprint for later arms-makers, it makes an ideal way to
begin your gunsmithing course.

A BRIEF BACKGROUND
Introduction-Shooting Sports-A Little History

When men first learned to converse together, doubtless a favorite topic was the best way to make a
stone club, or fire-point a spear. Centuries later perhaps the best wood for a bow or how to shape a
flint arrowhead was debated among gatherings of huntsmen. Human nature hasn't changed much,
at least in this respect. Of course, our primitive ancestors hunted for their existence whereas today
we hunt for the sport of it. But now, as then, we are much concerned with the arms we use, which
today, for the most part, are sporting firearms rifles and shotguns.The study of firearms is a most
fascinating subject. Books, pamphlets, and articles on their history, development, uses, performance,
and selection would fill a good-sized library, and the outpouring of gun-lore continues unabated. We
mention this so that you will know at the outset that much more is to be learned than we can tell you
here. The fact is, we can only touch on the interesting history and development of rifles and shot-
guns. Indeed, we must quickly bring you smack into the present, and even then only to cover a few
fundamentals; we simply don't have the time or space for more. But in this little booklet, we will
try to compress enough basic information to enable you to talk intelligently with your customers.
Believe it or not, you'll learn much from them. Additional reading will help greatly, and best of all,
actual use of firearms by yourself.

A LITTLE HISTORY
Rifles and shotguns today are breech-loaders. Until about a hundred years ago most firearms were
muzzle-loaders. Breech-loading had been tried, but all such arms leaked powder gas at the breech,
weakening the charge, and often burning the hand or face of the shooter. Breech-loading first became
practical about 1860 with the advent of fixed ammunition having metallic cartridge cases to act as
gas seals. More about this later.

Smooth Bores
Most early firearms were smooth bores using a round lead ball, lead shot, or cut-up lead scraps.
There were arquebuses, blunderbusses, and later muskets and fowling pieces.
The earliest muzzle-loaders were fired by a slow match applied to a touch hole at the breech. Later
the charge was set off by a shower of sparks from steel and flint, first by a wheel-lock wound up by a
key and then by a more practical device called a flint-lock.

A gun was made up of "lock, stock, and barrel," an expression for completeness that is still with us
today. Flint-locks were "primed" by fine powder carried in a "pan" into which the sparks from the

Gunology 1
contact of flint and steel were
showered. But sometimes the
priming powder jarred away
from the "touchhole" and went
off with a flash which failed to
set off the powder charge in the
barrel. This was called a "flash
in the pan."Smooth bore muskets
were far from accurate. "Don't
fire until you see the whites of
their eyes" was shouted at Bun-
ker Hill for good reason. Hits
beyond fifty yards became more
and more unlikely as the range
increased.

Kentucky Rifles
Before this someone, we think
in Germany, had discovered that
grooves in a barrel enabled tight-
er fitting bullets to be rammed
down easily. If the grooves were
spiraled so the bullet spun, accu-
racy was immensely improved.
The process of grooving the
barrels was called rifling; hence
the name "rifle." About 1725,
German gunsmiths in Pennsylvania were making the famous "Kentucky" pattern flint-lock rifles.
These were lighter, very accurate, and being of smaller bore were economical of lead and powder,
scarce articles along the Kentucky frontier to the unknown West.

Percussion Caps
The next great improvement in firearms was the invention of the percussion cap in the early 1800's.
The Civil War was fought mainly with percussion-cap, muzzle-loading rifles using conical lead
"Minie" balls. Today's primer is simply a refinement of the "cap" which fitted over a "nipple" extend-
ing into the breech. The hollow-faced hammer, on hitting the cap, exploded the fulminate compound
in the cap, which shot a stream of flame through the hollow nipple into the powder charge. Bullets
began to assume the conical shape of today, except that they were of large caliber, and fat and short
as compared to the slimmer, more elongated bullets of modern ammunition.

Breech Loaders
Practical breech-loading rifles began to appear at this time, and a few were actually used by Northern

2 Gunology
troops. The most notable were the Spencer and the Henry. Both were practical repeating rifles using
the then recently invented metallic cartridge, in which the powder, bullet, and priming were con-
tained in a metallic case. These rifles used rim fire, copper-cased cartridges of relatively low power
by modern standards.
With sturdier, stronger brass cases and center fire primers, heavier loads and the rifles to use them
went hand in hand. Knock-down power was obtained by large caliber heavy bullets propelled to the
limit of black powder velocities, then the only kind of powder known. But their velocity was low by
present-day standards and their path of flight (trajectory) very curved. Their accuracy was good, but
at ranges over 150 yards the descent of the bullet was so steep that accurate judgment of the range

and correct sight-setting were required to insure hitting.These old black powder rifles are relics of
the past. With a couple of exceptions, cartridges are no longer made for them.
Smokeless Powder
Next came the advent of smokeless powder, which brought far-reaching changes. Among these was
a great increase in velocity. By reducing bullet diameter and weight, striking energy was amplified
by increased velocities nearly double those obtainable with black powder. This in turn meant a much
flatter shooting rifle, as the force of gravity had less time to pull the bullet down in its shortened time
of flight. Side-winds, too, had less time to blow the bullet off its course. Misses due to errors in
estimating the range and windage were cut materially, and the target was not obscured by smoke.
Over the past 70 years, smokeless powder has stimulated a steady improvement of gun steels, heat
treatments and special alloys designed to withstand the higher pressures of the most modern car-
tridges. Powders have been improved; they burn cooler and are less erosive to barrels; non-corrosive
primers have practically done away with pitted barrels; improved bullet jackets have all but eliminat-
ed metal fouling.

Evolution of the Shotgun

Shotguns trace their descent from the ancient bell-mouth blunderbuss. The later fowling piece was
simply a shorter, lighter version of the smooth bore musket. The slow ignition of the flint-lock barred
much success in hitting birds on the wing, and fowling pieces were not too much in evidence until
the percussion cap, with its more rapid ignition, made wing shooting more practical.The average

Gunology 3
individual found that his 69 caliber smooth bore musket, loaded with a charge of shot pellets, served
well enough at sitting ducks. But rifled barrels were unsuited for shot loads; as the rifle supplant-
ed the smooth bore musket, the fowling piece or shotgun, as it was beginning to be called, was
made with both single and double barrels, and rapidly acquired the characteristics that it has today.
Breech-loading shotguns appeared earlier but did not come into common use until about 1880, when
the modern shot shell evolved from earlier types of ammunition.
Shortly after breech-loading shotguns appeared, choke boring was discovered. By constricting the
bore at the muzzle, it was found that a gun would throw a narrower, denser pattern of shot, thus
extending its effective range. Today most shotgun barrels are choked to some degree. Repeating
shotguns were first introduced about eighty years ago. The first was a lever action Winchester. A later
development was the slide action or "pump gun" in the form of the famous Winchester Model 97
and the Winchester Model 12. Self-loading, auto-loading, or automatic shotguns (all three terms are
synonymous) followed in the early 1900's.
Except for minor refinements in design, metallurgy, and new operating concepts, this brings us pretty
much up-to-date, and we must now get into the study of present-day firearms.

4 Gunology
The approximate bore diameter of each shotgun gauge shown below is the result of the original
method of determining gauge by counting the number of lead balls per pound for each gauge gun,
except the 410 which is a caliber, not a gauge.

SHOTGUN GAUGES

Shotguns
Gauges-Barrels-Chokes-Performance-Types-Miscellany

Before going into the several types of shotguns, there's much to be learned about features and perfor-
mance common to all shotguns. As the name implies, they are made to shoot shot. They are the only
practical arms for bird and waterfowl shooting; they are much used on small game, such as rabbits,
and for trap and skeet shooting.

Like its muzzle-loading predecessor, the fowling-piece, the shotgun has a smooth bore. Because its
charge is a load of shot pellets, the shotgun bore is large in diameter. The size of the bore is desig-
nated by its gauge.While years ago 8 and 10 gauge guns were fairly common, today 12, 16, 20, 28
gauges and 410 bores are the only sizes still being manufactured in the U.S.A.

GAUGES
The term "gauge" derives from the number of round lead balls required to make a pound. Thus a
twelve gauge gun has a bore which, if it had no choke, would accept one roundball, twelve of which
would weigh a pound. This is an antiquated means of measurement no longer used in manufacturing
practice, but one which has stuck in the marketplace because it serves its descriptive purpose very
well. Actually, because of thechoke, solid balls for twelve gauge guns weigh only one ounce or
sixteen to the pound. Incidentally, our British cousins usually say "bore" instead of gauge, and in-
deed many Americans use this term.

The smaller the number, the larger the gauge.Twelve gauge guns have larger diameter barrels than
sixteen gauge guns, sixteens larger than twenty gauge, and so on. 410 bore is an exception; it is the
actual barrel diameter, .410 inches. Being a late comer, it escaped the older nomenclature. Actually
it's about 36 gauge. Since the bore is larger, the twelve gauge can efficiently handle more shot than a
sixteen and, to an even greater degree, more than a twenty gauge.

Here are the standard shot shell loads available for 12, 16 and 20 gauges in 2 3/4" shells.

Gunology 5
 Magnum Heavy Standard
12 Ga. 11/2 oz. 11/4 oz. 11/8 oz.
16 Ga. 11/4 oz. 11/8 oz. 1 oz.
20 Ga. 11/8 oz. 1 oz. 7/8 oz.

There are also 3" shells with even more shot in them. But you can still stuff more shot in a twelve
gauge shell than a 16 or 20 of the same length, so the relationship doesn't change. The amount of
shot in a charge has a great deal to do with the efficiency of a shotgun, as we shall presently see.

Most shotguns made in this country are chambered for 2 3/4" shells. This applies to 12, 16 and 20
gauges. Some"duck guns" are furnished with 3" chambers for use with extra heavy 3" "magnum"
loads. 410 bore shotguns are usually chambered for 3" shells, the popular length for this gun. Some
shotguns, especially trap guns, have barrels fitted with a ventilated rib. The rib serves as a straight-
edge to assist in gun pointing, and is supported by stanchions leaving an open space between the rib
and barrel. Its purpose is to break up the heat mirage that shimmers up from a barrel hot from
continuous firing, which otherwise would distort the shooter's view of his target. Many skeet guns,
and some field guns also, are made with ventilated ribs.

CHOKES
A choke is a constriction at the muzzle of a shotgun barrel. Most shotgun barrels are constricted
to some degree. True cylinder bores (no chokes) are confined to riot guns, barrels made especially
for shooting rifled slugs and, of late, barrels intended for skeet shooting. Shotguns are patterned by
shooting at a large square of paper. The standard distance is 40 yards from the muzzle. A black bull's-
eye is used as an aiming point.

Patterning A Shotgun

6 Gunology
Gunology 7
 BARRELS
A physicist would tell you that a gun is a heat engine. The barrel compares to the cylinder of an
engine; the breech block to the cylinder head; the shell case to the head gasket; the shot charge to
the piston; the wads to the piston rings; the powder to the vaporized gasoline; the primer to the spark
plug. The gun throws shot through the air; the engine turns a crankshaft.

A barrel has to be long enough

to allow complete combustion
of the powder. This will vary
slightly but, generally, when
the shot charge has moved
about 20" of barrel length,
combustion has been accom-
plished with smokeless pow-
der.
Shotgun barrels are usually 26,
28, 30 and 32 inches in length,
in twelve gauge. Smaller
gauges usually come in 26"
or 28" lengths.

Actually, there is a negligible difference, measurable only in a laboratory, but we can for all practical
purposes say that long 30" barrels do not "shoot harder" than the shorter 26", as some people insist.
Remember the smokeless powder in a shot shell is completely burned up in about 20" of the
barrel. Short barrels are an advantage for faster gun handling, as called for in upland shooting on
quail, grouse, woodcock and the like.

Long barrels with more weight out front steady the swing and favor a more accurate aim and lead
for the longer-range, more deliberate style of gun-pointing usually required when shooting at ducks
and geese.All barrels have a "chamber" at the breech end, larger than the barrel proper. The chamber
holds the loaded shell and is long enough to allow the crimp to unfold.The "cone" is a funnel-like
construction between the chamber and barrel. The rim of the shell fits into a groove at the rear of the
chamber, which also has a cut large enough to house the extractor or ejector under the shell rim.

Ventilated rib barrels are often specified for Trap

and Skeet shooting. The open spaces between
barrel and rib prevent any heat mirage caused by
rapid firing.

8 Gunology
After shooting, the target is inspected and a circle 30" in diameter is then drawn to take in the great-
est number of shot holes. This is done without reference to the bull's-eye, which may or may not be
in the center of the resulting circle. The shot holes in the circle are then counted and compared to the
number of shot known to be in
identical shot shells having the same shot size and weight of shot.

Chokes are made to certain constrictions to produce the following results:

65-75% of charge in a 30" circle at 40 yards-Full Choke.

55-65% of charge in a 30" circle at 40 yards-Improved Modified Choke.
45-55% of charge in a 30" circle at 40 yards- Modified Choke.
35-45% of charge in a 30" circle at 40 yards- Improved Cylinder Choke.
25-35% of charge in a 30" circle at 40 yards-Cylinder Bore.

Full choked barrels have about .035 constriction. This is the limit; tighter constrictions produce
adverse effects. Cylinder bores used to pattern poorly, with too few pellets in the center of the pattern
and too many around the edges, in a sort of cartwheel effect. Steady improvements in shot shell load-
ing over the past decade have offset this tendency and cylinder bore patterns, which are the widest of
all, now have good distribution. However, cylinder bore patterns thin out rapidly and their effective
range does not extend much over 25 yards.

Full chokes narrow the degree of dispersion, concentrating the shot pattern, and are preferred for
long ranges typical of shooting waterfowl, ducks and geese. Improved cylinder chokes allow a wide
dispersion and are therefore more suitable forcloser shooting, such as quail, grouse and other upland
game.

In This case gun 1" to right and 1" low

at 40 yds. If the shot holes inside the 30"
circle-drawn to include maximum number of
shot holes- add up to 70% of pellets in a full
load, gun is shooting full choke pattern. (see
table)
Patterns will vary from shot to shot--
several patterns should be fired and an
average taken.

Modified chokes are very useful under certain conditions;

Gunology 9
they are actually a compromise between the others-an all-round boring often used with more success
than the full choke.
Chokes which are an integral part of the gun are made either by cutting or swaging. Cut chokes are
formed during reaming of the barrel, with the reaming tool carrying the shape, radius and dimensions
of the constriction wanted. Swaged chokes are first formed on the barrel exterior by grinding less
metal from the muzzle end, to a shape and dimension that forms an interior constriction when the
muzzle is swaged in a heavy press.

There are several adjustable chokes on the market, and also interchangeable chokes that screw into a
threaded muzzle. Both types are sometimes coupled with recoil reducing attachments called compen-
sators which allow powder gases to escape sideways from vents at the muzzle. The recoil is reduced
to some extent, but the report is accentuated.

PERFORMANCE
Gauges, barrel lengths, and chokes all have a bear-
ing on performance.
Here are a few simple facts:

1. Long barrels don't shoot harder. Interchangeable Versatile

Chokes
2. Barrel length has no effect on dispersion.
3. Choke does affect dispersion.
4. Gauge does not affect dispersion- 410 bore an exception.
5. A 20 gauge does not "shoot harder" than a twelve. A twelve bore full choke and a
twenty bore full choke gun will throw the same spread of shot-that is, will have the
same dispersion.
The twelve gauge will have more shot in its load than the twenty gauge; usually 1/4 oz. or 25% more
pellets. This means that 40 yards from the gun, the twelve will put 25% more shot in a 30" circle
than the twenty gauge. To put it another way, a twelve at 50 yards will put the same number of pel-
lets in a 30" circle that a twenty will at 40 yards.

The sixteen gauge is right between the two. What the twenty will do at 40 yards the sixteen will do at

10 Gunology
45.

It follows then, that

a 12 Ga. Magnum load
of 1 1/2 oz. shot will
give about the same
den- sity at 60 yards as
the 1 1/4 oz. load at 50
yards.

Car- rying it further, a

12 gauge 3" Magnum
load of 1 7/8 oz. shot should duplicate our previous performance at 75 yards.

Conceivably, a seasoned gunner could connect with a fast flying mallard at this distance, but not one
man in ten thousand has had the experience or opportunity to learn the long lead required.

