12th Class - Physics

ARVIND ACADEMY
Revision Notes
Scan to View Our
Website
YouTube Channel Arvind Academy link http://bit.ly/2lYvJGF
Mobile App Arvind Academy (Android) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
Website Arvind Academy https://www.arvindacademy.com

Revision Notes
Chap 1 Electric Charges And Field
Topic 1
Electric Field And Dipole
Electric Charge

 Electric Charge is one of the property of a matter due to which it experiences a

force when placed in an electromagnetic field.
 Point charge is an accumulation of electric charges at a point , without special
extent .
 Electrons are the smallest and lightest fundamental particles in an atom having
negative charge as these are surrounded by invisible force field known as
electrostatic field .
 Protons are larger and heavier than electrons with positive electrical charge which
is similar in strength as electrostatic field in an electron with opposite polarity
 Two electrons or two protons will tend to repel each other as they have negative
and positive electrical charges respectively .

 The electron and proton will get attracted towards each other due to their unlike
charges.
P
 The charge present on the electron is equal and opposite to charge on the proton .

For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
 Charge on a proton
And charge of on an electron =

Electrostatic Charge
 Electrostatic charge means the charge is at rest
 Electrostatic charge is a fundamental quantity like length , mass and time .
 Charge on body expressed as q=
 The magnitude of charge is independent of the speed of the particles
 Based on the flow of charge across them , materials are divided as :
 Conductors – Allow electric charge to flow freely –metals
 Semi-conductors – Behave as conductor or insulator – silicon
 Insulator – Do not allow electric Charge to flow freely – rubber wood , plastic etc
.
 Net Charge is given by
 Charging by friction – charging insulator
 Charging by conduction – Charging metals and other conductors
 Charging by induction – Charging metals and other conductors

Charging by Induction

 Charging by induction means charging without contact

 On rubbing a glass rod and a silk cloth piece together , glass rod gets positively
charged whereas silk cloth gets negatively charged

 If a plastic rod is rubbed with wool , it becomes negatively charged .

 If a negatively charged rid is bought near neutral metal with insulator mounting , it
repels free electrons and attracts positive charges on metals .

For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
  If far end is connected to earth by a wire , electrons will flow towards ground while
positive charges are kept captive by the rod .

Properties of Electric Charge

Addition of Charges

 If a system contains three point charges q1,q2, and q3 , then the total charge of
the system will be algebraic addition of q1, q2 and q3 , i.e., charge will add up
q= q1+q2+q3

Conservation of charges

 Electric Charges is always conserved . It is the sum of positive and negative

charges present in an isolated system which remains constant .

 Charge cannot be created and destroyed in a process , but only in positive

negative pairs .

Quantization of charges

 Electric charges is always quantized ,i.e., electric charge is always an integral

multiple of charge ‘e’.

For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
  Net charge of an object having
( )

 Neutron (n) = m=

 Proton (p) = m=

 Electron(e) =m=

Coulomb’s Law

 The force of attraction and repulsion between two point charges

separated by a distance R is directly proportional to product of magnitude of
charges and inversely proportional to the square of distance between charges ,
written as
| || | | || |

Where
F= Force of attraction /repulsion between charges

= Magnitude of Charge 1 and Charge 2

r = Distance between charges

k= Constant whose value depends on medium Where Charges are kept

k=

A=

= permittivity of vacuum =

K’= relative permeability of medium or dielectric constant

 For Vacuum , relative permeability , K’= 1,

 As , force of attraction / repulsion among two electric charges placed
in vacuum and medium is

(vacuum)

(medium)

For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
  The unit coulomb (c) is derived from the SI unit Ampere (A) of the electric Current
.
 Current is the rate at which the charge moves past the point or through a
region , i= , hence 1C= (1A) (1S)

 The vector form of Coulomb’s force with ̂ = unit vector from is given as
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ̂ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ̂

⃗ ⃗

Principle of superposition

 The force on any charge due to number of other charge at rest is the vector sum of
all forces on that charge due to other charges , taken at one time .
 The individual forces are unaffected due to presence of other charges

For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
  Force exerted by on =⃗
 Force exerted by on =⃗
 Net force exerted on is vector sum of ⃗ ⃗

Electric field

 The space around a charge up to which its electric force cab be experienced is
called electric field
 If a test charge is placed at a point where electric field is E , then force on the
test charge is F=
 The electric field strength due to a point source charge ‘q’ at an observation point
‘A’ at a distance ‘r’ from the source charge is given by , ⃗⃗ ⃗

