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Fertilizer Recommendations by Using Different Geospatial Technologies in

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 Chapter 14

Fertilizer Recommendations by Using Different

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Geospatial Technologies in Precision Farming
or Nanotechnology

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B. R. Meena1,, H. S. Jatav1, B. L. Dudwal1, P. Kumawat1,

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S. S. Meena2, V. K. Singh3, M. A. Khan1 and
Eetela Sathyanarayana4

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1SKN Agriculture University, Jobner Rajasthan India
2GB Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, Pantnagar Uttarakhand India
3Department of Soil Science, Punjab Agriculture University Ludhiana, Punjab India
4Agricultural College-Palem, Nagarkurnool, PJTSAU, Hyderabad, Telangana, India

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Abstract
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The use of technology to improve the effectiveness and efficiency of farming practices has
increased tremendously. Discoveries in the field of science and technology have enabled
farmers to effectively use their input to maximize their yield. These advancements have
been greatly assisted by the use of sophisticated machineries, planting practices, use of
fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides and so on. In particular, dependence on more efficient
use of synthetic fertilizers to increase crop yields poses technical, economic and
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environmental challenges. Emerging technologies, such as geospatial technologies (GIS,

GPS), Internet of Things (IoT), Big Data analysis, and artificial intelligence (AI), could be
utilized to make informed management decisions aimed to increase crop production.
Precision agriculture (PA) entails the application of a suite of such technologies to optimize
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agricultural inputs to increase agricultural production and reduce input losses. These
technologies and tools enable farmers to characterize spatial variability (e.g., soils) among
farms and large crop fields that negatively affect crop growth and yields. These state-of-
the-art technologies for the development and implementation of site-specific management
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are integral part of PA.Further, nano-technology has the potential to revolutionize

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agricultural systems. In the management aspects, efforts are made to increase the efficiency
of applied fertilizer with the help of nano clays and zeolites and restoration of soil fertility
by releasing fixed nutrients. Use of nanofertilizers causes an increase in nutrients use
efficiency, reduces soil toxicity, minimizes the potential negative effects associated with
over dosage and reduces the frequency of the application. Hence, precision farming
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andnanotechnology has a high potential for achieving sustainable agriculture, especially in

developing countries like India.
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
Corresponding Author’s Email: brmeena.agro@sknau.ac.in.
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In: Ecosystem Services

Editor: Hanuman Singh Jatav
ISBN: 978-1-68507-614-6
© 2022 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
 242 B. R. Meena, H.S. Jatav, B. L. Dudwal. et al.

Keywords:fertilizer, geospatial, precision, GIS, GPS, nanotechnology

Introduction

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Agriculture is the backbone of India’s economy, which accounts for 18% of India’s Gross
Domestic Product (GDP) and hires about half of the countries workforce. More than 70% of
rural families depend on agriculture for their livelihood. Housing about 17% of the total world

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population, India faces the challenge of fulfilling the demands of agricultural commodities for
this ever-growing population. It’s imperative to upgrade traditional farming practices and
prepare for a tech-revolution to develop eco-friendly systems for enhancing crop productivity.

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Smart farming concepts like precision agriculture can be aptly deployed to achieve this goal.
Precision farming is an integrated crop management system which uses remote sensing (RS),

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GPS, and geographical information system (GIS) to monitor the crop field at ground level. The
disparities in crop or soil properties within a field are recorded and mapped. Then management
decisions are taken as a result of continuous assessment of the spatial variability within that
field. In the Indian agricultural scenario, it can be described as the precise utilization of

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agricultural inputs depending upon the crop, soil, and weather requirement to optimize the use
of fertilizers, pesticide, and irrigation requirements for maximum productivity.