Shotguns can be effective only up to the distance where the individual pellets have enough velocity
to penetrate feathers and flesh and retain some shocking power.

Even large size shot lose velocity quickly, and this again, as well as skill, puts a limit on shotgun
performance regardless of gauge or amount of shot.
Now if the 12 gauge consistently outperforms them, why the smaller 16 and 20 gauges?
Simply because they are lighter to carry, faster handling, more pleasant to shoot, and adequate for
many uses. Most upland shooting is done under 40 yards, and the twenty gauge will provide effec-
tive patterns at that range, the sixteen even better, and the small 410 bore will perform quite effec-
tively up to 30. yards if in modified choke or tighter.

Moreover, on upland shooting we use smaller shot in combination with an open choke, the smaller
pellets filling up the wider pattern. This provides clean kills without tearing up game with concen-
trated heavy shot to the point where they are unfit for the table.
Small shot (7 1/2, 8, 9) are ideal for close-up shootingon small birds, as they fill up the wide pattern
thrown by improved cylinder choked guns. However, they lose velocity quickly and lack killing
power at the longer shotgun ranges. Heavy loads of larger size shot, in full choked guns, are required
for the longer shotgun ranges and for larger species like ducks and geese.

There are several types of shotguns.

Single Shot - 1 barrel.

Double Barrel - 2 barrels side by side.
Over and Under - 2 barrels one over the other.
Repeaters - 1 barrel with magazine.

Gunology 11
Single Shot
Most single shot shotguns
made today are less expensive than any other type. They are the break open type with the barrel
hinged on the frame. Farmers keep them handy; youngsters begin their shooting experience with
them, as their low price puts them in reach of all. Many are exported. Most come with full choke
barrels, are rather light in weight and consequently "kick" more than heavier types. Most are "ham-
mer" guns, with the hammer outside and cocked by hand. Some are hammerless- that is, having a
concealed hammer which is cocked when the gun is opened for loading.

On the other hand, single barrel trap guns are quite heavy, expensive and of much superior quality.
Some are imported, and one is made in the U.S.A. All are "hammerless," have ventilated ribs on the
barrels and automatic ejectors. Their use, however, has steadily declined in favor of "pump" guns.
Slide Action - commonly called "Pump Gun."
Double Barrel Self-Loading - commonly called "Automatic."
Bolt-Action
The double gun is regarded by many as the "classic" shotgun, - lowfor
especially priced 2 or
upland 3 shot. and a
shooting,
well-balanced
double is
considered
by most
experts as
the finest
handling of
all guns. A
good dou-
ble is very
expensive,
involving
much hand
work which
increases
costs.

Double guns
offer the ad-

12 Gunology
Gunology 13
vantage of two quick shots from differently choked barrels. Better grade doubles have single triggers
which can be quickly set to fire either barrel first, plus automatic ejectors which kick out one or both
fired shell cases when the gun is opened for reloading.

Quite a number of medium priced double guns are

imported from Europe, where labor costs are much lower. In this country only three double gunmak-
ers remain today, and the prices of their guns range to the two extremes. The Winchester Model 21
double gun, retailing from $1,000 up to $3,500 and more, is a fine example of gun craftsmanship.

Over and under guns have a narrower sighting plane than the side by side double. This appeals to
many people. However, the barrels must swing through a much greater arc when the gun is opened
for reloading. Like the double, a fine over and under is an expensive gun to make. All are imported
from Europe or Japan.

An example of this type, the Winchester Model 101 Over and Under (see illustration on page 14) is
made in the Olin-Kodensha works in Japan, to Winchester specifications and design, and carefully
inspected by Winchester. Model 101 is a high quality firearm, moderately priced, and a remarkable
value.
Slide Action
Slide action or "pump guns" are an American institution. They are immensely popular and there are
several makes on the market. The Winchester Model 12 is the most noted gun of this type. Nearly
two million have been sold since
its introduction about 50 years
ago. Model 12 is now avail-
able only in ventilated-rib trap
and skeet guns and in Pigeon
Grade field, trap and skeet
styles. The standard Model 12
has now been supplanted by
the new Model 1200.

The slide action or pump gun

derives its name from the
way in which it operates. For
example, when the Winchester
Model 1200 is fired the action
unlocks and a backward pull
on the slide handle, which is
connected to the breech block,
causes the latter to unlock its 4-lug rotary bolt-head and then to move back in the receiver, pulling
the fired shell with it, then flipping it out through the ejection port. At the same time, the spring-load-
ed magazine is pushing out a fresh shell onto a hinged carrier. With the empty shell ejected and out
of the way, the forward stroke of the slide handle causes the breech block to push the fresh shell
along the carrier, which is now hinged upward, and into the chamber. At this point, the bolt head
rotates to engage its locking lugs directly behind corresponding lugs in the barrel breech, and the
action locks for firing. A safety located in the trigger guard locks the scar in the sear notch of the

14 Gunology
hammer. An interruptor prevents discharge if the trigger is held back during manipulation; the trigger
must first be allowed to "recover" before it can be pulled. Slide action shotguns are made in 12, 16,
20 and 410 gauges and in field, trap and skeet styles. Some are made up as duck guns with heavier
barrels and 3" chambers.
The newest "pump gun" on the market, and the most modern, is the Winchester Model 1200. It is
worthy of more than passing mention here. This light, handsome, smooth operating gun has the
strongest breeching system ever put into a repeating shotgun (see illustration). Barrels interchange
without factory fitting, and the takedown system is simple and rapid. Most attractively priced, it's
available in 12, 16 and 20 gauges, with or without ventilated rib barrels.

Automatics
Automatic or self-loading shotguns are an American development; but are made in both the U.S.A.
and Europe and are imported
in considerable numbers.
The automatic shotgun
enjoys great popularity in
North America and has lately
found favor in Europe, prob-
ably due to the rising cost of
double guns.

Automatics require no other When the immensely strong, accurately-machined

manipulation than pulling bolt slides smoothly forward, it cams (twists) to lock
the trigger for repeat shots directly into the barrel assembly- not the receiver-
up to as many as five, al- providing rigid barrel-to-bolt dependability.
though most automatics
today have a 3-shot capacity.
Except for the fact that it
is actuated by the force of recoil or by the pressure of powder gas, the functioning of an automatic
action is similar to that of a manually-operated slide action repeater.

Recoil-operated actions rely on the inertia of the moving parts and the delay imposed by unlocking

Gunology 15
of the breech bolt to allow the charge to leave the muzzle before the action begins to open. All sys-
tems utilize the compression of a heavy spring to close the action.

In the "long recoil" system typical of earlier automatics, the barrel travels backward locked with
the breech-block. At the end of the backward cycle, the breech-block unlocks from the barrel and is
momentarily held, while the barrel moves forward, pulling itself off the fired shell which is held by
the extractor on the breech block. Once uncovered by the forward moving barrel, the empty shell
is kicked out by the ejector. As the barrel reaches its forward position, the breech-block is released.
Meanwhile, a fresh shell has been released from the magazine onto the carrier, which raises it suf-
ficiently for the breech-block to engage the new shell and push it into the chamber, guided by the
carrier which then drops back to its normal position. The action is now closed and ready for fitting. A
safety located in thetrigger guard locks the sear in its notch on the hammer.

The "long recoil" system employs the inertia and weight of the barrel and breech-block to balance
the force of recoil. A friction ring sliding on the magazine tube also plays a part and, when heavy
loads are used, is reversed to provide greater friction and slow down the violence of movement. The
"fire hose" or "double shuffle" effect produced by the recoiling barrel is a characteristic of all early
automatics, and was disliked by many shooters. Modern automatics are either "short recoil" or gas
operated.

In "short recoil" systems the barrel moves only a fraction of an inch or else remains rigid by employ-
ing a floating chamber which moves instead. Either way, the action is unlocked after a fleeting delay
and the breech-block travels backward, performing the functions previously described. The principle
employed here can be best described by the croquet player, who, with two contacting balls, places
his foot on one, which when struck with the mallet sends the other ball skittering across the grass.

Gas-operated automatics are actuated by gas pressure, tapped from the barrel, operating on a piston
which is hooked up to the action. Having done its work of opening the action, the spent gas escapes
through a gas port as the piston returns under spring pressure. The action functions just like that of a
"pump" gun, except for the motivating force.
The most modern gas-operated automatic shotgun is the new Winchester Model 1400. It has the
same ultra-strong, head-locking breeching system as the Model 1200. The takedown system is
simple, and barrels interchange without factory fitting. Perhaps the outstanding feature of this hand-
some automatic is the gas-metering device which requires no adjustment for light or heavy loads; it
meters off unneeded gas to save wear and breakage of parts. The Model 1400 is available in 12, 16
and 20 gauges, with or without ventilated rib barrels.

Bolt Action
Bolt action shotguns may be single shot, or two or three shot repeaters. They are manipulated by a
turnbolt. As they are relatively slow in operation, they are not as popular as pumps and automatics.
All are good rugged arms of simple construction and low cost.

MISCELLANY
Automatics do not "lose power"; the charge is out of the barrel before the action opens, and in
gas-operated guns the amount of gas used is negligible.
Automatics can be fired faster than "pump guns," but a man accustomed to a "pump" can easily
equal the automatic on aimed shots. When fired with rapidity the muzzle of an automatic will climb
16 Gunology
beyond the ability of the shooter to control it. On the other hand, the"pump" gun user is pumping the
gun down on the target after the recoil from each shot.

Pump guns and automatics have "receivers" housing their actions, while doubles and over and
unders have relatively short "frames." A double gun with 26" barrels would be about 4" shorter over-
all than a pump or automatic with the same length barrel, which in turn would equal in overall length
a double having 30" barrels.
It's possible to insert and shoot 3" shells in 23/4" chambers. However, it's a practice to be avoided, as
the crimp of the longer shell unfolds into the forcing cone causing added resistance to the shot and
wads, thereby setiing up dangerous radial pressures which may cause a burst or rupture.

The use of old shotguns

having old-fashioned Damascus or twist barrels is to be avoided at all costs. These are not only un-
suited for smokeless powder pressures, but are deteriorating with age. Sometime they are sure to let
go. Avoid them as you would a rattlesnake.
Various sizes and colors of beads are prescribed as front sights for shotguns; one is really about as
good as another. They are as nothing compared to the importance of the rear sight and where it is
placed. For the rear sight is not on the gun-it's the eye of the shooter. It follows then that to be con-
sistent, the eye should be in the same position for every shot-looking down the center line and slight-
ly above the receiver or rib, just high enough to see the bird or target. This relationship must be kept
while swinging the gun both horizontally and vertically to establish a correct lead, using the hands,
face and shoulder merely as a cradle for the gun, the swing accomplished by the body swiveling at
the hips, motivated by the leg muscles from frmly planted feet. To go back to the eye: Too high-you
overshoot. Off center-you shoot behind. Over too far-you shoot ahead,
depending of course, in which direction the target is moving.

Except for higher-priced guns made to order, manufacturers equip their guns with stocks suited to
men of average build. About 70% can adapt themselves to them, finding these stocks to be a near fit,
if not perfect. The remainder need stocks made to suit their physique if they are to consistently place
their aiming eye in the proper position.

Stocks too short result in pun-

ishment by recoil; the thumb
bumps the nose or the point of
comb digs the cheek. Stocks
too long catch on clothing
when bringing them up to the
shoulder. Stocks with consid-
erable drop at the heel punish
the face, as they tend to push
upwards more on recoil.

Drops are measured from a

straight edge laid along the
top of the muzzle and receiver
or along the rib if the gun has
one. The comb is the top front

Gunology 17
of the stock; the heel is the top point of the butt. The distance from the straight edge to these points
is the comb and heel drop. Stock length is measured from the front center of the trigger to the center
end of the butt plate. Most shotgun stocks are made with 14" "pull," another namefor the trigger-to-
butt distance.

Rifles
Single Shot-Types-Bolt-Lever-Slide-Automatic-Varmint Rifles-Long Range Rifles-Rifles for

18 Gunology
 Dangerous Game
The variety of rifles made today is truly bewildering to the uninitiated. If you were to familiarize
yourself with the dozens of models obsoleted in the past 100 years you would be doubly amazed.
The old proverb, "There's nothing new under the sun!" could well have been spoken with rifles in
mind.Although this is a subject too lengthy to dwell on here, we will point out that every basic form
of rifle in use today was the work of mechanics and inventors now long gone. Most were conceived
before the turn of the century, and several date back to Civil War times. So before we deal with pres-
ent-day rifles, we ought to give passing mention to some of the famous old single-shot breech load-
ers such as the Sharps, Ballard, and later the famous Winchester, which are even now eagerly sought
by "wild tatters" (experimenters to you).

SINGLE SHOTS
The early repeaters like the Henry, Spencer and the original Winchester Model 1866 used low power
cartridges. It took a few years to develop repeating arms with actions strong enough to handle the
more powerful cartridges used, for example, by the buffalo hunters of the Western plains. The sim-
ple, strong and sturdy single shots were the only rifles, for a while, that could safely handle the long

Gunology 19
cartridges loaded with heavy charges of black powder and heavy bullets of 40, 45, and 50 caliber.
There were dropping block actions like the Sharps and later Winchester Single Shot, and the falling
block Martini action. All were actuated by a finger lever, located under the grip, which also served
as a trigger guard. The rolling block of the Remington single shot was thumbed back for loading and
supported when fired by engagement of the hammer against the underside of the rolling block.

These famous single shots were later challenged by improved repeating rifles chambered for consid-
erably more powerful cartridges approximating the heavy single shot loads. They included some
famous Winchesters, among them Models 1876 and 1886, and a bolt action rifle called the
Hotchkiss.

All were "black powder" rifles, although the '86 was later adapted to a smokeless cartridge, the 33
Winchester. All are gone now, put out of the race by the advent of smokeless powder and the sub-
sequent flatter-shooting, high-velocity repeating rifles of much improved metallurgy and more than
adequate strength.

TYPES
Having briefly covered some of the old-timers, let's move along to modern rifles offered for sale
today. We list them by the type of action:

SINGLE SHOT- now confined to low priced 22s,

and more expensive target rifles
Bolt Action
Lever Action

REPEATERS
Bolt Action
Box Magazine- Center Fire
Detachable Clip Magazine- 22 Rim Fire
Center Fire
Tubular Magazine- 22 Rim Fire
Slide Action
Detachable Clip Magazine- Center Fire
Tubular Magazine - 22 Rim Fire

Lever Action
Box Magazine - Center Fire
Detachable Clip Magazine- Center Fire
Tubular Magazine- 22 Rim Fire- Center Fire
Automatic
Detachable Clip Magazine - 22 Rim Fire- Center Fire
Tubular Magazine- 22 Rim Fire

BOLT ACTION
Bolt action rifles have a turn bolt with a knobbed handle. The bolt slides in races machined in the re-
ceiver. When ready for firing the bolt is in its forward position, handle down, locking the action, and
supporting the cartridge head. The locking arrangement in high power rifles is accomplished by two

20 Gunology
Gunology 21
or more lugs on the front end of the bolt camming into slots at the front of the receiver; on rim fire
rifles, generally by the lug of the bolt handle camming into a slot cut in the side of the receiver.

After firing, when the bolt handle is lifted, the upward motion frees the fired case from the cham-
ber wall by the reverse camming of the bolt lugs, and cocks the action. The backward pull extracts
and ejects the fired case. The bolt in its rearward motion uncovers the magazine, allowing the
spring-loaded magazine follower to push up a fresh cartridge, high enough for the bolt to engage
it on the forward stroke and push the fresh cartridge into the chamber. The operation is completed
when the bolt turns down, engaging the hook of the extractor in the extractor groove circling the
base of the cartridge and camming the locking lugs home, thus fully locking the bolt and bringing
the hand on the bolt knob near the trigger, ready to fire. The firing pin of bolt action rifles is actuated
by the compression of a heavy spiral spring. On most other types of actions, the firing pin is actu-
ated by a blow from a hammer. The safety on a bolt action prevents movement of the firing pin. On
some rim fire rifles the opening or closing of the bolt sets an automatic safety which must be released
before firing. Bolt actions, and for that matter all types of actions, have built-in safety devices that
prevent firing unless the action is fully locked. The new Winchester Model 70 (action just described)
has a 3-position safety; 1-"fire"; 2-firing pin locked; 3-action and firing pin both locked. Thus, the
Model 70 may be loaded or unloaded by manipulating the bolt with the firing pin locked.