Or E=

 The unit of electric field is N/C

 Electric field inside the cavity of a charge conductor is zero
 If a charged / uncharged conductor is placed in an external field in a conductor is
zero
 In case of charged conductor , electric field is independent of the shape of
conductor

For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
 Electric Field Lines
 Electric Field Lines are imaginary lines that extend from positive charge towards
negative charge
 Direction of electric field lines around positive charge is imagined by positive test
charge located at points around source charge
 Electric field has same direction as force on positive test charge
 Electric field lines linked with negative charge as directed inwards described by
force on positive test charge
 Field lines never cross each other
 Strength of field is encoded in density of field lines .

Electric Dipole
 The system formed by two equal and opposite charges separated by a small
distance is called electric dipole
 Dipole makes fields .
 The force on a dipole in an electric field is zero if both are in stable as well as in an
unstable equilibrium .

For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
  The potential energy of a dipole in an electric field is minimum in a stable
equilibrium and maximum in an unstable equilibrium .
Moment of Force
 In a dipole , where a net force on dipole from field is zero and centre of mass of
dipole remains fixed , then forces on charged ends produce net torque about its
centre of mass (com).

- If
- If , dipole exists in unstable state
 In uniform electric Field dipole experiences torque, net force on dipole is zero
 In uniform electric field, dipole experiences rotatory motion .
 In non –uniform electric field , dipole experiences torque and net force
 In non uniform electric field, dipole experiences rotatory and translatory motion
- In This , torque aligns dipole with electric field and becomes zero .
- In this, torque direction is normal to the plane going inward .

Electric Dipole Moment

 Dipole Moment is a vector quantity whose unit is coulomb –meter (Cm)

 Dipole moment vector of electric dipole is ⃗ ⃗ between pair of charges q, -
q along the line

 For point P at distance r from centre of dipole on charge q, for r a, total field at
Point P is

For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
  For point P on the equatorial plane due to charges +q and –q, electric field of
dipole at a large distance

Know the Terms

 1 coulomb : When two point charges are placed at a distance of 1m in vacuum ,

they repel, attract each other with force of , the charge on each is known
as ! coulomb

 Electric Line of Force : it is a curve drawn in such a way that the tangent to it
at each point is in the direction of the net field at that point .

Revision Notes
Topic 2
Gauss’s Theorem and its Applications
Electric Flux

 Electric Flux is proportional to algebraic number of electric Field lines leaving the
surface , outgoing lines with positive sign , incoming lines with negative sign

For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
  Due to arbitrary arrangement of electric field lines , electric flux can be quantify as
 If vector A is perpendicular to surface , magnitude of vector A parallel to electric
field is A cos

 In non –uniform electric field , the flux will be

Continuous Charge Distribution

 It is a system in which a charge is uniformly distributed over the material . In this

system , infinite number of charges are closely packed and have minor space
among them . Unlikely from the discrete charge system , the continuous charge
distribution is uninterrupted and continuous in the material . There are three types
of continuous charge distribution System .

For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
  For linear Charge distribution ( ) , ⃗ ̂ (Where , Linear charge
density )
 For surface charge distribution ( ⃗ ̂ ( Where surface charge
density )
 For Volume Charge distribution (p), =⃗ ̂ (Where = Volume charge
density )

Gauss Law

 The net outward normal electric flux through any closed surface of any shape is
equal to 1/ times to net charge enclosed by the surface .

 The electric Flux at all points on Gaussian surface is

 If there is a positive net flux , net positive charge is enclosed .
 If there is negative net flux , net negative charge is enclosed .

 If there is zero net flux , no net charge is enclosed .

 The equation for electric field due to a point charge on Gaussian Surface is
 In an insulating sheet , charge remains in the sheet , so electric field , E=

For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
 Gauss’ law works in case of cylindrical , spherical and rectangular symmetries .
 The field the wire points radially outward which depends on distance from wire ,
⃗⃗ ̂ where is linear density of charge .
 Closed Surface : It is a surface which divides the space in inside and outside region ,
where one can’t move from one region to another without crossing the surface .
 Gaussian Surface : It is a hypothetical closed surface having similar symmetry as
problem on which we are working .
 Electrostatic Shielding : It is the phenomenon of protecting certain region of space
from external electric field .
 Dielectric : The non- conducting material in which charges are easily produced on
the application of electric field is called dielectric .e.g., Air, hydrogen , gas glass,
mica , paraffin wax , transformer oil etc.