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Precision agriculture (PA), satellite farming or site specific crop management (SSCM) is a
farming management concept based on observing, measuring and responding to inter and intra-
field variability in crops. The goal of precision agriculture research is to define a decision
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support system (DSS) for whole farm management with the goal of optimizing returns on inputs
while preserving resources. In recent scenario the several problems occurs in conventional
farming. The intensification of the conventional farming systems has led to extensive usage of
agricultural inputs like machinery, high-demanding varieties and agro chemicals, resulting in
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negative environmental impacts such as groundwater pollution and atmospheric contamination

that exacerbates the greenhouse effect. The environmental pressure has adverse effects not only
on human health and natural resources but also on the sustainability of agricultural production
itself. Precision farming is an approach where inputs are utilised in precise amounts to get
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increased average yields, compared to traditional cultivation techniques and its counter the all
problems that occurs under in conventional farming. Sustainable PA is this century’s most
valuable innovation in farm management that is based on using Information and
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Communication Technologies (ICTs). This is the most recent innovation technology based on
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sustainable agriculture and healthy food production and it consists of profitability and
increasing production, economic efficiency and the reduction of side effects on the
environment.In India, one major problem is the small land holding. More than 58 per cent of
operational holdings in the country have size less than one hectare (ha). In such area clubbing
of small field in an unit is a better option to implementation of precision farming. Whereas in
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the states of Punjab, Rajasthan, Haryana and Gujarat, more than 20 per cent of agricultural
lands have an operational holding size of about four ha so better scope of precision farming in
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those areas. Commercial as well as horticultural crops also show a wider scope for PA in the
cooperative farms.
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 Fertilizer Recommendations by Using Different Geospatial Technologies … 243

Need of Precision Farming

The conventional farming systems has led to extensive usage of agricultural inputs like
machinery, pesticides, water, and other inputs resulting in negative environmental impacts such

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as pollution of environment by emission of green house gases. Research suggests educational

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and economic challenges as the two most important in the application of precision agriculture.
PA and initial costs have more of an impact among the economic challenges compared to the
other issues. Rather than this PF (Precision Farming) increase agriculture productivity with

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prevents soil degradation. PF reduces the use of chemical application in crop production and
efficient use of water resources. It is also helpful in dissemination of modern farm practices to
improve quality, quantity and reduced cost of production, developing favourable attitudes and

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changing the socio-economic status of farmers.
A farmer’s expense sheet is often the thing of doom and dread. Precision farming aims to

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reduce a farmer’s expenditure by minimising the need for things like fertiliser, pesticide and
herbicide. Over a growing season, grower’s are seeing significant reductions in the amount of
money they are spending on all of the above where technology is using the components
sparingly and only where needed. As an alternative to blanket spraying this has seen massive

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savings and allows farmers to better budget and keeps costs to a minimum.

More Time on their Hands bl

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Accompanying the simplified processes, farmers are finding they are freeing up a lot more time
to concentrate on the business operations of their farms rather than the nitty gritty jobs that
would ordinarily be very time consuming. This means that they can focus their energy on
making the farm more profitable and expansion planning rather than get bogged down
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completing menial tasks that technology can do instead.

Higher yields and More Profitability

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Statistically, a precision farmer will make more money than a traditional farmer. This is for a
number of reasons. Their yields are higher because they have improved growing practices and
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they are able to sell more produce at the end of the season as a result. They also have less man
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hours to expend as technology is filling gaps that workers would have previously filled. There
is now a huge fruit picking technology industry which is minimisinglabourer costs across many
large fruit farms. As well as these benefits, because farmers are reducing costs by employing
technology they are hitting their profit margins a lot sooner than traditional farmers.
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Better Quality Produce

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Implementing better growing processes is providing produce that is of a higher quality. This is
done in many ways such as actively monitoring the nutrients in soil, strip tilling and irrigating
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plants correctly and when irrigation is needed. Again; this not only boosts yields, but it also
 244 B. R. Meena, H.S. Jatav, B. L. Dudwal. et al.

boosts profit margins further as when it comes to taking the crop to market, precision farmers
are able to negotiate a higher price for the improved quality in the produce.

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Less Waste

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Lost crop is a nightmare for farmers, and over a growing season there is expectation that a
certain number of plants will not see the season through. Making this worse is that historically

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storage practices inevitably resulted in further spoilage. With streamlined growing processes
and healthier plants that crops have a much better chance of surviving and growing seasons are
becoming more sustainable. Furthermore, improvements in storage by technological means

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have greatly reduced crop spoilage in the storage stage as well.