Except for a few higher priced target rifles, like the super-accurate Winchester Model 52D, the only
commercially made single-shot rifles today are low priced 22s, more often than not the first firearm
younger Americans have the opportunity to shoot. All but one are bolt action rifles, an action which
is basically the same as the turn-bolt found on old-fashioned screen doors.
Well known military bolt action rifles include our own Springfield of World War I, the British En-
field, the German Mauser in many variations, and many others. Bolt action rifles for military use
were made all over the world by national arsenals but are gradually being supplanted by semi-au-
tomatic rifles. However, bolt action sporting rifles have long been popular in Europe, and quite a
number are imported, most of them from Belgium, England, Finland and Sweden.

The diversity of calibers offered exceeds that of any other type of action. Some are chambered for 22
rim fire cartridges, others for 22 caliber center fire cartridges for shooting woodchucks, gophers and
other varmints. At the other extreme are heavy, very powerful calibers, such as the 458 Winchester
Magnum intended for the big African elephants. In between are cartridges ideally suited for all
species.

The most noted and most popular bolt action sporting rifle is without doubt the Winchester Mod-
el 70, of which over 600,000 have already been sold. The features that make it outstanding are the
recessed bolt face fully supporting and enclosing the base of the cartridge; the tail piece of the bolt,
fully enclosed against possible gas escapage into the face and eye; the ultra-strong action which has
withstood pressures of 145,000 psi in actual tests. Free-floating barrels insure that Model 70's so
equipped will maintain their zero after being sighted in.

LEVER ACTION
Lever action repeating rifles are as American as apple pie and doughnuts. They are American in
concept, and up until recently were made nowhere else. In the past 100 years, millions of them were
and are now being made, Winchester alone having produced something like 5 1/4 million up to this
writing.

22 Gunology
Gunology 23
To give you a better conception of this huge quantity, let's make a picket fence of 5 1/4 million lever
action Winchesters. Starting at Indianapolis, Indiana, we will place them six inches apart on Route
65 going south. There will be just enough to reach downtown Montgomery, Alabama, a distance
of 580 miles. Driving north and leaving Montgomery at 8:00 A.M., averaging a mile a minute, you
would reach Indianapolis and the end of the Winchester fence at 6:00 P.M.-that is, if you didn't stop
for lunch. Ten hours of travel at nearly10,000 rifles per mile would get downright monotonous-but to
move them out of sight would require 10 freight trains, each of 66 cars, each car loaded with 40 tons
of Winchesters!

Lever actions are made today in 22 caliber to handleRim Fire 22 Short, Long and Long Rifle car-
tridges interchangeably. These are mainly for small game shooting-squirrels, rabbits, crows and the
like-but also for "fun shooting" at tin cans, etc., a sport generally referred to as "plinking." The new
Winchester Model 250 is a good example, and the most modern of this type. Is also chambered for
the latest addition to the 22 rim fire group of cartridges, the more powerful 22 Magnum Rimfire.

Center fire lever action rifles nowadays are made to handle what are usually referred to as "deer car-
tridges." The very popular 30/30 is one example, and beyond question this cartridge is amply suited
for the purpose. It has accounted for more deer than any other caliber, or probably any two. You will
read much of moose, elk, brown bear, grizzly bear and mountain sheep. But you should remember
that about 90% of American big game hunters confine themselves to hunting deer, often the only
large game in their locality. Much deer hunting is done in heavy cover at close range in brush, thick-
ets and woods. The short, light, flat-sided, easy-to-carry lever actions are ideal for such conditions,
and this is the main reason for their popularity. They are favored by cattle ranchers who find them
fine saddle guns, since their flat shape is ideal for saddle scabbards. A typical lever action center fire
rifle is the Model 94 Winchester using the 30/30 and 32 Special cartridge. Over 2% million have
already been sold, and this most popular of all rifles is still going strong. Introduced in 1894, it's the
oldest lever action model made today.

The most modern lever action is the Winchester Model 88, and this very efficient and powerful rifle
rates more than a few words. The Model 88 incorporates features possessed by no other lever action
rifle, features found only in bolt action rifles. The rotary 3-lug head-locking bolt permits the use of
much more powerful cartridges such as the 308 and 284 Winchester, both adequate for most North
American game with the probable exception of the grizzly and brown bear of Alaska. The one-piece
stock is conducive to better accuracy; that is, the rifle will shoot tighter groups than other lever
actions having two piece stocks. Another feature is the short 60° lever throw, allowing more rapid
manipulation. Finally, the detachable magazine permits rapid reloading and allows the use of pointed
bullets, which is not permissible in the tubular magazines of most lever actions, since the bullet is
in contact with the primer of the cartridge in front. Center fire cartridges used in tubular magazines
have flat points to avoid possible ignition of the cartridge in front due to the set-back of recoil.

The older lever action rifles have outside hammers.The Winchester Model 88 is "hammerless,"
meaning that the hammer is concealed inside the receiver. Hammer-type rifles when loaded are
habitually carried with the hammer at half-cock for safety. To fire, the hammer must be pulled back
by the thumb to full-cock position. Many people like outside hammers because even a casual glance
will assure them the gun is "on safe." Hammerless models have a safety in the trigger guard which
will lock the trigger sear in the sear notch of the hammer only when the hammer is cocked.

As the name implies, lever action rifles are manipulated by a finger lever located under the grip and
hinged at its forward end.

24 Gunology
Here's how the Winchester Model 94 works:

1. After firing, the hammer is resting on the firing pin,

unlocking the action.
2. Forward lever stroke.
(a) Locking lug descends.
(b) Extractor pulls out fired case.
(c) Spring-loaded magazine feeds fresh cartridge onto carrier.
(d) Ejector throws out fired case.
(e) Bolt travelling backward cocks hammer.
(f) Carrier points new cartridge upwards in line with chamber.
3. Return lever stroke.
(a) Locking lug begins ascent.
(b) Breech block pushes fresh cartridge off carrier into chamber.
(c) Carrier descends.
(d) Locking lug comes into position behind breech bolt.
(e) Finger lever depresses pin allowing rifle to fire if trigger is pulled.

The rifle is now fully cocked and ready to fire. To put on safe or half-cock, the hammer is grasped
firmly, the trigger pulled, and the hammer lowered gently into half-cock position with the finger off
the trigger.

In the Model 88 Winchester the down stroke revolves the three locking lugs on the bolt head clear of
their slots in the receiver with a slight
camming motion to increase extractive power. The up stroke turns them back into their slots. The
follower of the detachable magazine pushes a fresh cartridge up as the bolt uncovers it, high enough

Gunology 25
for the bolt to engage and slide it into the chamber on the forward stroke. The trigger mechanism
of the Model 88 is part of, and descends with, the finger lever. An interruptor prevents discharge on
closing should the trigger be pulled at any time during the return stroke. Release of trigger pressure
after closing will then allow the trigger to function normally. A sear lock safety is located in the trig-
ger guard.

SLIDE ACTION
Often referred to as "pump action," the slide action is faster in manipulation than the lever type. This
fact has made the slide action very popular in low pressure arms, like 22 rim fire rifles and shotguns.
However, the ability of the slide action to extract fired cases, tightly plastered to chamber walls by
high pressure, depends entirely upon the strength of the backward pull on the slide handle. Lever
actions multiply the extractive force, bolt actions more so, but slide actions do not. Consequently
center fire rifles of this type have occasional-
ly encountered extraction difficulty, which is
overcome to a considerable extent by mak-
ing them with chambers slightly oversize in
diameter. These, however, are considered
detrimental to high accuracy. For this rea-
son, and probably because the lever action
has a firm hold on public approval, slide ac-
tion center fire rifles have never approached
slide action rim fire rifles and shotguns in
popularity. But slide action 22s have
surpassed lever actions in public preference
up to now. Lately, though, the prominence
of lever actions in television programs is
creating a good demand for this type. Lever
action shotguns disappeared from the scene
long ago, overwhelmed by the preference
for the faster operating "pump gun."

Rim fire slide action rifles are put out by

several manufacturers today. All have tubu-
lar magazines holding many cartridges, and
actions that will handle 22 Shorts, Longs
and Long Rifles interchangeably. In the past,
some were "hammer" types, such as the
famous Winchester Models 90 and 62, now
discontinued, but today all are of the "ham-
merless" variety.

Slide action rifles are actuated by manip-

ulation back and forth of the slide handle,
which is connected to the breech block by
an "action bar." Otherwise the functioning is
similar in principle to that of a lever action,
if we substitute the back stroke of the slide

26 Gunology
handle for the down stroke of the lever, and the forward motion of the slide handle to the return
stroke of the finger lever.

The most typical slide action rifle for 22 Shorts, Longs, and Long Rifles, is the Winchester Model
270. This is proving to be an accurate, reliable arm much admired for its graceful appearance. The
Model 270 is also available chambered for the more powerful Magnum Rimfire cartridge.

AUTOMATICS
Guns termed automatics are in reality self-loading arms or semi-automatics, requiring the trigger to
be pulled for each shot. Fully automatic guns are really machine guns. But common usage has given
the word its new meaning, so "automatics" they are and likely to remain so.

As in the case of slide action 22s, it seems as if every gun manufacturer makes at least one rim fire
automatic, and some of them more than one. Most are equipped with tubular magazines. Some are
designed to handle one size cartridge only; for example, the 22 Long Rifle. Others are designed to
handle the 22 Short, Long and Long Rifles interchangeably. All are hammerless.

The typical rim fire automatic is the Winchester 290, which handles 22 Short, Long and Long Rifles
interchangeably. It already enjoys a fine reputation for reliable functioning, good accuracy, and
attractive appearance.
Rim fire rifles are inexpensive to shoot, and are therefore sold in large numbers. Their popularity has
created greater competition in the 22 rifle market than in other categories. This has brought about
frequent changes and obsolescence in favor of newer models. This is particularly true of automatic
rim fire rifles, which can be designed and tooled up for production at considerably less than the cost
of a new center fire rifle.
Center fire automatic rifles have gained ground in late years. Probably the use of the Garand during
World War II has exerted its spell on many thousands of ex-service men, who became accustomed
to a rifle needing only a pull on the trigger for each of several repeat shots.The influence of a war on
the public taste for sporting rifle actions is very evident. Bolt action rifles were offered to the Amer-
ican shooter back in the "eighties" by both Winchester and Remington. Neither got to first base with
them and they were soon discontinued. Only after many thousands of future sportsmen had used the
bolt action Springfield, our World War I rifle, did they react well to a bolt action sporting rifle, as
attested to by the great success of the Model 70 since that time.

Gunology 27
Center fire automatic sporting rifles are few in make and model compared to the numerous rim fire
rifles of this type. Those available today have gas-operated actions handling the quite powerful
308 and 284 Winchester; 280 Remington and 30/06 Springfield cartridges. All are considered ade-
quate for most North American game.

In former years several models of automatics were available to handle lower power cartridges suit-
able for deer. These operated either on the blow-back or long recoil principle, and were on the heavy
side in weight in relation to their power. They did not attain wide popularity, and probably this plus
their unhandy shape had much to do with their ultimate retirement. But today's center fire automat-
ics are powerful, well-shaped sporting rifles of moderate weight, and since many shooters prize the
ability to pour out a rapid fusillade of shots at running game, you can be sure they are here to stay.

The most modern center fire automatic rifle is the highly successful Model 100 Winchester. This rifle

has a triple lug, a head-locking bolt for great strength, a one-piece stock conducive to good accura-
cy and a detachable three or four-shot magazine. It is chambered for the 308 Winchester (the new
NATO cartridge) closely approaching the 30/06 Springfield in power, and the 284 Winchester which
equals the 30/06 and the 270 in ballistic performance. Also available in 243 Winchester.

What the lever or slide action accomplishes manually, the automatic does by utilizing either the force
of the recoil, or burning powder gases tapped off the barrel to push a piston which is connected by
an operating rod to the breech block. Those using the force of the recoil directly are "blow-backs," in
which the weight of the moving parts has sufficient inertia to limit movement until the bullet has left
the muzzle. After this, residual energy in the recoiling parts is sufficient to push the action fully back
against the compression of a spring which actuates its return.

Rim fire automatics usually have a blow-back type action or a combination of blow-back for Longs
and Long Rifles and gas operation for 22 Shorts. The Long and Long Rifle cartridges are long
enough to cover the gas port in the chamber, so it becomes operational and an assist only when
Shorts are used. This last is fine in theory but gas ports in the chamber tend to plug up quickly. The
Winchester Model 290 automatic successfully handles all three sizes without gas assistance by using
a simple, trouble-free blow-back action.

28 Gunology
High power center fire automatics are gas-operated, with a cylinder and piston located under the
barrel like a magazine tube. The Model 100 Winchester has a clever metering device which success-
fully compensates for different bullet weights in the particular cartridge for which it is chambered.
This makes for exceedingly reliable operation with much reduced parts wear, as excess gas pressure
is valved off instantly.

Except for the source of power, lever, slide, and self-loading actions work on the same principles in
extraction, ejection, feeding, etc. But the automatic action is faster and more violent in each of these
functions. This poses a problem as some extractors tend to tear through the thinner rims of cartridges
not expressly designed for automatics. Model 100 has an extractor of generous size, but more im-
portant, all cartridges for Model 100 have deep extractor grooves, with thicker metal behind them to
eliminate this difficulty.

RIFLES FOR VARMINT SHOOTING

You may have noticed that lever, slide action, and automatic rifles are made either in 22 rim fire or
else take a big jump to the moderately powerful 30/30 cartridges and on to the more powerful 308
and 284 Winchester loads. In between there is nothing.

The reason is that we are now dealing with a class of center fire ammunition not so well suited for
deer, and therefore not in demand by the deer hunter, but which is ideally suited for the varmint
shooter who pots at these small creatures from long range and therefore requires super-accurate
rifles. He also wants high velocity loads with light-weight bullets which will kill when a hit is made,
but which will disintegrate rather than ricochet whenhe misses. Much of his shooting is done in fair-
ly well populated farming areas.
To accomplish this, the demanding varmint shooter has turned to high velocity cartridges, usually
3,000 feet per second or better, and from 22 to 25 caliber. He will not be satisfied with the
accuracy of lever, slide or automatic rifles even though they are admittedly accurate enough for
shooting larger game. Instead he insists on a tightly chambered bolt action rifle, preferably with a
heavy barrel equipped with an 8X power scope sight. The Model 70 Varmint rifle chambered for the
225 Winchester or the 243 Winchester is a good example. Or he may have a tightly breeched single
shot or bolt action rifle, barreled by a custom gunsmith to handle a "wildcat" cartridge. By "wildcat"
is meant a cartridge, or conversion of same, not made by the established commercial ammunition
manufacturers.

There used to be many lever and slide action rifles made for lower-power center fire cartridges, such
as the 44/40, 38/40, 32/20, and 25/20. These cartridges are still made, as some of these rifles are still
in use. But these calibers are considered under-powered today for deer and do not meet the needs of

Gunology 29
the varmint shooter. Their manufacture was abandoned years ago.

LONG RANGE RIFLES

In North America, anything from antelope and white-tailed deer and upwards in size is referred to as
big game. The center fire slide actions, automatics and some lever actions available today are made
in calibers entirely adequate for all the larger species such as elk and moose, with some dispute over
their desirability for the big grizzly and the brown bear of Alaska. All, including the older lever
action rifles, are considered quite adequate for deer at short and medium range.

Antelope, mountain sheep and goat are usually shot at much longer range than those animals whose
habitat is in thick cover. The wary antelope in treeless country cannot be approached closely, and
mountain hunting often offers only shots which must be taken at long range. This is also true of deer
in some areas. Such conditions call for the utmost accuracy; a high velocity, flat-shooting rifle to
minimize errors in estimating the range, and a bullet which retains its velocity well to insure killing
power at long distance.

These conditions are best met with a modern bolt action rifle chambered for the more powerful,
modern high velocity cartridges having bullets long in relation to their diameter. Examples of such
cartridges are the 270 Winchester, 30/06 Govt., and the 300 H & H Magnum. Even better are the
new 264 Winchester Magnum and the 7 mm Magnum, and best of all the brand new 300 Winchester
Magnum. A good 4-power scope sight on the rifle is most desirable.