For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
 Revision notes
Chap 2 Electrostatic potential and capacitance
Topic 1
Electrostatic potential
Electric potential
 Electric potential is the amount of work done by an external force in
moving a unit positive charges from one point to another in electrostatic
field without producing an acceleration.
 It is written as V=
Where , W=work done in moving charge ,q through the field , q =charge
being move through the field.
 The SI unit of electric potential are

Potential difference
 Electric potential difference is defined as the amount of work done to
carrying a unit charge from one point to another in an electric field
Electric potential difference= =
Between two points A and B, =
Where , is potential difference between A and B.
 In a region of space having an electric field ,the work done by electric field
dw ,when positive point charge q ,is displaced by a distance ds , then ,
⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗

⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
= ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗

Electric potential due to point charge

For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
  The electric potential by point charge q , at a distance r from the
charge , can be written as

Where is permittivity of vaccum

 Electric potential is a scalar quantity

 Dimension of electric potential is [M ]
 For a single point charge q the potential difference between A and B is
given by
⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
Where , E is the field due to a point charge , ds = dr ,so that
* + = * +
 If = , then = 0 so ,

Dipole and system of charges

 Electric dipole is two charged objects having equal but opposite

electric charges which are separated by a distance
 The net potential due to a dipole at any point at distance r and
making an angle with the dipole moment p is given by ,
̂
(r

For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
  Potential at a point due to system of charges is the sum of potentials due
to individual charges.
 In a system of charges q1 , q2 , q3, …… qn having positive vectors r1 , r2 r3,
…….rn relative to point P , the potential at point P due to total charge
configuration is algebraic sum of potentials due to individual charges , so
V = V1+V2+V3+……..Vn

( )

 It is known that in a uniformly charged spherical shell , electric potential

outside the shell is given as :
(r
Where q is total charge on shell and R is shell radius.

Equipotential surfaces
 Equipotential surface is the surface in space in which all point have same
potential.it requires no work to move the charge on such surface ,hence
the surface will have no E component , so E will be at right angle to the
surface.
 Work done in moving a charge at equipotential surface is zero
 Electric field is always perpendicular to equipotential surface.

For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
  Spacing among equipotential surface allows to locate region of string and
weak fields.
 Equipotential surfaces never intersect each other . if they intersect then
the intersecting point of two equipotential surfaces result in two values of
electric potential at that point , which is impossible
 Potential energy of a system of two charges
U
 Potential energy of a system of three charges

U ( )

 Potential energy of q at r in a external field

U=qv(⃗⃗⃗

Here , v(⃗⃗⃗ is the external potential at point r

 Potential energy due to two charges in an external field

U=q1V(⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ +q2V(⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ +

 Potential energy of a dipole in an external field:

When a dipole of charge q1= +q and q2 = -q having separation ‘2a’ is

placed in an external field (⃗⃗⃗⃗

For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
Here , p=2aq and is the angle between electric field and dipole.

Revision notes
Topic 2
Capacitance
Conductors and insulators
 Conductors are the ,materials through which charge can move freely

Examples :metals semimetals as carbon , graphite , arsenic etc.

 Insulators are materials in which the electrical current will not flow easily .

Such materials cannot be grounded and do not easily transfer electrons

examples :plastics and glass.

Dielectrics

 These are the material in which induce dipole moment is linearly

proportional to applied electric field
 Electrical displacement or electrical flux density D= E
Where =relative permittivity , =permittivity of free space and E is
electric field.
 If dielectric is kept in between the plates of capacitor , capacitance
increases by factor (kappa) known as dielectric constant , so C=k
Where A = area
dielectric constant of material also called relative permittivity = =

Materials Dielectric constant ( Dielectric strength

For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
 ( V/m
Air 1.0059 3
Paper 3.7 16
Pyrex glass 5.6 14
Water 80 -

Electric polarization
 Electric polarization polarization p is the difference between electric fields
D(induced) and E(imposed ) in dielectric due to bound and free charges
written as p=
 In terms of electric susceptibility : P= E
 In MKS : p= E
 The dielectric constant greater than 1 as 0