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Less Debt

Unfortunately, a word that has become synonymous with farming is debt. Precision farmers are

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no more able to avoid debt as a traditional farmer however they are able to clear it quicker
because they have more money to pay it down. This is as a result of the increased profitability

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and many precision farmers are now debt free or taking big steps towards becoming debt free.
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Higher Quality of Life

Farming is a difficult and exhausting job. Farmer suicide rates are high and overall quality of
life was typically non-existent. Precision farming is changing this rapidly, and as a result of the
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things we have mentioned on the list they are experiencing a better quality of life with a
reduction in stress levels. With more time to spend with the family, more money to go on
holidays with and less physical labour involved in the farming process, precision farmers are
living healthier and more fulfilled lifestyles that should see those alarming suicide statistics fall
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as time goes by.

Nanotechnology
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Nanotechnology can be defined as methods that create materials or structures with designed
features in the 1–100 nm size range (Niemeyer, 2002) or in other words nanotechnology is the
science of the nanoscale it means objects around a nano meter in size. Our capacity to construct
large, intricate structures with nano meter precision is rapidly changing, and consists of top-
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down reductive approaches and bottom-up additive approaches. Alternatively, nature has
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perfected an array of biological machinery that functions at the nano scale structure which
typically self-assembles driven by the molecular chemistry of subunit interactions.
Nanotechnology has made enormous progress over the past few decades. Nanotechnology
requires the measurement, prediction, and fabrication of matter on the scale of atoms and
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molecules. It is hoped that atomic-scale nanotechnology will have a revolutionary impact on

 Fertilizer Recommendations by Using Different Geospatial Technologies … 245

the way we do, design, and produce things in the future. Nanotechnology is an atomic or
molecular approach to building physically, chemically, and biologically stable structures one
atom, or one molecule, at a time. To date, scientists and researchers can control atoms or
molecules individually and can manipulate them as well use them to achieve phenomenal

.
degrees of precision. Nano technology contributions to society may appear small at the moment

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but with continued manpower and funding it is hoped it will provide results and innovations. If
nanotechnology continues to grow at its current rate it will touch the life of nearly everyone on
the planet in the next few next years. Results of investigations and developments in nano

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technological fields are entering into all areas of our lives, such as agriculture, aerospace,
energy, defence, materials science, environmental science, and medicine.

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GeospatialTechnologies for FertilizerRecommendation

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Geospatial technologyprovides better management of natural resources that leads to higher
potential of increasing yields and economic returns in agricultural production. In this system,
the agricultural management is tailored to the variability of conditions found in each field. Since

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fertilizer application is an important operation, it has to be carried out efficiently and judiciously
to ensure optimum returns from its investment. Geospatial technologies for fertilizer

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recommendation are aimed to optimize the all available nutrient resources in combination for
site specific crop management. Such types of techniques are employed to increase yield, reduce
production costs, and minimize negative impacts to the environment. Using GIS analytical
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capabilities, variable parameters that can affect agricultural production can be evaluated. Some
important geospatial technology used for fertilizer recomentdation is site specific nutrient. The
main goal of this chapter to know comprehensive information’s of advanced geospatial
technologies, used in precision farming and nano-technology.
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1. Site-Specific Crop Management

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Site-specific nutrient management (SCNM) is a plant-based approach that provides principles

that can be used everywhere. SCNM also gives guidelines for effective N, P, and K
management, so that farmers give the right amount of essential nutrients to the crop. With
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SSCM, plant-essential nutrients are supplied as and when required to ensure the feeding of the
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crop to optimally meet its nutrient needs. SCNM enables the tailoring of nutrient management
to field- and location-specific conditions. Site-specific crop management (SSCM) is one facet
of precision agriculture which is helping in increasing production with minimal input. It has
enhanced the cost-benefit scenario in crop production. Even though the SSCM is very widely
used in row crop agriculture like corn, wheat, rice, soybean, etc. it has very little application in
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cash crops like fruit and nut. Guidelines developed by International Plant Nutrition Institute
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(IPNI) addresses specific issues related to site-specific soil and crop management some of
which are discussed.
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 246 B. R. Meena, H.S. Jatav, B. L. Dudwal. et al.

1. Site-Specific Use of the Environmental Phosphorus Index Concept

Phosphorus (P) loss to surface water can have negative impacts on the environment. The risk
of such loss depends on both source (added fertilizer and manure, soil P) and transport factors
(erosion and surface runoff). Fields at risk are those where areas of high P application or soil P

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coincide with zones of active surface runoff or erosion. A P index has been developed to rank

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field vulnerability to P loss so that high risk fields may be identified for site-specific
management. The index provides a framework that can be regionally adapted to prevailing
topography, geology, and climatic conditions and requires only readily available data.