As for the big and sometimes dangerous brown and grizzly bears, they have been dispatched with
rifles unsuitable for game bigger than deer. Most have been taken with rifles in the 30/06 class which
would indicate modern automatics, lever and slide action rifles as being suitable. There are many,
however, who insist that more powerful rifles should be used on these animals to guarantee the
shooter's safety from the charge of a wounded and infuriated big bear. These experienced hunters
advocate such calibers as the powerful 338 Winchester Magnum or the 375 H & H Magnum.

The bolt action rifle, tightly chambered, with one-piece stock and head-locking bolt, exceeds all
other types for accuracy and the strength to safely handle powerful loads, within the weight limits
sporting rifles impose. The Model 70 Winchester is made in many calibers including all mentioned
in the preceding three paragraphs.

RIFLES FOR DANGEROUS GAME

With the possible exception of the grizzly and Alaskan brown bear, dangerous game, in the accepted
sense of the word, does not exist in North America or anywhere else in the world except Africa and
to some extent in India and southeast Asia. Africa really has them; the elephant, rhino, Cape buffalo,
all hard to kill and viciously bent on the hunter's destruction if wounded, and often when merely
disturbed. Lions, tigers and leopards are powerful, vicious animals that make our mountain lions
look like household tabby cats.

All these first-mentioned can be, and have been, killed with ordinary big game rifles using bullets
that hold together long enough to penetrate through bone to the brain. On elephants this means plac-
ing the shot where the skull bone is only a few inches thick, an opportunity not often presented. Too
many hunters, putting their trust in what Americans would term powerful rifles, have been stomped
and gored into pulp by wounded animals who have not been incapacitated to any degree.

30 Gunology
Before smokeless powder came into general use, African hunters used 4 and 8 gauge rifles, usually
double barrelled like a shotgun. These were very heavy, weighing from 14 to 20 lbs. This weight was
needed to absorb the tremendous recoil of the heavy powder charge and bullets weighing 2 ounces
and more.

Today, both bolt action magazine and double barrelled rifles are used, chambered for very power-
ful cartridges, generally 400 caliber or more, using heavy bullets with thick solid jackets driven at
considerable velocity. One such was the 600 Nitro Express, now no longer made, which used a 900
grain bullet at about 2,000 ft. muzzle velocity, altogether too much for most men to withstand, even
though the double rifle weighed in at 16 lbs. More common are calibers seldom heard of in Amer-
ica such as 416, 450, 475, 476, 505, 577 and others. These powerful rifles are firmly advocated by
the experienced, professional African hunter, and indeed required by law in some districts for use
on dangerous species. When hit, a charging elephant or rhino, if not killed, will be knocked down
or at least turned aside in his rush, and with two quick shots available, the double rifle is favored by
many for this close and dangerous work. Double rifles are not made in America. English gun makers
provide them at fantastic prices. They also make several equivalent calibers of bolt action magazine
rifles.

We do have one rifle in the U.S.A., however, that really fills the bill for elephant and all other
dangerous game. Here again is that famous Model 70 Winchester-this time the Model 70 African
chambered for the 458 Winchester Magnum cartridge. The Model 70 African has performed remark-
ably well in Africa on these species, and this most recent of all the big game rifles is enjoying a good
sale there in consequence.

Lions, leopards and the Indian tiger are soft-skinned animals less difficult to kill than the other
species, but extremely dangerous when shot at close quarters in tall grass or thickets. They are big,

powerful, heavily muscled, and of enormous vitality, and require rifles of considerable power. Bul-
lets should be of an expanding type that hold together, yet penetrate deeply into vital areas. The rifle
should be flat shooting, as these animals are often shot at considerable distances. But while some cal-
ibers could fill the bill in this respect, they would lack the stopping power to knock down a charge at
close quarters where the beast must be stopped or turned aside at all costs.

Gunology 31
Consequently, the 375 Holland and Holland Magnum has long enjoyed an excellent reputation on
dangerous soft-skinned game. A newer caliber, the 338 Winchester Magnum of somewhat similar
ballistics, is certain to attain equal stature for this purpose. Chambered for both the 375 and the 338
Magnum, here again the Model 70 Winchester comes to the fore and has made a name for itself in
African hunting.

More and more Americans have been going "on safari" of late years. What the future will hold in
view of the political upheavals going on in the best game areas is somewhat uncertain. But if you
ever have the chance to outfit an Africa-bound hunter with a "battery" of rifles, you can safely
recommend:

Model 70 458 Magnum for the dangerous big stuff.

Model 70 338 Magnum or 375 Magnum for the dangerous soft-skinned.
Model 70 264 Magnum or 300 Magnum for all smaller game.

Ammunition
Shot Shells-Metallics-Cartridge Cases-Primers-Bullets-Powder-Best for What
Guns and the ammunition each uses are integral parts of the shooting combination, and can hardly be
considered separately.

Until one hundred years ago, a cartridge was a lead ball or bullet plus a charge of powder wrapped
in a paper "cartouche," as the French termed it; hence our "cartridge." The soldier using it would tear
off the end containing the powder charge, often with his teeth. He would dump the powder down the
muzzle and, using the torn paper as a wad, ram the remainder with the bullet down the barrel with
the ramrod. If he had a flint lock he would pour a small amount of fine powder in the "pan." If he
had a percussion gun he would slip a cap on the nipple. In either case he would be ready to fire when
the hammer was thumbed back to full cock. Cartridges went through several later stages of develop-
ment, interesting but too lengthy to describe here.

Today all cartridges are "fixed" or self-contained, with the projectile or small shot, powder, and the
primer all cased together. Rifle and pistol cartridges have metallic cases and are called rim fire metal-
lics or center fire metallics, a distinction depending on the type of priming.

SHOT SHELLS
Shotgun cartridges are termed cartridges in England, but here for some reason we began calling them
shot shells, and again usage has placed its stamp of approval and the name has stuck. So shotgun am-
munition is referred to as "shells," and "cartridges" generally mean loaded rifle or pistol ammunition.

Shot shells are made of paper or plastic tubes encased within a brass head which is flanged so it can
be grasped by the extractor. Inside is a base wad which, when the brass head is crimped, binds the
tube, base wad and brass head together, preventing escape of powder gas backwards through the
shell. Both the brass head and base wad are perforated with a hole that accepts the primer and its
anvil in a container called a battery cup.

The shell thus formed and primed receives a powder charge over which are pressed two or more

32 Gunology
wads at considerable pressure.
Directly over the powder charge,
Winchester-Western inserts a cup
wad which effectively prevents
pattern disrupting gas leakage
into the shot column. A charge of
shot is next placed over the wads
and the unfilled end of the tube is
crimped over the shot, making the
shell ready for use.

We must make an exception to

the preceding paragraph regarding
Super-X and Super-Speed 12,
16, and 20 gauge shot shells, As
currently made, these outstand-
ing shells have all-plastic com-
pression-molded cases that are
completely solid and therefore do
not have a base wad. They are by
far the strongest, safest shot shell
cases yet produced.

The development of the shot shell is

an interesting story, much too long
to dwell on here. But we can briefly
describe some major improvements.
One was the development of a pro-
gressive-burning smokeless powder
for shotguns which first made its
appearance in the famous Super-X
shell in 1922. Prior to that time any
attempt to increase velocity, and
thereby the killing energy of pellets
in a shot charge, was thwarted by
blown, patchy shot patterns caused
by the sudden and increased pres-
sures of fast-burning powders then
in use.

In developing the Super-X load,

Western accomplished two spec-
tacular results. First, velocities of
heavy shot charges were materially
increased, with excellent pattern
performances. Second, and just as
important, the stringing out of the
shot load in flight was much re-
duced, thereby insuring that more
Gunology 33
34 Gunology
pellets would hit a duck or goose flying through the shot pattern. Together, these accomplishments
materially increased the range of shotgun effectiveness. Super-X created quite a furor when intro-
duced; experienced gunners using it for the first time were dumbfounded at its performance.

Constant improvement has followed since then, including improved powders, better wadding sys-
tems to completely seal the powder gases, and many minor refinements. Eighty years ago, 1 1/4 oz.
of shot was all a 12 gauge could handle with decent patterning, and then only with moderate veloc-
ity. Today, 12 gauge guns handle 1 1/2 oz. of shot extremely well and at much higher velocities. In
fact, 12 gauge guns chambered for 3" shells perform very well with the magnum 1 7/8 oz. shot load,
which 40 years back was considered the proper amount of shot for an 8 gauge load.

Another major shot shell improvement occurred in 1962 with the introduction of the Mark 5 Super-X
and Super-Speed shells.

By enclosing the shot charge in a collar formed by a strip of polyethylene, the shot pellets are pro-
tected and their deformation much reduced. The collar encloses the shot charge as it passes through
the forcing cone, down the barrel, and through the constriction of the choke. Inches away from the
gun, the collar unwraps and flutters off to the ground, leaving the shot charge with a considerably
higher percentage of undamaged pellets flying straight and true to the target. Damaged pellets in a
shot load broom out in all directions and lag behind. So the Mark 5 collar results in denser patterns
and the shot string is further reduced. But the pattern is not narrowed down; there are simply fewer
shot on the useless fringe and more in the useful pattern where they are needed. The Mark 5 collar
has the effect of adding 1/4 oz. of shot to a 12 gauge 1 1/4 oz. shot load.

Mark 5 Xpert and Ranger trap and skeet loads deliver comparable improved performance. Here
again the effective pattern is not narrowed, but fewer shot fly to the useless fringe and a greater
amount fly true, to form a more uniform and denser pattern where it counts. At the 1962 Grand
American, the country's major trap-shoot, 2,300 shooters competed for the big event. Mark 5 shells
were used by two-thirds of the shooters and by most of those winning the major prizes.

Winchester and Western Double A target loads deliver comparable improved performance for trap
and skeet shooting. Here again, special construction cushions and protects the shot to provide com-
petitive shooters with the most perfect patterns possible. Double A target loads are also noted for
their excellent reloading capabilities.

Winchester-Western tracer shot shells are important corrective devices for trap and skeet instruction.
Bright enough for day or night use, these tracer loads permit the novice or veteran to actually see his
shot and effectively correct his mistakes.

Mark 5 shells loaded with buckshot also show a sensational improvement in performance. Here the
collar is supplemented by powdered polyethylene filling the spaces between the buckshot pellets.
The resulting protection guarantees truer pellet flight, 50% increase in the number of pellets hitting a
deer's vital area, and a 20-yard increase in effective range.

Shot shells are also loaded with rifled slugs for shooting deer. They are used mainly in settled areas

Gunology 35
where the use of rifles is prohibited. They got their name from spiral vanes on the bearing surface
which impart a slight spin to their flight. Rifled slugs are of a diameter somewhat less than that of the
barrel so they will pass through a full choke easily. A hollowed-out base makes the slug nose heavy
and stable in flight. The hollowing leaves a thin skirt of lead at the base which expands under the
wad pressure as it moves up the barrel, but compresses easily through the choke. The heavy slug will
stop just about anything that walks on four legs on this continent, at short range where accuracy and
high velocity are not essential; 50 yards is about the limit.

We haven't said much about shot sizes suitable for various game birds because there's too much else
to discuss. All ammunition catalogs carry recommended shot sizes and as these will be at your elbow
we can skip it here.

You will find, however, a considerable number of shooters who have their own ideas on this and
many other aspects of shooting, guns, ammunition; in fact, connected with the sport.

METALLICS
Metallic cartridge cases start out as a roll of sheet brass. Through a series of punching and annealing

36 Gunology
operations, they are elongated so that they are left thick at the base, thin and springy at the mouth,
and with a pocket for a primer in the base, further perforated with one flash-hole allowing the primer
flash to ignite the powder charge. A rim is formed by a "heading" operation. Rimless cartridges have
a groove cut into the head for the extractor. Rimmed cases are extracted by the rim.

Bullet jackets are similarly formed into cylinders, open at one end, from sheets of copper alloy called
gilding metal or Lubaloy. Lead bullet cores are swaged into shape from "slugs" of the correct length
and diameter, automatically chopped from lead wire squeezed like toothpaste from a billet under
heavy pressure. A bullet press with several progressive operational stages inserts the cores into the
jackets, and closes and shapes the bullets ready for loading. The cases are first primed by insertion
of primers in the primer pockets, and then receive powder charges, after which the bullets are seated
and crimped.

A rim fire cartridge case has a folded head with a space between the front and back folds of the rim.
It is primed by dropping wet priming composition in the bottom of the cartridge case, which is then
spun rapidly in a vertical position. Centrifugal force drives the composition into the fold of the rim
where it sticks and dries. When struck by the firing pin, the priming in the rim is pinched between
the folds and flashes into the powder surrounding it.

The lead bullets used in rim fire and most center fire revolver cartridges are formed by swaging them
into shape from "slugs" of the right length and diameter, cut from extruded lead, alloyed for hard-
ness.

Rim Fire
Lowest on the totem pole with respect to power are the well-known 22 rim fire cartridges: the 22
Short, 22 Long and 22 Long Rifle. These have a history too. Again, we shall have to gloss over it for
lack of space and time.

The 22 Short came first, the 22 Long soon after, and much later the 22 Long Rifle. They were load-
ed first with black, then Lesmok, and eventually with smokeless powder. But the small bores of 22
caliber rifles fouled badly from the sooty powders and would, despite good care, eventually become
pitted with rust, even with smokeless powder.

This trouble, non-existent now, was eliminated many years ago by the use of non-corrosive priming
developed in Germany and first introduced in this country by Remington, although quickly adopted
by all other ammunition manufacturers. By that time it had been discovered that the rusty pits were
caused by the potassium chlorate universally used in priming mixtures. On firing, the chlorate un-
dewent a chemical change into potassium chloride, which was deposited in the barrel along with the
powder fouling which had been previously regarded as the culprit. The deliquescent chloride, closely
akin to common table salt, immediately picked up moisture from the air and set about the business
of oxidizing barrel steel into rust. Non-corrosive priming mixtures used barium chlorate which was
similarly transformed, but barium chloride lacked affinity to moisture, and the great nuisance was
finally done away with. Today 22 rim fire barrels, with reasonable care and an oily rag between uses,
seem to last forever.

Here are a few facts on 22 ammunition:

Gunology 37
The 22 Short has a short case and a short bullet.
The 22 Long has a long case and the SHORT bullet.
The 22 Long Rifle has the LONG case and a long bullet.

The Long Rifle cartridge was a great improvement over the 22 Long. It was brought about by using
a longer, heavier bullet in the 22 Long case. It proved to be stable in flight, more accurate, and more
effective on small game, as velocity was boosted along with the bullet weight.

22 Shorts, Longs, and Long Rifles are loaded two ways: to standard and high velocities. The stan-
dard velocity cartridges are favored for target shooting. The high velocity cartridges are favored for
small game, as they pack more wallop. Of course, both are used for "plinking" and often for whatev-
er else comes along. For shooting small game, the high velocity Long Rifle cartridges like Super-X
or Super-Speed with hollow point bullets are more effective.

A somewhat more powerful cartridge is the 22 Winchester Rim Fire (22 W.R.F.). Rifles chambered
for this cartridge are no longer made, but as there are a goodly number of them still in use, ammuni-
tion is still available.

We must pay attention now to a most worthy cartridge: the 22 Winchester Magnum Rimfire (22
W.M.R.). Much higher in velocity, it far exceeds the Long Rifle cartridge in hitting power and is
very effective on small game. It has also proved quite accurate. The 22 W.M.R., however, will not
chamber in a regular 22 rifle handling the Short, Long and Long Rifle cartridges. Winchester now
makes 22 rifles expressly designed with stronger actions to handle this more powerful load: Model
255 Lever Action, Model 275 Slide Action, Model 135 Bolt Action (clip-fed), and Model 145 Bolt
Action (tube-fed). The 22 W.M.R. should only be used in rifles such as these, designed especially for
it. Conversions from standard rifles are definitely not advised.