Capacitor
 A capacitor is a device which is used to store charge .
 Amount of charge ‘Q’ stored by the capacitor depends on voltage applied
and size of capacitor
 Capacitor consist of two similar conducting plates placed in front of each
other where one plate is connected to positive terminal while other plate
is connected to negative terminal
 Electric charge stored between plates of capacitor is directly proportional
to potential difference between plates that is
Q=CV
Where C=Capacitance of capacitor and v =potential difference between
the plates
 In capacitor , energy stored in the form of electrical energy in the space
between the plates

Capacitance
 Capacitance of a capacitor is ratio of magnitude of charge stored on the
plate to potential difference between the plates written as C=
For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
 Where C= capacitance , Q =charge in coulomb electric potential
difference in volts
 1F= =9 STAT FARAD,
 Capacitance of conductor depends upon shape size medium and other
conductor surrounding
 Parallel plate capacitor with dielectric charge among its plates has
capacitance which is given by:
C= ,
Where 8.85 F/m
 Capacitor having capacitance if 1 farad is too large for electronics
applications so components with lesser value of capacitance such as Micro
Pico are applied

Combination of capacitor in series and parallel

Capacitance in series

 If a no. of capacitor of capacitance C1 C2 C3………..Cn are connected in

series then there equivalent capacitance is given by:

 In series combination , the charge on each capacitor is same , but the

potential difference on each capacitor depends on their respective
capacitance that is ,.
q1= q2=q3……………. = q
 If V1 , V2, V3 ……..Vn be the potential difference across the capacitor and V
be the emf of charging battery then
V = V1+V2+V3…..Vn

For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
  As charge on each capacitor is same , therefore
q = V1C1=V2C2=V3C3…
The potential difference is inversely proportional to capacitance.
 In series , potential difference across largest capacitance is maximum
 The equivalent capacitance in series combination is less than the smallest
capacitance in combination.

Capacitor in parallel
 If a number of capacitors of capacitance C1 ,C2,C3 …………Cn are
connected in parallel then there equivalent capacitance is given by
=C1+C2+C3+………….Cn
 In a parallel combination the potential difference across each capacitor is
same and equal to emf of the charging battery that is
V1 = V2 = V3 = Vn = V

While the charge on different capacitor may be different ,

 If q1 , q2 , q3 , …….. , qn be the charges on the different capacitors , then
q1 + q2 + q3 + ………qn =V
 As potential drop across each capacitor is same so
V= =
 the charges on capacitor are directly proportional to capacitance that q is
directly proportional to C
 force of attraction between parallel plate capacitor will be F= * + = QE
where Q is charge on capacitor.

Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor with and without dielectric

medium between the plates :
For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
 Parallel plate capacitor is a capacitor with two identical plane parallel
plates separated by a small distance where space between them is filled
by dielectric medium .

 The electric field between two large parallel plates is given as:
E=
Where , = permittivity
Surface charge density

Where , Q =charge on plate and A =plate area

 Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor with area A separated by a distance
d is written as C=

 If a dielectric slab is placed in between the plates of a capacitor, then its

capacitance will increased by certain amount
 Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor depends on plate area A distance d
between plates medium between plates and not on charge on plates or
potential difference between plates.
 If we have number of dielectric slab of same area as the plates of the
capacitor and thickness t1 ,t2 , t3. ….and dielectric constant

For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
 Between the plates then the capacitance of the capacitor is given by

Where d=t1 + t2+ t3+……

 If slab of conductor of thickness t is introduced between the plates , then

( ) ( )

 When the medium between the plates consist of slabs of same thickness
but areas A1 , A2 , A3,… and dielectric constant thenm the
capacitance is given by

 When space between the plates is partly filled with medium of thickness t
and dielectric constant ,then capacitance will be

( )

When there is no medium between the plates , then

For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
 Capacitance of spherical conductor of radius R in medium of dielectric
constant is given by
C=

Energy stored in a capacitor

 In capacitor , energy gets stored when a work is done on moving a positive
charge from negative conductor to positive conductor against the
repulsive forces

 Fig**
 Polar atom : atom in which positive and negative charges possess
asymmetric charge distribution about its centre
 Polarisation: the stretching of atoms of a dielectric slab under an applied
electric field .
 Dielectric strength: the maximum value of electric field that can be applied
to dielectric without its dielectric breakdown
 Dielectric : it is electrically insulated or non-conducting material
considered for its susceptibility.
 Permittivity :It is a property of dielectric medium that shows the forces
which electric charges placed in medium exerts on each other .