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2. Management Zone Concepts
Varying the application rates of plant nutrients and other crop inputs across variable fields

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makes good agronomic sense. For every input some reasonable strategy must be used to guide
that application. Grid soil sampling for phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) has greatly improved

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the accuracy of fertilizer application, although even greater accuracy can be attained by
considering additional site characteristics within sub-regions of fields. A “management zone”
is a sub-region of a field that expresses a relatively homogeneous combination of yield-limiting
factors for which a single rate of a specific crop input is appropriate. Spatial information that is

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most helpful in defining management zones should be quantitative (numerical), densely or
continuously sampled, stable over time, and directly related to crop yield.

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3. Profitability of Site-Specific Farming
Profitability results from field research studies show that high-value crops give the biggest
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payoff to VR fertilizer application. Many yield map benefits come from whole-field
improvements such as drainage, land levelling, windbreaks, and fencing. Farmers and
agribusinesses should remember that because SSF practices are site-specific, their profitability
potential also will be site-specific.
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4. Developing Management Zones to Target Nitrogen Applications

Whether the goal is to determine the level of soil nitrogen (N) or the soil yield potential,
management zones for N fertilizer management can be constructed using a variety of tools,
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including topography, aerial photographs, satellite imagery, soil electrical conductivity sensors,
yield maps, and intensive soil survey data. For the producer starting out, viewing satellite
images and/or aerial photos that are relatively inexpensive to obtain and comparing them with
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landscape features would be a good place to start. Zones can be constructed and managed for
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N using a fraction of the number of soil samples required to reveal the same zones through grid
sampling. Zone sampling results in lower sampling costs for variable-rate fertilizer application
and allows precision farming to be much more practical for producers of commodity crops.

5. Global Positioning System Receivers

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GPS and GIS receivers provide the means to determine position at locations anywhere on earth.
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Developed by the U.S. Department of Defence (DOD) and used for many civilian purposes,
from fishing to flying, GPS has also made precision farming a reality. A typical configuration
for on-farm agricultural applications includes a GPS receiver and antenna, a differential
correction receiver and antenna, and cables to interface differentially-corrected (DGPS) data
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from the receiver to other electronic equipment such as a yield monitor or a variable rate
 Fertilizer Recommendations by Using Different Geospatial Technologies … 247

controller. Accurate, automated position tracking with GPS receivers allows farmers and
agricultural service providers to record geo-referenced data and to apply variable rates of inputs
to smaller areas within larger fields.

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6. Variable Rate Equipment—Technology for Weed Control

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Sprayer controllers have been developed by agricultural equipment vendors to minimize
variation of applied rates of chemicals within fields. The control systems that allow these
devices to compensate for changes in vehicle speeds now also provide the potential to apply

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variable rates of pesticides according to pre planned maps. The types of sprayer systems and
controllers are capable of variable rate control.

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7. Standardization and Precision Agriculture
‘The Promised Land’ Progress toward increased use of electronic systems for precision farming

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applications will be enhanced by the introduction of standards for electronic communications
on agricultural equipment and translation of spatial data formats. The standard will provide a
uniform approach to communications on tractors and implements.

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8.The Pioneer Split-Planter Comparison Method
The Pioneer Split-Planter Comparison Method is a simple, low-cost technique for making

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treatment evaluations using a global positioning system (GPS)  equipped yield monitor in
whole fields. Comparisons can be made between two hybrids, varieties, or agronomic
treatments applied in alternating strips throughout a field. Pooling results from similar
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comparisons made at multiple locations is much preferred to relying on single-location results.
The ability to bring a yield difference map into a geographic information system (GIS) and
overlay it with other spatial data layers will greatly increase the value of the map as a crop
management tool.
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9. Earth Model—Calculating Field Size and Distances between Points Using

GPS Coordinates
An ever-increasing number of farmers have global positioning system (GPS) receivers on their
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combines. When not harvesting, GPS receivers are useful for more than locating one’s favourite
spot. The distance between two sampling points and the area of a field can be found using GPS
coordinates and knowledge of the Earth Terrestrial Coordinate System. The objective of this
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guideline is to provide a method to those farmers and agricultural practitioners can use to
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calculate distances between points and to calculate the size of a field using Excel, a commonly
available spreadsheet.