In past years there were a number of larger caliber rim fire cartridges such as the 25 Stevens, 32
Short, and 32 Long. These and others have long disappeared from the scene, following continued
improvements of the less expensive 22 Long Rifle cartridge.
Ammunition manufacturers, in fact, have probably devoted more effort toward improving the 22
Long Rifle than any other cartridge. Small-bore rifle and pistol shooters use it exclusively. All
factories make a 22 Long Rifle "Match" cartridge from selected components under temperature and
humidity control. These must meet rigid
testing standards and are sold at a premi-
um price. Western Super-Match Mark III
and Winchester EZXS are examples of
super-accurate 22 Long Rifle cartridges.
They are generally used in heavy, more
expensive, high quality target rifles like
the Winchester Model 52D, the latest
version of this famous model.

Center Fire
It will do no harm to repeat that
breech-loading rifles were im-
practical until the metallic car-

38 Gunology
tridge was developed. The first metallics were rim fire cartridges of relatively low pressure and
it was soon apparent that both a stronger material and a stronger construction than the folded rim of
the rim fire case would be needed, to provide the essential gas seal at the breech for more powerful
cartridges.

This rapidly led to the use of brass cartridge cases made with walls of tapering thickness, thin and
springy at the mouth, rather thick at the base, which has several times the thickness of the walls.
Some other means was necessary to ignite these solid head cartridges, and this was accomplished
by placing a primer cap in a shallow pocket centrally located in the base of the cartridge case. From
this pocket a small flash-hole was pierced to the interior. The primer is a cup of soft brass or copper
charged with a composition that will explode when crushed. A very thin metal foil is put over the
priming composition to protect it, and a cone-shaped web of brass with 3 arms is forced into the cup,
to act as an anvil. In firing, the soft primer cup is indented by the firing pin of the gun, thus crush-
ing the priming composition against the anvil. The resulting flash of primer fire streams through the
flash-hole and ignites the powder charge.

Center fire cartridges are made for rifles, revolvers and automatic pistols.

With a few exceptions all pistol and revolver cartridges have straight cases and are short in length in
relation to most rifle cartridges. Revolver cartridges are "rimmed"; the flanges cover the chambers
bored into the revolving cylinder from which the revolver gets its name. Bullets are solid lead; those
made by Western have an onion-skin plating of "Lubaloy" to keep them from oxidizing. Cartridges
for automatic pistols are "rimless," an extractor groove being cut into the base. The more pronounced
rims of center fire cartridges would not feed well from the clip magazine of most automatic pistols.
All automatic pistol center fire cartridges have jacketed bullets. Pistol cartridges vary in caliber and
power from 25 Auto. to 45 Auto., revolver cartridges from 32 S & W to 44 Magnum. No attempt
will be made here to describe them further, as they are illustrated with complete data in all ammu-
nition catalogs. But, before we go on, we should mention that both automatic pistols and revolvers
are made for the ever popular 22 Long Rifle rim fire cartridge, and at least two revolvers for the
more powerful 22 Winchester Magnum Rimfire. A very recent development in pistol cartridges is the
brand new 256 Winchester Magnum. This newcomer is a bottle-necked cartridge with a 60 gr. Open
Point Expanding (hollow point) jacketed bullet, which leaves the muzzle of an 8 1/2" pistol barrel at
2,350 ft. per second!

Center fire rifle cartridges are made in a great variety of sizes and calibers. Usually they have
descriptive names assigned by the manufacturer first developing the cartridge, but not always. There
is always the caliber, indicated either by hundredths or thousandths of an inch in the U.S.A. and
Canada; by thousandths in the United Kingdom; and elsewhere by millimeters. The caliber figure is
sometimes the bore diameter between the lands of the rifling, sometimes between the grooves, and
sometimes that of the bullet itself, which may be slightly different than either.

How Cartridges Are Named

First, take one of the old black powder cartridges still remaining today, the 38/55 Winchester. The
bullet is roughly of .38" diameter, was originally loaded with 55 grains of black powder, and was
developed by Winchester in 1886 for the Winchester Single Shot Rifle, but saw most use in the lat-
er Model 94, now no longer chambered for this cartridge.

The 30/30 Winchester was first designated 30 Winchester Center Fire, but people were then used
to the black powder practice of stating the number of grains of powder in a cartridge. As the
30 W.C.F. was first loaded with 30 grains of smokeless powder, it was referred to by many as a
30/30. This being easier on the tongue, it gained such wide usage that the original designation was
dropped entirely.

Gunology 39
The 22 Hornet, 218 Bee, 219 Zipper and 220 Swift, all developed by Winchester, were so named
to signify speed and sting, since they were designed for varmint shooting.

The 257 Roberts was named for a rifleman who developed this fine cartridge, which for some sad
reason did not "take" very well.

The 308 Winchester is a 30 caliber cartridge developed by Winchester for the U.S. Govt.; .308" is
the groove diameter. It's also known as the 7.62 mm NATO, and is a United States service cartridge.

The 30/06 Springfield is the older service cartridge. .30 is the bore diameter between the lands, the
06 stands for the year of its adoption for the bolt action army rifle formerly made at the Springfield
Arsenal. The 375 H & H Magnum is a cartridge developed by Holland and Holland of England.
Magnum signifies that this is a powerful "express" load, as indeed it is, with world-wide acclaim for
its excellent qualities.

The 303 British is the former British service cartridge, not to be confused with the 303 Savage; nor
should the 30/30 be confused with the 30/06 Springfield cartridge.

CARTRIDGE CASES
Almost all center fire rifle cartridges have cases that are"bottle-necked;" the case itself is of
appreciably greater diameter than the bullet, except near the case mouth where a shoulder slopes
down to a neck in which the bullet is seated. This is done to provide room for adequate powder
charges without unduly lengthening the cartridge, and so avoiding elongated and therefore heavier
rifle actions.

Cartridges primarily designed for tubular magazine rifles have a rim or flange at the base that stops
the cartridge from going too far into the chamber. The extractor pulls the fired case out by hooking

40 Gunology
on to the rim. Examples are the 30/30 Win., 32 Win. Special, 348 Winchester, 303 Savage and the
old-time black powder cartridges now using smokeless powder-the 38/55 Win. and 45/70 Govt.

Most modern cartridges for high power rifles, however, are rimless, but deeply grooved at the base to
provide a firm grasp for the extractor. The cartridge is prevented from going too far into the chamber
by its shoulder-the slope that forms the bottleneck-coming against a corresponding shoulder in the
chamber. Examples are 30/06 Springfield, 270 Winchester, 308 Winchester and the brand new 284
Winchester. There are many others.

Some of the more powerful cartridges have "belted" cases, which in addition to being rimless are
made with a thick, narrow belt, just ahead of the extractor groove.The cartridge is prevented from
going too far into the chamber by the belt meeting a corresponding shoulder in the chamber. Exam-

Gunology 41
ples of belted cartridges are 264 Win. Magnum, 300 H & H Magnum, 338 Win. Magnum, 375 H &
H Magnum, and the brand new and outstanding 300 Win. Magnum.

When a rifle is fired, the terrific pressure generated by the burning powder gases expands the soft,
thin brass mouth of the cartridge case tightly against the chamber walls. So tightly, in fact, that it
cannot move until the pressure has been relieved by the bullet leaving the barrel. During this time,
unless the base of the cartridge is firmly supported by the bolt or breech block, the case will stretch.
If the stretch is slight and within the stretch limit of the brass, nothing damaging takes place.

However, if the bolt or breech block is not firmly supporting the cartridge base, and there is an ap-
preciable space between, then we have a dangerous condition of "excessive headspace." Under such
circumstances the brass case will stretch enough to rupture some distance back of the mouth, allow-
ing much of the powder gas to takethe easiest way out. It goes through the action, wrecking it, and
probably injuring the shooter in the process.Incidentally, the design of the bolt of the new Model 70
provides maximum protection in this regard.

Excessive headspace may develop from wear over a long period; the stretching of receiver walls
from overloads in rifles having rear-locking breech blocks or bolts.

The one thing you, as a retailer of firearms, must guard against is the possibility of exchanging the
bolts of similar bolt action rifles. For instance, you might be showing two rifles of the same model
with both bolts removed to inspect the barrel interior. In putting them back be absolutely sure the
serial numbers on the bolt and the rifle are the same. Each bolt, receiver and barrel are individually
matched or "qualified" for proper headspace at the factory. Changing bolts inadvertently could in-
crease headspace on a rifle to a dangerous degree and result in a customer getting badly hurt.

BULLETS
A glance at an ammunition price list will tell you that many cartridges are made with two or more

42 Gunology
weights of bullets, and also with dif-
ferent types of bullets. So let's consider
bullets, an item on which much thought
and ingenuity have been expended for
the very good reason that the bullet is
what "brings home the bacon."

All center fire rifle cartridges have bul-

lets with a lead core inside a jacket of
copper alloy. The jackets are necessary
as lead bullets without a jacket would
strip off on the rifling at high velocity.
Bullets are designed for the specific
purposes each caliber rifle is likely to
be used for. If certain caliber rifles are
likely to be used on varmints, medium
size game such as deer, or on larger
game like moose or elk, there will be
bullets available in the caliber best suit-
ed for each.

The light-weight, extremely high veloc-

ity bullets used for varmint shooting are
designed to expand instantly on contact
with these small animals. Examples are
the 55 gr. Pointed Soft Point of the 225
Winchester; 48 gr. Pointed Soft Point of
the 220 Swift; 80 gr. Pointed Soft Point
of the 243 Winchester; 110 gr. Pointed
Soft Point of the 30/06 Springfield.
However, these light bullets, used on
deer or larger game, often produce
hideous, superficial surface wounds and
usually fail to penetrate to vital areas
necessary to insure instant kills. In-
stead, the animal will run off to suffer a
painful, slow death from infection, days
or weeks later.

A bullet used mostly for deer is some-

what heavier and less disruptive. The
exposed lead point expands on contact,
but its uniform expansion is guided
and controlled by a notched jacket of
increasing thickness. Such bullets will
expand-twice their diameter and plow
through to vital areas with little or no

Gunology 43
lead loss. Good examples are the 170 gr. Power-Point of the 30/30 Win., the 150 gr. Power-Point of
the 308 Winchester, 130 gr. Power-Point of the 270 Winchester and 150 gr. Power-Point of the 30/06
Springfield.

For larger game, and for that matter for use on deer by some shooters, heavier bullets of the same
type are furnished which function similarly. Examples are the 180 gr. Power-Point of the 308 Win-
chester and 30-06 Springfield, and the 150 gr. Power-Point of the 270 Winchester.

Another bullet type is constructed so that expansion is delayed, allowing deeper penetration, before
rapid expansion occurs. This is accomplished by the employment of a very thin jacket of a special
aluminum alloy over the nose of the bullet, the thin-nose jacket at its lower extremity being enfolded
by the conventional gilding metal or Lubaloy jacket. The nose jacket starts to collapse on contact,
but is not fully mushroomed until skin and muscles have been pierced. Then the expanded nose
forces the jacket proper to peel back, allowing very rapid expansion to twice the bullet's diameter
with no fracturing lead loss. This type of bullet works very well on deer, but is especially favored for
larger animals where deeper penetration is desirable. It's also preferred by many because the bullet
points do not deform while in the magazine, as soft point bullets do, from the battering effect of re-
coil. Good examples are the 130 gr. Silvertip for the 270 Winchester; the 150 gr., 180 gr. and 220 gr.
Silvertip for the 30-06 Springfield; the 150 gr., 180 gr. and 220 gr. Silvertip for the 308 Winchester;
the 250 gr. Silvertip for the 338 Winchester Magnum and the 300 gr. Silvertip for the 375 H & H
Magnum.

Both types function efficiently at short and long ranges as well as at the medium ranges, a difficult
accomplishment and one achieved only in recent years. It was always easy enough to design a bullet
that would mushroom nicely at a certain velocity, at say 150 yards, but difficult to make that same
bullet expand anywhere near as well at 300 yards when the velocity had dropped appreciably. That
same bullet would also expand too rapidly on a close shot. But these difficulties have been overcome
with the bullets we have described, and both Power-Point and Silvertip are highly popular in conse-
quence.

POWDER
It's time we mentioned what speeds the bullet on its way: the powder.

Just for the record, the original gun powder, or black powder, is a mixture of charcoal, sulphur and
saltpeter. For many years after smokeless powder came into general use, some old big bore, black
powder rifles were still fairly common, and were often facetiously referred to as "charcoal burners."

The smokeless powders we use today are tailor-made, so to speak, for various uses. There are two
basic kinds: single base and double base.
Single base powders are the most common and are usually referred to as nitrocellulose powders.
They are made by the processing of gun cotton, which in turn is derived from cellulose treated with
nitroglycerine. Double bases are usually referred to as nitroglycerine powders and are made from a
combination of nitroglycerine and gun cotton. Probably the most famous double base powder is the
strip-like Cordite, much used by the British for its stability in all kinds of climate. Any advantage
double base powders originally enjoyed has been pretty well cancelled out by improvements in the
cooler burning and less erosive nitrocellulose single base powders which now dominate the scene.

44 Gunology
Powders for pistol and revolver cartridges are made to burn rapidly, to be completely con-
sumed in a few inches of barrel length. Rifle powder, on the other hand, must burn pro-
gressively, ever pushing the bullet in its travel down the barrel, to attain its much higher
velocity.

The shape, size and form of smokeless powder has many variations. Pistol powders are
fine grained. Shotgun powders are usually flat and flaky in grain. Rifle powder grains are
usually short, and thinly cylindrical in shape, often tubular like thin spaghetti. The grains
vary in size for different calibers and are generally larger as the cartridges step up in size
and power. Western Ball Powder is another modern development by Olin. This powder,
made entirely under water, is in the shape of small spheres or flattened spheres, again of
varying size according to intended use. It is widely used in all types of ammunition, and
has many advantages,
including a high loading
density that provides
more energy in a given
powder space. It is high-
ly favored for military
use, including the 7.62
NATO cartridge.

Smokeless powder set

alight in the open will
burn slowly. Confine-
ment is required to
generate the pressures
under which the differ-
ent varieties will burn
properly. These vary
greatly.

Large grain rifle powder

in a revolver cartridge
would hardly get the
bullet out of the barrel.
But in a rifle cartridge,
if in place of the normal
propellant the same
weight of pistol powder
(heaven forbid) were to
be used, it would ex-
plode or detonate rather
than burn, completely
wreck the action, and
probably inflict serious
injury on the user.

As you may he selling

Gunology 45
smokeless powder to people who reload ammunition, it's important for you to know that in manufac-
ture, "lots" of the same powder vary somewhat in strength. As all ammunition is loaded to velocity
standards, this means that the ammunition manufacturers must test each lot for variation and reduce
or increase the number of grains to match the velocity and pressure standards set for a particular
cartridge and bullet weight.

Powder for reloaders is taken only from "lots" that come out of process at a set strength. They are
termed "canister powders" and are the only type sold to the public. Reloaders should never be guided
by the weight of a factory charge when using canister powder, as the "lot" of powder in the factory
load may contain several grains more weight, which when duplicated with the canister lot, would
raise pressures dangerously.

PRIMERS
We have already discussed the function of primers, hut here it should be mentioned that they are
made in 5 types, for the following:

1. Battery cup type for shot shells.

2. Small pistol and revolver.
3. Large pistol and revolver.
4. Small Rifle.
5. Large Rifle.

All are non-corrosive and

non-mercuric. Non-mercuric means no fulminate of
mercury, which has been found to make the brass cases brittle and unfit for further use in reloading.

Bullets in
Flight
Trajectory-Velocity-Ener-
gy-Accuracy-Sighting In-Ze-
ro-Sights

Rifles and the cartridges for them are useful only when brought together. The end product of this
combination is a bullet spinning through the air toward an object one desires to hit.

All the time, care, effort and money expended in the design of a fine rifle and cartridge are wrapped

46 Gunology
up in a small cylindrical pointed object boring through the atmosphere at tremendous speed. On it
may depend the success or failure of a hunting trip, often involving a considerable amount of time
and money.

It's essential that we understand how bullets behave in flight, and what can be expected from rifles of
different calibers, and from different bullet weights of the same caliber.

TRAJECTORY
Let's see what really happens after the bullet leaves the barrel. First of all the bullet must be given a
spin to keep it steady, like a spinning top, so it will stay point-on to the target. This is accomplished
by the spiral lands of the rifling gripping the bullet jacket. Long bullets require a more rapid spin to
stabilize than do short bullets. For this reason the "twist" of the rifling varies according to caliber of
the rifle, usually from one turn in 10 to one in 14 inches or so. In most cases a compromise is ad-
opted that is satisfactory for the different weight bullets that are available in most calibers. If both
the bullet base and the muzzle of the rifle are perfectly square, the bullet will leave without tipping,
which is detrimental to good accuracy. But it is immediately affected by two forces, gravity and air
resistance.