For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
 Revision Notes
Chap 3 Current Electricity
Topic 1
Electric Current, Resistance and Cells
Electric Current

 Electric Current is defined as the rate of flow of charge , across the cross
section conductor i.e., I=
 When charge flows at a constant rate , the corresponding electric current
can be written as :
 Conventional current in an external circuit flows from positive terminal
to negative terminal
 Free electrons flow from the negative terminal to positive terminal in
external circuit
 1 Ampere current = 6.25 electrons flow per second
 Direct current is unidirectional flow of electric charge

Flow of electric charges in metallic conductor

 When an electric field is applied to a metal at certain points , free

electrons experience force and start moving
 Without external applied emf , free electrons experience force and
start moving .
 Motion of conducting electrons in electric field is a combination of
motion due to random collision .

Drift Velocity , mobility and their relation with electric current

 Drift velocity is an average velocity which is obtained by certain particle

like electron due to presence of electric field.
For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
  Drift velocity is written as : ⃗ ⃗⃗

Where, relaxation time ,

 When electric current is set up in a conductor , electrons drift through

the conductor with velocity , is given as
or neA
Where I = electric current through conductor , n= number of free
electrons per unit volume . A= area of cross section , e= charge of
electron
 Drift velocity of electrons under ordinary conditions is of the order of
0.1 mm/s
 Mobility is the drift velocity of an electron when applied electric field is
unity .
Mobility ,

Electrical Resistivity and Conductivity

 Resistivity is the specific resistance that is given by the conductor having

unit length and unit area of cross section

 Conductivity is the reciprocal of reciprocal of resistivity shown as

Ohm’s Law

For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
  Flow Of current through conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference established across , provided physical conditions
remain the same
Or ,
I=GV
Here ,
Or I=
V= IR
Where R= Resistance of Conductor

Electrical resistance

 It is the obstacle that is shown by the conductor during the flow of

current as

 The resistance of the conductor is given as

Where , is specific resistance or resistivity of the material of the
conductor .
 In the series combination of resistance , the current is same through
each resistor .
 In the parallel combination of resistances, the potential difference is
same across each resistor .

V-I characteristics (Linear and non- linear )

 V-I characteristic curve show the relationship between the current

flowing through the electronic device and applied voltage across its
terminal .

Linear V-I characteristics

For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
 A linear V-I curve has a constant slope and hence a constant
resistance . carbon resistors and metal obey the Ohm’s law and
have a constant resistance . This means the V-I curve is a straight
line passing through the origin

An electronic component may exhibit linear characteristics only in a

particular region . For example a diode shows linear behaviour
mostly in its operating region.

Nonlinear V-I Characteristics

 A circuit component has non- linear characteristics if the resistance is

not constant throughout and is some function of voltage or current . The
diode , for example , has varying resistance for different values of
voltage .

For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
 However , it has linear characteristics for a narrow operating region .
Note that in the graph above we can also see the maximum forward and
reverse voltage in which the diode can be operated without causing
breakdown and burning up of the diode .

Electrical energy and power

 Electrical energy is that which is stored in the charged particles in an

electric field

Where, E= Electrical energy , V= potential difference , t= time taken ,i=

current , R = resistance
 Power is the work done per unit time which is the rate of energy
consumed in a circuit

Since Voltage ,
S0, [ ]

Or,
The unit of power is J/s or W(watt)
For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
Carbon Resistors and their colour code

 Components and wires are coded with colours to identify their value and
function

 The carbon resistors value of resistance is indicated by four coloured

bands marked on its surface .
 In the carbon resistor shown , first two band a , b determine the digit
values of resistance , third c indicate the multiple while fourth d shows
tolerance of resistance
 Colour bands are marked on body of a carbon resistor to mark its
resistance and tolerance in accordance with the following codes

Multiplier Colour Tolerance

0 Gold 5%
1 Silver 10%
2 No colour 20%
3
4
5
6
7

Series and Parallel combination of resistors

For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
  If n resistors of Resistance R1, R2 , R3 ,….. Rn are connected in series ,
then their equivalent resistance is given as

 Each resistor in a series circuit has same amount of current flowing

through it .
 Voltage drop across each individual resistor in a series is different , and
they add upto the applied voltage
 The n resistors of resistance are connected in parallel ,
then their equivalent resistance is given as :

 Each resistor in parallel circuit has the same full voltage of the source
applied to it .
 The current flowing through each resistor in parallel circuit is different .
It depends upon resistance value .