10. Assessing Crop Nitrogen Needs with Chlorophyll Meters

One of the most difficult challenges faced by farmers is to determine the appropriate fertilizer
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nitrogen (N) application rate. Irrespective of sources, most N in soil is eventually transformed
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to the nitrate (NO3) form. To minimize NO3 leaching, cropping systems and management
practices must minimize excess NO3 in the soil and the potential for percolation below the root
zone. The problem is basically one of synchronizing soil N availability (from all N sources)
with crop N needs. This task is complicated because it is difficult to accurately predict climatic
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variables that influence crop growth, soil microbial activity, and NO3 leaching.
 248 B. R. Meena, H.S. Jatav, B. L. Dudwal. et al.

11. Identifying Good Candidates for Precision Phosphorus Management

In fields with high soil test P variability, precision management of P produced the greatest level
of profitability when the composite soil test P level was in the high to very high soil test P
categories. Average soil P test level and prior field histories can be used as a decision aid to

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reduce economic risks associated with adopting precision farming techniques. Appropriate P

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response models and yield goals must be used to accurately assess potential profitability
associated with precision P management.

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12.Variable-Rate Technology (VRT)
Developing accurate variable-rate technology (VRT) fertilizer application maps is critical in
implementing precision farming management. Intensive grid soil sampling may be used to

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develop application maps. However, the cost and labour intensity associated with intensive grid
sampling suggests other approaches may be more feasible. Management zone technology may

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provide a more economical method of developing VRT application maps.

13. Getting Specific with Site-Specific Nutrient Management

Over simplification of site-specific nutrient management can lead to reduced profits and

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production. Currently, site-specific nutrient management typically involves applying a definite
set of recommendations to different areas in a field, based upon a few factors, such as soil test

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levels and yield goals. However, if these recommendations do not consider other site-specific
factors that influence response to fertilizer application, substantial opportunities to increase
profits and production may be lost. Proper evaluation of these yield-limiting factors and
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appropriate management changes based on readily available information could make site-
specific nutrient management more profitable.

14. Grain Protein Sensing to Identify Nitrogen Management in Wheat

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Protein concentration in grain is greatly influenced by the level of nitrogen (N) fertility.
However, there is significant spatial variation in N fertility in a field. Conventional uniform
application ignores this variability and leads to over fertilization in some areas and under-
fertilization in others. Therefore, the question arises as to whether grain protein can be
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optimized on a site-specific basis by accounting for spatial variability of N fertility within

individual field.
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2. GIS, GPS and Remote Sensing for Fertilizer Recommendations

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) applications enable the storage, management, and
analysis of large quantities of spatially distributed data. These data are associated with their
respective geographic features. For example, water quality data would be associated with a
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sampling site, represented by a point. A GIS can manage different data types occupying the
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same geographic space. For example, a biological control agent and its prey may be distributed
in different abundances across a variety of plant types in an experimental plot. Although
predator, prey, and plants occupy the same geographic region, they can be mapped as distinct
and separate features. The ability to depict different, spatially coincident features is not unique
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to a GIS, as various computer aided drafting (CAD) applications can achieve the same result.
 Fertilizer Recommendations by Using Different Geospatial Technologies … 249

Global Positioning System GPS technology has provided an indispensable tool for
management of agricultural and natural resources. GPS is a satellite- and ground-based radio
navigation and location system that enables the user to determine very accurate locations on
the surface of the Earth. Although GPS is a complex and sophisticated technology, user

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interfaces have evolved to become very accessible to the non-technical user. Simple and

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inexpensive GPS units are available with accuracies of 10 to 20 meters, and more sophisticated
precision agriculture systems can obtain centimetre level accuracies.
The uses of GIS, GPS, and RS technologies, either individually or in combination, span a

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broad range of applications and degrees of complexity. Simple applications might involve
determining the location of sampling sites, plotting maps for use in the field, or examining the
distribution of soil types in relation to yields and productivity. More complex applications take

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advantage of the analytical capabilities of GIS and RS software. These might include vegetation
classification for predicting crop yield or environmental impacts, modelling of surface water

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drainage patterns, or tracking animal migration patterns.
Precision agriculture provides better management of natural resources that leads to higher
potential of increasing yields and economic returns in agricultural production. In this system,
the agricultural management is tailored to the variability of conditions found in each field. Since