To better understand their effect, let's assume that we have two rifles, one shooting a 150 gr. bullet,
the other a 180 gr. bullet. Both are Silvertip bullets of 30 caliber, and both leave the muzzle at 3,000
ft. per second velocity. Let's further assume that both are on a platform with their muzzles exactly
16.08 feet above the ground, and the axis of their barrels exactly parallel to the ground, which in turn
is perfectly level for a considerable distance away from our platform. Now, suppose both rifles are
fired simultaneously, and that we somehow contrive to let a bullet fall from our hand at exactly the
same height, and at the exact same instant the two bullets leave the muzzle of the two rifles. What
happens?

All three bullets will strike the

ground at the same instant after being
freed from the muzzle or fingers.
(Actually, due to the complexity of
forces acting on them, the fired bul-
lets will take a fraction of a second
longer, but this fact does not alter
the principle of this explanation.)
The dropped bullet will land on the
ground close to the platform; the 150
gr. about 2,186 feet away; the 180 gr.
at 2,304 feet.
Although both fired bullets left the guns at a rate of 3,000 feet per second, neither bullet will achieve
that distance. Air resistance will slow down their flight, so neither can go that far in the one second
gravity will give them to fall 16.08 feet. The 150 grain bullet will be affected to the same extent as
the 180 grain by the heavy hand of gravity, but it will be affected by air resistance somewhat more
than the 180 grain, since the 150 grain has more surface exposed in relation to its weight.

But to get back to our platform; if we could actually see the flight of these two bullets, we would
notice that they were following an ever increasing curve until they hit the ground. That's because

Gunology 47
 the bullet is both losing
velocity and dropping at
an ever increasing rate.
Obviously, if we want
the bullet to go fur-
ther, we have to point
the barrel upward and
project the bullet higher
into the air, giving it
more time to fall.

Even though we point

the rifle upward by
raising the rear sight,
however, the bullet is
rising only above a line
projected forward from
the rear and front sights (the line of sight). In relation to the axis of the bore, the bullet began to fall
the moment it left the muzzle, just as it did on the hypothetical 16 ft. platform. The curved path of a
bullet's flight is called its "'trajectory." The higher the velocity, the less curved over a given distance.
The trajectory is flatter. We say of a rifle with a higher velocity than another that it is "flatter shoot-
ing."

However, you don't get up on 16 foot platforms when you shoot, but stand or perhaps lie prone on
the ground aiming, let's assume, at a deer some 100 or perhaps 200 yards away. You are not quite
sure. How can you hit him? Ignoring the human element, if you have a fairly high velocity rifle, say
2,400 ft. per second, you're certain to make a hit if your rifle is "zeroed in"; that is, sighted to hit
where you aim at a measured 150 yards. If the deer is only 100 yards away, your hit will be a trifle
high, at 150 yards on the button, at 200 yards a little low.

It follows that rifles with higher velocities and flatter trajectories can be zeroed in at 200 yards with
good results at 250 to 300 yards. On the other hand, lower velocity rifles would be limited to a 100
yd. zero, and either the rear sight should he raised or a higher aim taken on a target much beyond
150 yards.

Bullets have "drift" and "yaw" and other slight peculiarities which are of small consequence here.
They are a matter of further reading, if you're interested.

48 Gunology
 VELOCITY- ENERGY
All ammunition manufacturers publish ballistic tables listing the velocity, the striking energy, and the
rise and fall of all center fire rifle bullets zeroed in at 100, 200 and 300 yd. ranges.

The most impressive figures in these tables are the muzzle velocities and energies, and there is a ten-
dency to use these figures as a means of comparison between various calibers and bullet weights.

More meaningful, actually, are the figures for the distance at which an animal is most likely to be
shot, say at 100 yds. in timbered country or at 300 yds. on the treeless plateaus of the West. This
latter distance would also apply to the probable use of a "varmint" rifle.

A short study of the tables will reveal some interesting truths.

1. Velocities and bullet weights are limited by the pressures developed.
2. Higher velocities are obtained by using lighter bullets.
3. Heavier bullets necessitate lower velocities to stay within pressure limits.
4. Lighter bullets lose their velocity at a more rapid rate than do heavier bullets of the same
caliber.
5. Flat nose bullets lose velocity at a more rapid rate than do pointed ones of the same weight
and caliber.
6. Long slender bullets retain velocity better than short fat bullets of the same weight.
7. Energy of a bullet is expressed in foot lbs. and is determined by its weight, and by its veloc-
ity at a given distance from the muzzle.
8. Consequently, loss in velocity is attended by a corresponding loss in energy or striking
power.
9. For this reason the heavier bullets in some calibers may develop more energy at some
distance from the muzzle (say, 300 yards) than will a lighter, higher velocity bullet that
shows a greater energy at the muzzle.

A most useful figure in the ballistic tables is the mid-range trajectory, usually expressed for 100, 200

Gunology 49
and 300 yard sight settings.

Every rifle user ought to know the trajectory of the bullet in the load he is using. It will govern the
zero of his sight setting, and indicate how much higher his hold on the target should be at distances
substantially beyond his zero.

For instance, let's look at the 30/30 Winchester 170 gr. Power-Point Bullet.

Zeroed at 100 Yds. 200 Yds. 300 Yds.

Mid-Range is 50 Yds. 100 Yds. 150 Yds.

Height of bullet above

line of sight at Mid-range is 1.2 inches 4.6 inches 12.5 inches

Obviously, a 30/30 rifle with this load should not be zeroed at 300 yards, for at 150 yards the bullet
will hit (or miss) more than a foot above the point of aim.

If the rifle is zeroed at 200 yards, the bullet will hit more than 41/2 inches higher than the point of aim,
if the target is only 100 yards away. To this we must add the dispersion to be expected at 100 yards'
range.

With these factors in mind, it's easy to conclude that a 200 yard zero for a 30/30 is stretching things
considerably, and that a 150 yard zero is about the practical limit.

Energy figures must be considered with the design, construction and purpose of the bullet involved.

For instance, a light high-velocity varmint bullet may have a higher energy figure than a heavier and
slower bullet designed for deer. But it would be quite unsuited to use on deer and much less effective
than the heavier bullet with less ft. lbs. to its credit.

Don't pay too much heed to small differences in energy figures among similar loads and bullets.
There's a 100 ft. lb. difference between a 30/30 and a 32 Special, but a deer couldn't care less which
hit him and if he did he couldn't tell the difference.

If you haven't already, you'll soon discover that ballistics, as it applies to the performance of various
loads, bullet weights, bullet construction, velocities, etc. is a somewhat controversial subject that
whiles away many a winter evening around the hot stove leagues.

But suppose we leave the arguments to the gun buffs and get on to other important subjects. We
have yet to discuss accuracy, sighting in, and sights themselves, which last has been saved until now
because of its close association with the other two.

ACCURACY
The ultimate in accuracy would be a rifle and ammunition combination that would successively put a
series of shots through the same hole in a paper target made by the first shot, say at 100 yards.

Such precision has never been achieved, but some remarkably small 10-shot groups, the size of a 25
cent piece at 200 yards, have been fired by a number of individuals collectively known as "bench-
rest" shooters.
Comfortably ensconced at rigid tables with sand bag rests, and with heavy-barreled rifles, selected

50 Gunology
bullets, carefully-weighed powder charges,
sheltered ranges, and minute
attention to other details, their object lies in
achieving the utmost possible accuracy.

No hunter, however, would lug one of these

heavy bench-rest contraptions around, nor
could he possibly duplicate the ideal condi-
tions the bench-rest shooter creates for his
avocation. But he doesn't need to, since all he
requires is accuracy enough for his purpose.

Overwhelmingly, deer are the prime quarry

for American "big game" hunters, so let us
use this prolific target as an example of how
accurate a rifle should be.

Aside from a lucky head or neck shot, the vi-

tal area of a deer is reached by a hit in an area
of about 8" in diameter just to the rear of the
fore-shoulder. To make sure of a good clean
kill, the shooter must be able to put his bullet in this area. Obviously, this will be much easier at 25
yards than at 100, and much more difficult at 200 yards.

We are now going to use the expression "minute of angle," which is actually 1/60th of a degree. It's
a handy way to express the dispersion or grouping of successive shots from a rifle, as one minute of
angle subtends approximately one inch of a target 100 yards from the rifle, 2 inches at 200, 3 inches
at 300 and so on. We have already told you about bench-rest shooters firing 200-yard groups the size
of a quarter, which figures out at about 1/2 minute of angle. But let's see what the deer hunter needs
for accuracy.

Allowable Resulting
Range in. Dispersion in Group Size
Yards Vital Area Minutes of Angle at 100 Yards
25 8" 32' 32"
50 8" 16' 16"
100 8" 8' 8"
150 8" 6' 6"
200 8" 4' 4"
250 8" 3.2' 3.2"
300 8" 2.66' 2.66"
400 8" 2' 2"
800 8" 1' 1"
1600 8" 1/2' 1/2"

Now here, admittedly, we have gone from the sublime to the ridiculous, simply because we want to

Gunology 51
illustrate how unnecessary the bench-rest shooters' 1/2 and 1 minute of angle accuracy really is to the
hunter. In theory, a fine rifle shot using a rifle with 1 minute of angle accuracy could hit the vital 8"
area of a deer 800 yards away. If this has ever been accomplished, it was by sheer luck. Range esti-
mation, windage and proper sight setting to offset bullet drift and drop, plus the undoubted fact that
the one minute of angle dispersion will not hold at this long range, make such an accomplishment
virtually impossible.

As a matter of fact, most deer are shot at distances under 100 yards, and very seldom at over 200
yards. This means that any rifle that will shoot a 6" group at 100 yards is accurate enough for shoot-
ing deer up to 150 yards. Any rifle that will shoot a 4" group is accurate enough for deer up to 200
yards.

Certainly all Winchester center fire

rifles will do this well and even
better. Any hunting rifle shooting 3"
groups at 100 yards is considered
very accurate. A good example is
the Winchester Model 70, which
will perform well within this limit;
indeed, 2" groups and smaller are
common.

SIGHTING-IN ZER0
A rifle shooting very accurate 2" groups at 100 yards may not be hitting the bull's-eye or aiming
point. Instead, it may be hitting inches above, below, or to the right or left.
Obviously, the sights must be moved to bring the shot group squarely onto the aiming point or bull's-
eye before this latent accuracy really pays off.- The process of doing this is called "sighting-in."

When sighting in, the question immediately arises-at what distance? This depends on the trajectory
of the bullet and also on what you are shooting at. You can be more liberal with a large animal like
a deer than with a small varmint. But since deer are far and away the target for most hunters, let's
assume once again that this is what we're preparing for.

The distance at which a rifle is sighted in is referred to by riflemen as its "zero." So when a shooter
says of his rifle, "She's zeroed in at 200," you know he means the sights are adjusted so that the shot
group will form around the aiming point at that distance in yards.

52 Gunology
Let's take a Model 94 30/30 Winchester using a 170 gr. Power-Point bullet, which is a very good
deer cartridge. Zeroed in at 100 yards, the bullet will strike almost an inch high at 50 yards, and
about 8 1/2 inches low at 200 yards. Remembering the 8" vital area of a deer, it's apparent that if the
sights are "dead on" the center of this vital circle at 200 yards, the bullet is going to hit 8 1/2 inch-
es below its center, or 4 1/2 inches below the lowest part of the vital circle. This drop may be de-
creased, or it may be accentuated, by the dispersion to be expected at 200 yards from absolute
accuracy conforming to the line of sight.

From the performance of this 170 gr. bullet with a muzzle velocity of 2,220 ft. per second, we draw
two conclusions. If the rifle is to be used in open country and 200 yards shots are sometimes offered,
it would be better to zero in at 150 yards. In this case the bullet would strike about 3" high at 100
yards and about 5" low at 200 yards.

However, for most areas, deer are found in thicker cover. They seldom present shots much over 100
yards, and more often much closer. Under these circumstances a 100 yard zero is just fine.

This same argument could be advanced for zeroing in all rifles at 100 yards when used in heavy
cover. But in higher velocity rifles, there's no point to it. All the advantage lies in zeroing in at longer
range. For instance, let's take the old reliable 270 Winchester using a 130 gr. Silvertip bullet at 3,140
ft. per second muzzle velocity.

Zeroed in for 100 yards, the bullet will strike 0.1" high at 50 yards and 3.4" low at 200 yards.
Zeroed in at 200 yards, it will strike 1.5 inches high at 100 yards; on the nose at 200 yards; and about
4.5 inches low at 300 yards. So at any range up to about 275 yards, you have a trajectory sure to hit
a vital area if properly aimed. Dispersion is a factor, but a minor one, as the 270 is a most accurate
caliber, especially in the Winchester Model 70 rifle.

The only person who can properly sight in a rifle is the person who is going to use it. Eyesight differs
and consequently no two see the rifle sights quite alike.
People grasp and hold differently. If they use a sling, sling tensions are different. While these man-
nerisms do not affect accuracy much because they are constant factors, they do affect sight adjust-
ment.

Sight adjustment is best accomplished by shooting at a bull's-eye target, preferably at the distance
at which the rifle should be zeroed. But a 200-yard zero can be accomplished on a target 100 yards
distant, if the sights are adjusted to center the group over the bull's-eye at the exact distance the bul-
let rises above the line of sight at 100 yards with a 200 yard sight-setting or zero. This figure can he
found in the ballistic tables available from ammunition manufacturers.

It's best to shoot from a prone position using a sling with the left hand (assuming the shooter shoots
from the right shoulder) resting on a sand bag or some other support that has some "give" to it.

This is easily accomplished with telescopic sights, as you can usually see the bullet holes in the
paper. The micrometer adjustments on the scope, or on the scope mount in some cases, quickly bring
your group of shots just where they should go.

The 1/4-minute clicks on the several good micrometer receiver sights presently available also make

Gunology 53
sighting-in relatively easy. Here a good spotting scope would help. Otherwise, some trudging back
and forth to the target is involved, simply to see where the shots are going. If, say, they are centered
2" off to the left and 2" low, you know exactly what to do; put on 8 clicks elevation and 8 clicks right
windage, and the group should be centered.

Micrometer receiver sights are seldom furnished on factory-made rifles. However, the receivers of
most rifles are drilled and tapped for easy attachment of receiver sights (and most scopes) by the
retailer or the owner.

Incidentally, this type of sight is far and away the best of all iron hunting sights. It's furnished with a
disc containing a small peep hole. The disc threads into a ring on the cross bar. Most hunters remove
the disc and use the ring as a coarse peep. Looking through this peep, the eye will automatically
center the bead of the front sight.
Its great virtue lies in the fact that it prevents overshooting, a common fault in the open, notched,
"sporting rear" sight.

Most rifles come from the manufacturer with so-called "sporting" rear sights. The better ones have
the notch in a zeroing slide that can be moved up or down in the web of the sight, and held in posi-
tion by a tiny set screw. Sights on lower-priced rifles generally lack this feature, although most open
rear sights rest on a saw-tooth wedge, which provides a rather imprecise means of increasing the
elevation.

Sighting in a rifle with open sights usually involves more shooting and frequent checks of the result,
as there are no means of making precise adjustments, such as the 1/4-minute clicks of a micrometer
sight. The correct elevation is obtained by moving the zeroing slide, but horizontal correction
involves tapping either the front or rear sight sideways in its slot. This is because open sights
seldom have means of windage adjustment. One exception to these remarks is the open sight on the
Winchester 200 Series of rim fire rifles and on the new Model 70 rifle. The open rear sights on these
models have precise adjustments for both windage and elevation.

Once their rifles are

"zeroed in" at the most
feasible distance, most
experienced hunters leave
their sight setting severely
alone. If the shot offered
appears further away
than the zero of the rifle,
a higher aim is the usual
recourse.

SIGHTS

54 Gunology
There are two general classifications of rifle sights: iron and telescopic. Both kinds exist in consider-
able number and no attempt will be made to describe them here. Instead, we will simply make a few
observations that may be helpful.

Practically all American rifles leave the factory equipped with iron sights; a bead front sight and an
open sporting rear. The latter, when used on center fire rifles, may very well be of the folding type,
which can be snapped down out of the way should the rifle be scope-equipped. Some, like the new
Winchester Model 70, have both front and rear sights which are easily removable. But most rifles
are drilled and tapped for easy attachment of receiver sights and for most of the various mounts for
telescopic sights, or "scopes," as they are commonly known. Receivers of 22 rim fire rifles are often
grooved for quick attachment of mount and scope.

The receiver peep sight has three great advantages over the open sporting rear type. First, the dis-
tance between sights is much longer, and the longer sight radius is an aid to accuracy. Second, as
we have already mentioned, the eye automatically and accurately centers the front sight bead in the
circular peep hole, and resists the tendency to overshoot that attends a failure to get the front sight
bead down in the notch of an open sight. Finally, the micrometer clicks of the receiver sight pro vide
a quick, accurate means of sight adjustment.

There is one exception. Open sights are regarded as superior by experienced professional hunters in
Africa, who tell us that for short-range work with powerful elephant rifles, a shallow "V" rear sight
used with a large white front bead is the "fastest" combination, and amply accurate for the purpose.
The Winchester Model 70 458 African is so equipped.

As proven by their ever increasing popularity, "scope" sights are far superior to iron sights for most
purposes. They magnify the game or target for easy recognition.Where the bead of an iron front sight
covers up much of an animal or target, the cross hairs, dot, or post obscure far less of the magnified
image, thereby allowing a more precise aim. Scopes are also a boon to older people who find it diffi-
cult or impossible to get both iron sights into clear focus. In a properly adjusted scope, everything is
sharp and clear.

Hunting scopes are generally 21/z- or 4-power in magniifcation. The 4-power is better for open
shooting at longer ranges, but the 2'/2-power is fine for closer work and usually has the advantage of
a wider field. Lately there have been a number of variable power scopes on the market, usually from
2%%- to 8-power range in
magnification.

Hunting scopes are offered with several types of reticules; plain cross hair, center dot, and cross hair
with post are the most favored. They should be mounted as low as possible without actually touching
the receiver. Numerous mounts are available; some attach to the top of the receiver, some to the side.

Most hunting scopes have two knobs on the outside for internal adjustment of the reticule. Some
have no adjustments internally and require a mount that is adjustable.

Scopes for varmint rifles are longer and usually 8- orm10-power, requiring adjustable mounts. Target
rifle scopes commonly run 20- to 30-power and are also carried in adjustable mounts. Cross-hair

Gunology 55
56 Gunology
reticules are preferred on both.

There is much, much more to be told about scopes and mounts than we can cope with here, as you
will quickly learn when you study some of the literature put out by the people who make them.

Indeed, there is much more to be told about every subject we have already mentioned. Further
reading and experience will increase your selling ability, as it gives you the conviction that attends
thorough knowledge in any field.

But the time has now come to leave the products involved and turn our attention to more personal
matters-to you, the reader, to your operation in the store where you work, and to your contacts with
that most necessary individual, the customer.

Making Your Knowledge Pay Off

The remainder of this book is written on the assumption that you, the reader, aspire to become an
increasingly valuable member of the staff of your store.

How do you go about it?

To moralize a bit-by dint of close, steady application, plus interest and imagination!

But we do have many specific suggestions to start you on your way. A specialist in any line isn't
made overnight, so let's begin at the beginning;

Learn the stock!

Keep it neat and presentable.

Take a lightly-oiled rag and go over all the display guns. While you're doing it, fathom out their
operations. Ask questions if you have to; and you will, for obviously you should be able to demon-
strate the operational and take-down features, if any, of every firearm in the store. Read the instruc-
tion cards that come packed with each gun.

Handle the guns carefully; don't bang them against others in the rack. No one wants to buy a new
gun full of tiny dents in the wood, or nicks in the metal, or with rusty finger prints.

The above will acquaint you with what the store has to offer in the way of a firearms assortment,
ammunition and shooting accessories.

Next, you should learn what is available in the market, and whether or not your store carries these
items in stock.

For this reason you should have access to and be able, in the beginning, to study all catalogs and
price lists, particularly those put out by the manufacturers of firearms, ammunition, scopes, mounts,

Gunology 57
sights, etc. Perhaps the most valuable of all for your careful perusal is the WINCHESTER SALES
GUIDE, published every year by Winchester-Western.

By all means, read the gun editors' columns in the outdoor magazines. Most of your customers do.
Not only will they keep you abreast of new items in guns and ammunition, but you'll learn the an-
swers to many questions you're sure to be asked.

Early in the game, you might just as well make it a point to be well posted on the game laws. You'll
be asked many questions about these; open season dates, bag limits, the counties in which they
apply, and many other details. Keep a copy handy for reference, together with your catalogs. If you
don't have any, get a supply from the State Fish and Game Department.

By this time you'll have become acclimated and, we trust, created a favorable impression, so it would
be in order to suggest that all circular mail and bulletins having to do with firearms and ammunition
be routed to the gun department so you'll have the opportunity to look them over.

Every store receives an avalanche of this sort of mail, on hundreds of products. No store owner or
manager can begin to read it all. Much of it promptly hits the waste basket in consequence. But this
mail contains information of value to you as a specialist in firearms.
Chances are your suggestion will be well received and your interest appreciated.

Get acquainted with the various salesmen who come to your department. Ask questions, and you'll
learn much, not only about their products but also about merchandising.

These people get around and know every trick in the book. They can be very helpful, particularly if
they sense that you're interested in ways and means of building up the volume of firearm and ammu-
nition sales, and the relative importance of the gun department. Winchester salesmen, by the way,
are easily approached, receptive to requests for this sort of help, and have had extensive training and
experience in merchandising matters.

Let's hope that by now your thoughts are running in this direction. If so, then by all means you
should be reading the trade magazines that deal with hardware and sporting goods. There are several
of these, and your store undoubtedly subscribes to a few.

These publications are full of articles contributed by other dealers, describing successful promo-
tions and operating policies. They will suggest many ideas which can be altered, or tailored to local
circumstances.

But at the outset, temper your enthusiasm; keep your feet on the ground. Be wary of suggesting an
elaborate or expensive promotional idea in your first approach to the boss. It is far better to con-
fine your initial suggestions to well conceived, modest ventures. They are much more likely to get
a green light, and a successful carry-through will build up your own and your boss's confidence in
further promotional activity.

Bold promotional ventures, involving considerable planning, time, effort, and an appreciable expen-
diture of money, are justified when it's evident that your department has a good growth potential, or

58 Gunology
when it's necessary to maintain
and protect a large existing sales
volume from competitive inroads.

Is there enough gun and ammuni-

tion and related business in your
locality to warrant going after a
bigger chunk?

To answer this, your attention

is invited to Appendix "B" of
this book which, in a few simple
arithmetical calculations, will give
you a close approximation of your
store's growth potential, or lack of
one, as the case may be.

Your growth potential may exist

in the probability of capturing
a better percentage of the local
volume, or of capturing business
presently going outside to other
areas because of lack of selection,
knowledge or service.

SEASONAL PLAN-
NING
All activities of your gun depart-
ment should follow a year-round
plan. We invite your attention to Appendix "A," which is simply a 12-space chart with a space for
each month.

Examine the sample chart; you'll see that it contains much pertinent information on open seasons,
school closings for vacations, factory shutdowns, the Christmas shopping season, and a host of other
useful suggestions. Above all, it sets a time for each activity, and to get full value from displays and
promotional efforts of any kind,proper timing is essential.

Obviously, any special promotional effort should also be carefully timed for maximum effect, and
sufficient time allowed for any preparations needed.

While it's true that guns and ammunition move in greater volume the last four months of the year,
both can and do enjoy a year-round demand of worthwhile, if lesser, proportions.

We refer, of course, to off-season shooting activities such as plinking, target shooting, and handtrap

Gunology 59
practice, as well as the more organized trap and skeet shooting. Then there are the unprotected
"varmints," groundhogs, gophers, crows, etc., all offering plenty of spring and summer sport for
those encouraged along these lines. We have to make it easy, however, for folks to get into this
"extracurricular" shooting. In addition to proper firearms and ammunition, they will need such
auxiliary items as scopes, crow-calls, handtraps, paper targets of all kinds, and cartons of clay targets
for use with hand-traps. And, of course, we have to sell the idea of one kind or another of off-season
shooting.

Your boss, the department or store manager or the owner, knows all this from long experience, but
is just too occupied with other and more important matters to give it personal attention. So here is
one opportunity for you, as a "'gun specialist," to step in and give your initiative and imagination full
play.

Let's suppose you were successful during the summer months in moving 20 outfits, each made up of
a hand-trap, 5 boxes of shells, and a carton of clay targets. Handtrap shooting is lots of fun and often
the whole family gets involved. So it's reasonable to expect to
sell another 20 fill-ins of shells and targets.

Twenty handtraps, 40 cartons of White Flyers and 200 boxes of shells run into quite a piece of
change. Those 200 boxes of shells could make quite a dent in the season's carryover, turning them
into revenue months ahead of the next hunting season.

Add a few crow shooters, "plinkers," and groundhog or gopher addicts, and you have a respectable
off-season traffic going for you.

But this won't come all by itself; it has to be created.

That's done by:

1. Suggestive display. (Window or counter)

2. Emotional appeal. (Family-fun-skill)
3. Making it easy. (Having the means-targets, etc.)

DISPLAYS AND ADS

A small counter display (it can be the package deal described) will prompt questions and give you
the opportunity to talk up the fun to be had, or the probable improvement in skill. Get two or three
sold and you'll have them working up other prospects. But be sure you have the means. Most dealers
lose out because they neglect the auxiliary items mentioned.

In this connection, watch for spring point-of-purchase display material that will assist your efforts;
Winchester-Western is especially cooperative in providing appropriate sales helps for spring, sum-
mer, fall, and Christmas activity.

As previously mentioned, guns and ammunition move in greatest volume during the last four months
of the year. It follows, then, that your store's major promotional efforts will be made in the early fall;
September and October, and in some areas as early as August.

60 Gunology
Attractive, eye-catching window displays will focus attention on your store. However, they ought to
be set up three or four weeks before the season begins, to show best results. After all, a good many
hunters will be passing by in that period and will be exposed to the allure of these displays.

For this purpose, Winchester-Western and most other manufacturers supply attractive
display material. Much of it is expensive, and for that reason is not sent out indiscriminately. Usu-
ally, letters go out describing the display material and inviting the dealer to specify what the wants
on a return postal card. The material ordered is then mailed out to dealers, about a month before its
intended use. Someone should be delegated the responsibility of seeing that advertising material is
ordered and, on its arrival, either put to immediate use or stored where it can be found when needed.

By volunteering to do this small task, you will know what display material is coming. This knowl-
edge, in turn, will enable you to come up with a good idea for its use. A good display should "carry a
message." This will involve some thinking and imagination, but the result is worth the effort.

What we have said about display material can apply equally well to other sales helps; mats for ads
in the local newspaper, for instance. Winchester, for example, offers these in timely variety; timely,
because they feature the same products as currently advertised in many national publications with
huge circulations.For those who can use a local radio station and wish to widen their coverage, there
are suggestions for radio and TV spots available. Write to Winchester for them.

PROMOTIONS
Most large gun dealers, and those who aspire in that direction, engage in some form of promotional
activity. Their efforts may be aimed at capturing a larger portion of the
existing market, or at developing new addicts to the sport of shooting in more creative ways. Usu-
ally, it's a combination of both, tailored to local conditions. Promotional schemes and stunts already
conceived and tried exist in great variety. We can only
mention a few of those more commonly used.
-"Open house" pre-season showings
- Prize contests - biggest buck, most crows
- Display booths in sport shows Safety classes for juniors
-Films for Fish and Game Club meetings.
The list is endless.

A very simple and effective promotion is the "open house" idea, wherein the public is invited to
come in to "look around." Preferably this should be on a Saturday, or perhaps an evening, in advance
of the hunting season.

The Winchester-Western representative who calls at your store may be able to spark the occasion
with his presence, if it can be fitted into his schedule. But this would have to be arranged well ahead
of time and, of course, would depend on prior commitments.

If, during the year, you can compile a mailing list of your customers, a written invitation to your
"open house" would be doubly effective. This list can be used for many purposes, in fact, and is one
of the most useful projects you can undertake. A door prize during an Anniversary Sale or other spe-
cial event will provide a good mailing list, if the cards to be filled out for the drawing have an easy

Gunology 61
62 Gunology
means (like a check mark) to indicate an interest in hunting or shooting.

OBSERVATIONS
So much for that. Here are a few general observations we want to pass along:

People want to see and handle most products they buy, and this is just as true of firearms as it is of
television sets, refrigerators and automobiles.

Those contemplating the purchase of a rifle or shotgun think nothing of driving 50 or even 100 miles
to visit a dealer who carries a wide selection of firearms. The larger the selection, the wider the radi-
us of its drawing power, and these visitors from afar often buy ammunition and other items that they
would ordinarily purchase in their own localities.

This attraction is not confined to dealers in cities and large trading centers. Indeed, there are hun-
dreds of dealers in rural areas enjoying a volume of business in guns, ammunition and hunting sup-
plies that would do credit to a good sized metropolitan sporting goods store.

All successful gun dealers habitually offer the popular items of the leading, more reputable and
better advertised makes. This is certainly true of the Winchester line of firearms, which is invariably
well represented in their display racks.

Many dealers take used guns in trade. This can be a profitable venture, or it can be disastrous, de-
pending on the trader's acumen and knowledge. Gun trading is usually a matter of store policy, and is
rarely entrusted to a neophyte. Dealers who trade are apt to have a gun repairman on the premises to
check second-hand guns and make sure they are in safe and operating condition.

Now a word about ammunition. With very few exceptions, every area in the country consumes all
the cataloged items, to a larger or smaller degree. Many dealers have acquired a reputation for
good service by carrying not only adequate stocks of popular gauges, shot sizes, calibers and bullet
weights, but also a box or two of the "odd ball" items that someone is sure to come looking for.

May we be pardoned for making the observation here that Winchester-Western ammunition is
the first preference of most, and highly acceptable to all. Mighty few will walk away from a Win-
chester-Western box when it's laid before them on the counter.

For several pages now we have been suggesting ways to assist in the operation of the gun depart-
ment. We really haven't covered the subject but, hopefully, have said enough to indicate the route
you should take. Other and similar ideas will occur as experience is gained. Among other matters,
we have suggested the possibility and means of attracting more prospective customers. It's time now
to discuss your relationship to these people, which will, more than any other factor, affect the value
attached to your services.

YOU AND THE CUSTOMER

With the strenuous competition facing most retailers today, it's a minor accomplishment to lure a
prospective gun customer across the threshold of your store.

Gunology 63
Very few wander in by accident. Most have been attracted somehow; perhaps by intriguing displays,
or by local advertising, publicity and promotions; and, we hope, by a reputation for handling good
merchandise, backed up by courteous, knowledgeable and helpful sales people.

The resultant "good will" has cost considerable time, effort and money. It follows that your store
already has an investment in everyone approaching your gun counter. This being so, it is plain good
sense to make their visit a pleasant and agreeable experience.

But pleasant though it may be, nothing much is accomplished until the prospect becomes a customer;
preferably a "steady," habitually coming back as his needs, real or fancied, arise.

The above, in a nutshell, is what you as a gun salesman are expected to accomplish. Your success
will depend on how intelligently you apply yourself to the challenge. If you succeed in developing a
"following" of customers who rely on your ministrations, your worth will increase materially.
Right here we should point out that the woods are full of so-called salesmen that are in fact merely
waiting on customers. Their batting average is low and mostly confined to an occasional customer
who comes in with wallet in hand determined to buy.

THE GOOD SALESMAN

What characterizes a good salesman and how does he operate? This is a big order because no two
salesmen, no two customers, and no two circumstances are exactly alike. Each opportunity is a
challenge to the resourcefulness of the salesman. No one will cash in every time; even Ted Williams
struck out now and then.

With this in mind, we’ll set down a few suggestions that we’re sure you’ll find helpful. They’re
based on the actual experiences of several successful gun salesmen.