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fertilizer application is an important operation, it has to be carried out efficiently and judiciously
to ensure optimum returns from its investment. Precision Agriculture practices are aimed to

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optimize the use of soil resources to compensate the GIS and GPS technologies are used in
combination for precision farming and site-specific crop management. Precision farming
techniques are employed to increase yield, reduce production costs, and minimize negative
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impacts to the environment.
Using GIS analytical capabilities, variable parameters that can affect agricultural
production can be evaluated. It can be used to create fertilizer variable rates map from crop
yield data and foliar analysis. The information and fertilizer rates map created will guide the
actual application of fertilizer in the field in such a way that will optimize fertilizer usage and
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maximize yield production.

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Some Other Tools for Recommendation

1. Nutrient Expert
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Fertilizer recommendation tool ‘Nutrient Expert’ for food and nutritional security challenges
in South Asia. Yields of cereals in small scale farms in Asia are 40-65% of their potential
largely because nutrient management does not consider the crop’s dynamic response to the
environment (Dobermann and Cassman, 2002). Data from several environments in India
revealed gaps between potential and attainable yields of maize of up to 100% and between
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attainable and actual yields of up to 25-50%. Among the cereals, maize is rapidly emerging as
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a favourable option for the farmers of South Asia due to higher productivity and profitability
of maize over rice or wheat. Maize extracts large amounts of mineral nutrients from the soil
due to high grain and Stover yields. There is a possibility of nutrient mining from the soil if
fertilizers are not added as per the requirements for high target yield of maize. Intensification
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 250 B. R. Meena, H.S. Jatav, B. L. Dudwal. et al.

of maize will therefore need nutrient management that produces high yields while preserving
soil quality and the environment.
South Asian agriculture is characterized by small land holdings for cultivation with high
variability in plant nutrient availability between fields. However, fertilizer recommendations

.
for crops in this region are usually done over large geographic areas that often fail to meet the

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demand of high yielding cops like maize. Site-specific nutrient management (SSNM), on the
other hand, integrates information from different scales to make field specific decisions on N,
P and K management. SSNM, which was developed for rice in Asia, was later adapted for

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maize in Asia (Pasuquinet al. 2010). There is little acceptance of SSNM by farmers beyond the
on-farm trials. Apart from shortcomings in the strategy to promote SSNM, and farmer’s
inability to buy fertilizers, extension agents lack confidence in using the methodology

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(Gabinete and Buresh, 2009). Many extension agents still perceive SSNM as complex,
requiring an understanding of concepts and methods outside their experience. Such knowledge

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requirements have slowed the wide-scale promotion and adoption of SSNM by the farmers and
extension agents (Buresh, 2008). The decision support system developed for South Asia in
2010-11 is an easy-to-use, interactive computer-based decision tool that can rapidly provide
nutrient recommendations for an individual farmers’ field in the presence or absence of soil

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testing data. It utilizes information provided by a farmer or a local expert to suggest a
meaningful yield goal for his location and formulates a fertilizer management strategy required
to attain that yield goal.
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2. DRIS Approach

The Diagnosis and Recommendation Integrated System (DRIS) was developed by Beaufils in
1973, this method consist in dual relation between a pair of nutrients (N/P, P/N, N/K, K/N...)
Instead of the use of sufficiency range or critical level that are called univariate methods,
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because only the individual concentration of the nutrients in leaf tissue is taken into
consideration while no information about the nutritional balance is provided. DRIS enables the
evaluation of the nutritional balance of a plant, ranking nutrient levels in relative order, from
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the most deficient to the most excessive. With the use of dual relation on DRIS, the problem
with the effect of concentration or dilution on the nutrients in plants is solved, because,
according to Beaufils (1973); Walworth & Sumner (1987) with the growth of leaf tissue, on
one hand the concentration of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and sulphur decrease in older
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plants and the concentration of calcium and magnesium increase in older plants on the other
hand. When it is used the DRIS method, where the dual ratio is used, the values remain constant,
minimizing the effect of biomass accumulation, that is one of the major problem with
sufficiency range and critical level method. It is feasible to find on literature some crops on
which DRIS had already been used to assess the nutritional status of fruit plants and crops.
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According to Baldock& Schulte (1996), there are four advantages of DRIS; (1) the scale of
interpretation is continuous numeric scale, and easy to use, (2) put the nutrients in order of the
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most deficiency to the most excessive, (3) identify cases where the yield of plant is been limited
by into factor as nutritional status and (4) the Nutritional Balance Index (NBI) give a result of
combined effects of nutrients. Nevertheless, the disadvantage of this methodology is that the
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DRIS index is not independent, because one nutrient concentration can have hard influence on
 Fertilizer Recommendations by Using Different Geospatial Technologies … 251

the other DRIS index for one nutrient but this problem can be corrected in parts with a hard
selection of the nutrient that will compound the DRIS norms.

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3. Variable Rate Applicator

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Variable rate application help farmer increase their yields by using optimal levels of fertilizer,
seed, and chemical in the areas of the farm fields where the inputs are going to add the most

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value, while lowering the inputs in places that they have less impact on returns and yields. In
precision agriculture, variable rate application is an area of invention that focuses on the
automated precise application of materials to a given location. The application of these

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materials is based on data that is collected by technologies like sensors, GPS and maps. These
materials are inputs like chemicals, fertilizers, and seeds. The key focus is optimizing crop’s

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production. There are many technological tools that can be used in application of variable rate
in precision agriculture. These include everything ranging from drones and artificial
intelligence to satellites and hyperspectral imaging. Whichever variable rate application tool
that you decide to use, it is critical that you understand the general way in which such

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technology is applied. Variable rate application focuses on different areas in farming activities
like fertilization, lime application, weed control, irrigation and seeding. Some variable

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application can be used by the help of geographical positioning system (GPS) or even without
GPS system. Two basic technologies of variable rate application are:
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 Map based; and
 Sensor based.

Map-based variable rate application adjusts the relevant application rate based on a
generated electronic map, also known as prescription map. The GPS receiver gives the field
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position and a prescription map at a desired rate. The applicator then applies the field position
and prescription from a GPS as it moves in the field. On the other hand, the sensor-based
variable rate application requires no positioning system or map. Sensors that are mounted on
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the applicator measures the soil properties or crop characteristics at the same time. The
information is then streamed on real-time basis the control system calculates the quantity of
inputs that are required based on the crop or soil needs. Because both sensor based and map
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based variable system have advantages and disadvantages, some manufacturers have made
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tools that take advantage of the benefits from both methods.

Geospatial Data
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Geospatial data is information that describes objects, events or other features with a location
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on or near the surface of the earth. Geospatial data typically combines location information
(usually coordinates on the earth) and attribute information (the characteristics of the object,
event or phenomena concerned) with temporal information (the time or life span at which the
location and attributes exist). The location provided may be static in the short term (for
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example, the location of a piece of equipment, an earthquake event, and children living in
 252 B. R. Meena, H.S. Jatav, B. L. Dudwal. et al.

poverty) or dynamic (for example, a moving vehicle or pedestrian, the spread of an infectious
disease). Geospatial data typically involves large sets of spatial data gleaned from many diverse
sources in varying formats and can include information such as census data, satellite imagery,
weather data, cell phone data, drawn images and social media data. Geospatial data is most

.
useful when it can be discovered, shared, analyzed and used in combination with traditional

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business data.
Geospatial analytics is used to add timing and location to traditional types of data and to
build data visualizations. These visualizations can include maps, graphs, statistics and

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cartograms that show historical changes and current shifts. This additional context allows for a
more complete picture of events. Insights that might be overlooked in a massive spreadsheet
are revealed in easy-to-recognize visual patterns and images. This can make predictions faster,

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easier and more accurate.