Let’s begin with some of the attributes possessed to a considerable degree by a typical experienced
and successful salesman.

He’s alive and alert, inquisitive and intelligent. He’s friendly, courteous, tactful, and respectful.

Of course, he’s well posted on product knowledge, but there’s also an awareness about him. He’s
aware of who and what his customers are; their needs and tastes; of game and shooting conditions
affecting them. In short, he’s wide awake to all matters which may affect his operation.

He’s easy and relaxed in-manner, but attentive with both eye and ear to the reaction of his prospec-
tive customers. He becomes a student of human nature and human motivations, for he soon realizes
that a sale very often hinges on his ability to sell not so much the product, but the idea of owning it.

Who are we describing-the Ambassador to the United Nations?

64 Gunology
Who are we describing-the Ambassador to the United Nations?

Not at all; just a decent, ordinary chap with a normal amount of gray matter who’s smart
enough to realize that everyone who asks to look at a gun is motivated by something.
Also that these same people may harbor inhibitions that hold them back from buying, for
various reasons.

It occurs to him that he could amplify the motivation to the point of a sale if he could find
out what it was. Obviously, this knowledge has to come from the prospective customer.

At this point, to simplify matters, suppose we create a character: Bill Jones, a capable gun
salesman of considerable experience. Let’s observe how Bill Jones deals with Mr. Smith,
who has asked to look at shotguns.

First, he will show the prospect one or more guns and observe his interest in each. But as
soon as it’s evident that the prospect is still at the looking stage, Bill Jones quickly eases
off and gets the prospect talking.

He might say, “Your face seems familiar, but I don’t believe I’ve had the pleasure of wait-
ing on you before. I’m Bill Jones, Mr.---?”

“Smith, John Smith,” says the customer.

From this, the conversation could turn to what Mr. Smith hunts, where and with whom;
possibly with someone Bill Jones knows. By adroit but casual prompting Bill will ascer-
tain with reasonable certainty what lies behind Mr. Smith’s interest. Perhaps his hunting
partner is doing better in his shooting. What then does Mr. Smith use for a gun? What
does his partner use?

Here Bill Jones will be helpful. He might say, “Well, we can’t have your partner wiping
your eye any longer. You’re just outgunned, that’s all. Now, you seem to like this fine
Winchester. Just put it up to your shoulder; notice how nicely it comes up and points.
What’s more, it fits you well and that’s very important for consistent shooting. It’s a fine
reliable make, and will give you years of shooting enjoyment. You’ll make no mistake in
picking this one, and I can just see your friend’s eyes glisten when he sees it.”

Now Bill Jones asks for the order. “Don’t you think it’s a beauty, Mr. Smith?”

“It’s a nice handling gun all right,” replies Mr. Smith.

“That’s fine! I know you will enjoy owning this fine firearm. Shall I wrap it up for you or
have it delivered?”

But it develops that Mr. Smith has something holding him back. He says, in effect, “Not
now, maybe later on I’ll come in to see you and make a deal. It’s early, a long time yet
before I’ll need it.”

Gunology 65
By this time, Bill Jones is certain that his real problem is not so much to sell the gun,
which Mr. Smith obviously likes, but to stress the pleasure and advantages of immediate
ownership.

So he eases off in another direction. “Of course, Mr. Smith, anything you say. But you
know the old adage,`practice makes perfect!’ I was going to suggest how easily you can
acquire considerable added skill, and a lot of enjoyment with your new gun in the pro-
cess!”

“How’s that?”

“It’s simple enough and lots of fun, and it will really develop your shooting eye!” Bill
Jones replies. “Here, let me show you. See this inexpensive White Flyer handtrap?
Anyone, even a child, can throw clay targets with it to simulate actual game shooting.
You can start off with easy straightaways, then graduate to more difficult crossing shots,
daisy-skimmers and such. In a short time you’ll be able to hit just about anything that can
be thrown. Practice with your new gun on a carton or two of clay targets and you’ll be
amazed at your improving skill and so will your shooting friends.”

“Where can you do that?” Asks Mr. Smith.

“I can help you there,” replies Bill. “I know several spots to go shooting, out in the coun-
try. ‘Take your family along, perhaps on a picnic or two. Then when the season opens
you’ll have become so accustomed to your new gun that it will be like a part of you!
You’ll really be ready!”

Mr. Smith is visibly impressed, so our salesman suggests, “On second thought, Mr.
Smith, why not let me fix you up for a few weeks of fun so you’ll be shooting like a vet-
eran this fall? Just give me your address and I’ll have the whole outfit-gun, handtrap and
a carton of targets-delivered tomorrow.”

But Mr. Smith still holds back. “Well,” he says, “it sounds attractive enough, but there’s
still lots of time. I think I’ll wait a bit. I do want to thank you for your kind help and
courtesy-.” “Mr. Smith,” our salesman interrupts, “you and I are both convinced, I’m
sure. You need a new gun, and this is the gun for you. But the best gun in the world is no
better than the man behind it. You’ll be mighty proud of your added skill, if you will only
follow my inexpensive and enjoyable suggestion of some practice shooting-now, before
the season is upon us. It’s later than you realize, Mr. Smith, and if you wait much longer
the opportunity will be gone. Why, you would be no better off than you were last season!
Better play safe, Mr. Smith, and let me fix you up right now.”

Mr. Smith is reflective. He does not answer. So Bill Jones resumes.

“I’m sure you like and need this fine gun, Mr. Smith, and I’m sure that you realize some
pre-season practice will guarantee more sport and fun this coming season. Don’t you owe
yourself this opportunity? Why wait any longer? If it’s inconvenient right now, we can
easily get around that small detail. I really want to help.”

66 Gunology
“Well, I hadn’t really planned on buying a gun today,” says Mr. Smith. “I was just scout-
ing around.”

“Sure, I understand, but there’s really no need to wait. I’m sure we can work something
out. What would be a convenient time for you, Mr. Smith?”

“Well, perhaps 30 days or so.”

“Fine! Just fine! Are you driving? Is your car handy?”

“It’s up the street a bit but ...”

Bill Jones has started writing up the order and while so engaged casually interrupts. “I’m
sure you won’t mind showing me some identification, Mr. Smith; your driver’s license or
a credit card,
perhaps.”

“Well no, but what are you doing, charging them to me?”

“Sure, Mr. Smith, on our easy credit plan which gives you up to 90 days to pay, without
any extra charge. This way I’ll help you to your car with your new gun and outfit, and
you’ll be all set-now, before it’s too late.”

“Well, okay, I guess it’s the smart thing to do,” says Mr. Smith. “I really do like the gun.
Your idea of
practice appeals to me, too. I sure would like to surprise that buddy of mine.”

“Now, if you’ll just sign here, Mr. Smith, I’ll have your gear wrapped in a jiffy.”

Mr. Smith signs, and as Bill Jones is getting the gun he remarks, “Don’t you think a fine
gun like this deserves a case, Mr. Smith? I have a dandy full length one here for a few
dollars; here it is.”

“Yes, guess I’ll need that too,” answers Mr. Smith. “How about shells? You have any left
over?”

“Well, a couple of boxes maybe; but better let me have enough for the targets in the box.”

“Alright, here are four boxes of Winchester trap loads, just right for what you’re going to
do. I’ll add these on.”

Now Bill Jones divides the load with Mr. Smith and walks out to Mr. Smith’s car.

They shake hands. “Good luck, Mr. Smith, and have fun. If you need any help, let me
know. And when you have the time, please come back; I’d like to know how you are
making out.”

Gunology 67
“I’ll see you within 30 days, Mr. Jones. I’ll be able to handle your bill easily then; mean-
while, thanks for your kindness and help.”

We have just been through an imaginary sales situation. You, the reader, may never
encounter one just like it, so we can hardly say it’s typical. But we should be able to get
something out of it. Let’s try and see.

But first we must create another character. It seems that prior to coming up against Bill
Jones, Mr. Smith had visited Sam Brown in another gun shop.

Sam is an affable chap and well posted. He did a good job explaining the merits of var-
ious guns in considerable detail. Mr. Smith learned quite a hit, but was somewhat con-
fused, under Sam’s barrage of knowledge and the six different models spread before him.

Sam did sense that one of the six had a greater appeal to Mr. Smith, and went on to
elaborate on its strong points. It was in the back of his head to suggest that Smith buy it.
But before he got around to it, Smith looked at his watch, thanked him for his time and
trouble, and said perhaps he’d be back later.

Maybe he would have at that-if he hadn’t met Bill Jones!

Jovial Sam, the warm-up man.

Pleasant Bill, who rang the till.

Why?

Sam, to this day, has no idea why Mr. Smith wanted to look at a gun. He has no idea why
he didn’t buy one, either. Worse yet, he learned nothing from this experience. In fact, he
hasn’t seen Mr. Smith since, because Mr. Smith, sensing an appreciation and interest on
the part of Bill Jones, is his steady customer.

Let’s compare Sam and Bill a bit.

Sam was trying to sell a gun to somebody. But Sam never asked for the order even once.
Sam made no use of the power of suggestion; he had nothing to guide him. You see, Sam
did most of the
talking- but he never found out to whom!

Bill showed Mr. Smith some guns, one at a time. But Bill quickly sensed that Mr. Smith
would have to be persuaded to buy. So he stopped talking about the gun. He prompted
the customer into talking about himself. Bill found out he was playing second fiddle to
his shooting partner. Bill instigated a conspiracy with Mr. Smith by suggesting a way he
could outdo his partner. His casual suggestions had a strong emotional appeal.

68 Gunology
They included: - pride of ownership
- pride in new-found skill
- astonishment of his partner
- the fun of pre-season practice
Bill asked for the order- no sale.
He reminded Mr. Smith of what he would be missing.
Bill again asked for the order- again no sale.
He made a shrewd guess- money.
He arranged easy credit, to solve all problems.
He made the sale.

Bill Jones constantly learns from experience. Already he senses that some people, hesi-
tant to buy,
actually want to be sold. They shy away from an easy decision; they want to be pushed
into it, thereby absolving themselves. Bill figures it’s a form of seduction. He tries to
please them.

Don’t get the idea that Bill Jones isn’t well posted on his guns. He has plenty of knowl-
edge to draw on, and does on occasion, but he never parades it. Bill figures he’s a sales-
man, not an encyclopedia. He can talk with the gun buffs all right, but he’s more inclined
to listen, and he learns much from his customers.

Bill. Jones avoids any action that confuses his prospective customers. He doesn’t get too
technical unless the prospect is seeking such information. He may show several guns, but
seldom has more than one lying on the counter before the prospect. He wants his atten-
tion concentrated on the gun under discussion.

There’s nothing slap-dash about Bill Jones. When he takes a gun from the rack he’s care-
ful not to knock it against those next to it. He always checks to make sure it’s empty, and
lays it gently on the counter pad. If he hands it to the prospect, he holds it out so it won’t
have to be turned around. Every gun is wiped off as he carefully returns each one to the
rack. Bill knows this creates a good impression on prospective customers, and keeps his
stock unblemished.

Bill Jones never undersells. He knows most people want good, well-made rifles and shot-
guns, so he talks up the better makes and grades. He knows that many a chap in rough
working clothes has plenty of the wherewithal and wants the best.

He doesn’t “preside” over his gun counter and fix his glance on an approaching prospect
25 feet away. On the other hand he doesn’t keep a prospect waiting, either. If he happens
to be waiting on someone, he acknowledges the newcomer’s presence with a pleasant nod
of greeting.

Whatever his garb-and it will vary greatly-salesman Bill is always neat in appearance.
He never talks down his nose to anyone or gets involved in silly arguments. Bill seldom
forgets that customers are the only source of the income that pays his salary. He seldom
forgets to ask them to come in again, anytime.

Gunology 69
Bill Jones is going to do all right.
What about Sam Brown; isn’t there any hope for him?

Well, we’ve talked a lot about Bill Jones, but this book and all that’s in it is really for the
likes of Sam Brown. The truth is that Bill Jones has probably been around longer than
Sam Brown. Bill may be doing what comes naturally, but it’s much more likely he was
another Sam in the beginning.

Probably some wise old hand like the boss took Bill in tow early in the game, gave him
plenty of pointers, encouraged his efforts and stimulated his interest in becoming the
well-accomplished
salesman he is.

We sincerely hope this book will do as much for all its readers.

And we hope you’ve enjoyed reading Gunology.

70 Gunology
 APPENDIX A-Planning Calendar
■ ANNIVERSARIES■ BIRTHDAYS■ GRADUATIONS ■ MOTHER'S DAY■
FATHER'S DAY■ CHRISTMAS ■ HUNTING SEASONS■ LOCAL SHOOTS

JANUARY:
• Open season still on for some species-watch ammunition stock for holes.
• Indoor season-feature target rifles, targets, and shooting
accessories.
• Watch for announcements of new model firearms and ammunition develop-
ments.
• Order samples of new model firearms.
• Write for new catalogs and price lists.
• Begin compilation of consumer mailing list.
FEBRUARY:
• Run sale of marked down, older, obsolete ammunition and
discontinued firearms, etc.
• Watch for announcements of new display material and order some
immediately.
• Feature new model firearms previously ordered-special display
preferably in window.
• Arrange for loan of films for presentation at local Fish & Game Clubs-write
Winchester for list of the subjects available.
• Set date for fall "open house"-invite factory
representatives to participate.
MARCH:
• Plinking season begins soon-display 22 rifles, animal targets, tin cans with
bullet holes on post or on string, etc.
• Varmint season near-feature varmint center fire rifles, scopes; show crows,
gophers, woodchucks in window.
• Order crow calls, decoys, stuffed owl, etc.
• Show film on crow and varmint shooting at local Fish & Game Club Meeting.
APRIL:
• Set up bulletin. Post weekly bag of each varmint hunter. Persuade outdoor
editor of local paper to write article on crow and varmint shooting.

Gunology 71
 • Get local Fish & Game Club to sponsor a 2-day "Crow Shooting Derby"-perhaps on suc-
cessive Saturdays. Put up worthwhile prize, on display prior to event-arrange publicity.
• Order White Flyer handtraps and White Flyer targets for use on outings, picnics, summer
camps, etc.
MAY:
• Continue emphasis on varmint, plinking, target, crow and all "fun" shooting.
• Make up package deal of hand trap and carton of targets-display with suggestive card.
• Mail out letter, inviting early gun selection, and suggest the "fun" and added skill to be
acquired by summer practice.
JUNE:
• Father's Day
• Graduation days
-Small displays with appropriately worded cards. Continue emphasis on "fun"
shooting.
• Invite outdoor editor of local paper for afternoon of handtrap shooting fun.
• Suggest an article on the added enjoyment of shooting as skill improves.
JULY-AUGUST:
• Vacation, fishing, boating and camping months.
• Keep paper targets, clay targets, hand traps in prominence.
• Suggest to fishermen, boaters and campers-"for double fun-take a gun."
• Work up plans for September "Open House."
• Check on display material, and hand out literature.
• Recheck with invited factory personnel on "Open
• House" attendance.
• Prepare letter of invitation ... revise mailing list.
• Select a few door prizes.
• Plan major fall "hunting" window, with a message, or theme. Ex: "Are you ready?" Accent
on upland shooting.
SEPTEMBER:
• Install display window-dress up interior. Beef up shelf stock of ammunition.
• Check inventory for holes and light spots. Check gun stock. Order fill-ins.
• Mail out Open House invitations-run news ad. Hold open House.
• Show hunting film.

72 Gunology
 • Announce "Biggest Buck" contest-sign up purchasers of deer loads.
• Sell licenses.
OCTOBER:
• Run ad Friday before season opens.
• Rearrange window display with accent on deer, and other big game.
• Feature "sighting in week" before season opens.
• Continue "Biggest Buck" contest.
• Show Duck Hunting film for local Fish and Game Club.
NOVEMBER:
• Rearrange display-accent on waterfowl-decoys, etc. Run news ad ahead of
opening day for ducks.
• Continue "Big Buck" contest.
• Check inventory-ammunition and guns. Plan Christmas display.
DECEMBER:
• Rearrange display to Christmas motif with gift suggestions for Dad, Son, etc.
Gift-wrap ammunition as a giftt suggestion.
• Run news ad with Christmas suggestions.
• Announce winner of "Big Buck" contest-publicity, pictures, etc.
• Offer Gift Certificates for sale.

Gunology 73
74