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Types of Geospatial Data

Geospatial data is information recorded in conjunction with a geographic indicator of some

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type. There are two primary forms of geospatial data: vector data and raster data.
Vector data is data in which points, lines and polygons represent features such as

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properties, cities, roads, mountains and bodies of water. For example, a visual representation
using vector data might include houses represented by points, roads represented by lines and
entire towns represented by polygons.
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Raster data is pixelated or gridded cells which are identified according to row and column.
Raster data creates imagery that’s substantially more complex, such as photographs and satellite
images.
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Examples of Geospatial Data

Examples of geospatial data include:

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 Vectors and attributes: Descriptive information about a location such as points, lines
and polygons

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Point clouds: A collection of co-located charted points that can be recontextured as 3D

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models
 Raster and satellite imagery: High-resolution images of our world, taken from above
 Census data: Released census data tied to specific geographic areas, for the study of
community trends
 Cell Phone data: Calls routed by satellite, based on GPS location coordinates
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 Drawn images: CAD images of buildings or other structures, delivering geographic

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information as well as architectural data

 Social Media Data: Social media posts that data scientists can study to identify
emerging trends
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 Fertilizer Recommendations by Using Different Geospatial Technologies … 253

Dealing with large geospatial data sets presents many challenges. For this reason, many
organizations struggle to take full advantage of geospatial data.
First, there is the sheer volume of geospatial data. For example, it is estimated that 100 TB
of weather-related data is generated daily. This alone presents considerable storage and access

.
problems for most organizations. Geospatial data is also stored across many different files,

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which makes it difficult to find the files that contain the data needed to solve your specific
problem. In addition, geospatial data is stored in many different formats and calibrated by
different standards. Any effort to compare, combine or map data first requires a significant

,I
amount of data scrubbing and reformatting. Finally, working with raw geospatial data requires
specialized knowledge and the application of advanced mathematics to conduct necessary
tasks, such as geospatial alignment of data layers. Unless analysts are proficient and

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experienced at this work, they will not get value from the data or make progress toward their
organization’s business goals.

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Geospatial Data Collection

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Because the sheer volume of geospatial data routinely required by enterprises is prohibitively
large, many organizations look to using a service to obtain curated geospatial data. Regardless

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of where you source your geospatial data, data quality must always be maintained. Poor data
results in models of little or limited use. (The cautionary phrase “Bad data in — bad insights
out” proves brutally true.) It seems self-evident that organizations can benefit significantly from
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having a solution in place that curates and checks data, so any “garbage” data gets properly
accounted for.

Geospatial Data Management

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With so much data now in abundance, managing it takes on considerable importance. Many
organizations are finding themselves overrun with data and are turning to their in-house data
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scientists to help them manage it. It has been estimated that as much as 90% of data scientists’
time is spent on data-curation activities, including organizing, “cleaning” and reformatting data.
That leaves those data scientists with only 10% of their workday to devote to analyzing data
i

trends and using those insights to help shape business policy.

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Although geospatial analysis, as empowered by GIS, was originally used in connection

with life sciences such as geology, ecology and epidemiology, its use has since become
manifest throughout most industries. Its applications now touch industries as diverse as defense
and social sciences. And the insights that geospatial analysis generates affect matters as
critically important as natural resource management and national intelligence. Geospatial
a

analysis lends itself to the study of many things at once, monitoring hundreds or even thousands
of events and collecting pertinent data from them. This provides enterprises of all sizes the
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chance to leverage data to make more informed business decisions:

 Utilities providers can analyze the performance of hundreds of thousands of miles of

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power lines.
 254 B. R. Meena, H.S. Jatav, B. L. Dudwal. et al.

 Restaurant chains can use geospatial analysis techniques to track incoming shipments
from food providers.
 Wind and solar installations can analyze environmental conditions by pinpointing local
assets.

.
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Efforts to analyze massive amounts of data have become more challenging in recent years
due to a relative explosion within the Internet of Things (IoT). Objects and devices of all types
and purposes are now being engineered to be able to transmit data relevant to that device’s

,I
performance or protocols. That’s good news for geospatial analysis, which involves a profusion
of data in order to glean valuable insights.

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Conclusion

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The soil testing and fertilization recommendation technology can prevent improper fertilization
and low utilization ratio of fertilizers. Precision farming is a good tool to increase the yield of
farm without much hampering of soil fertility and other essential inputs. Geospatial technology

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is the main component of precision farming. Several geospatial technology like nutrient expert,
VRT’s, SSNM and other GIS and GPS based farming systems are commonly used for deciding

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the nutrient recommendations in fallow or in standing crop fields. They are useful for estimating
the site-specific fertilizer rate requirements; and to use decision support system to create
information from the foliar analysis to develop the foliar nutrient maps. All these technology
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are helpful to the farmer for increasing farmer income by the reducing of input quantity. Apart
from this nanotechnology has a vast role in better fertilizer management and recommendations.

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