Temperature dependence of resistivity

 With small change in temperature , resistivity varies with temperature as

:

Where temperature coefficient of resistivity .

Internal Resistance of Cell

 Cell is a device that maintains the potential difference that is present in

between the two electrodes as a result of chemical reaction
 Internal resistance is the resistance of electrolyte that is present in a
battery which resists the flow of current whwn connected to a circuit

For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
  Emf E is the potential difference between the electrodes of cell , when no
current flows through it .

Potential difference and emf of a cell

 The emf and terminal potential difference of a cell : Let the emf of a
cell be E and its internal resistance ,r . If an external resistance R be
connected across the cell through a key , Then IR=V= potential
difference across the external resistance R . This is equal to the
terminal potential difference across the cell .
E = V + IR
I=
V=E-Ir
V<E ( if there is flow of current )
When current is drawn from a cell , its terminal potential difference is

less than the emf .

Combination of Cells in series and parallel

 (i) Series Combination of cells : This combination is used when the

external resistance (R) of the circuit is much larger as compared to
internal resistance (r) of the cell i.e.,
R>>r
Let n cells, each of emf E and internal resistance r are connected in
series across an external resistance R, then the current in the circuit
will be

For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
  (ii) Parallel combination of cells : The combination is used when the
external resistance R is much smaller as compared to the internal
resistance (r) of the cell , i.e.,
R<<r
When m cells are connected in parallel across a resistance R , then
current through a resistor is given by

If m cells of emfs are connected in parallel across an

external resistance R , then the current through the external
resistance is given by

( )

Know The terms

 Conductors : These are metals which develop electric current in them

, when an electric field is applied to them
 Conventional Current : The current that flows from a point at higher (
positive ) potential to point at lower ( negative ) potential .
 Relaxation Time : The short time for which the free electron
accelerates before it undergoes a collision with the positive ion in the
conductor
 Conductance : It is the reciprocal of resistance of a conductor

G=

Unit -

 Conductivity : It is the reciprocal of the resistivity of a conductor

For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
  Super conductivity :The phenomenon due to which the substance
looses all signs of its resistance , when cooled to its critical
temperature
 Temperature coefficient of resistance : It is defined as the change in
the resistance per unit resistance per degree rise in temperature .

Revision Notes
Topic 2
Kirchhoff’s Laws, Wheatstone bridge and their
Application
Kirchhoff’s Law

 Kirchhoff’s laws tell about the relationship between voltages and

currents in the circuits.

First Law

 Kirchhoff’s first law is known as junction law which states that for a given
junction or node in a circuit , sum of currents entering in a junction will
be equal to sum of currents leaving that junction

 The algebraic sum of all currents meeting at a junction in a closed circuit

is zero ., i.e.,
 This is called the law of conservation of charge .

For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
 Second Law

 Kirchhoff’s Second law is also known as loop law which shows that
around any closed loop in a circuit , sum of the potential difference
across all elements will be zero
i.e.,
 This is called the law of conservation of Energy

For Example : Applying Junction law in loop AFEBA

Wheatstone Bridge

 It is a circuit having four resistances P,Q,R and S , a galvanometer and a

battery as shown

For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
  It is a balanced bridge when there is no current through the
galvanometer and potential at node B will be equal to potential at node
D resulting as :
=0 or

 Conductance : The reciprocal of resistance with unit as siemens. “s”

 Node : An end point to any branch of a network or a junction common
to two or more branches
 Permittivity : The ratio of capacitance between two electrodes with
dielectric to capacitance with air between the electrodes

Galvanometer : An instrument for detecting and measuring small electric

currents .

Revision Notes
Topic 3
Metre Bridge , Potentiometer and their Applications
Metre Bridge
 It is an instrument which is used to find the unknown resistance
of a coil or a material connected in a circuit .
 It is also known as slide wire bridge which is an instrument that
works on the principle of Wheatstone Bridge
 Metre bridge has two metallic strips which acts as holder for the
wire that are made of metals like copper .
 In metre bridge
-Resistance box and unknown resistance R are connected
across the two gaps of metallic strips

For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
 - one end of galvanometer is connected to the middle lead of
metallic strip placed between L shaped strips while other end is
connected to a jockey
- Jockey which is a metal wire having one end as knife edge is
used for sliding on the bridge wire

Measurement from the Metre bridge :

 At negative terminal of galvanometer , there appears zero
deflections that makes jockey to connect to negative point on
the wire .
 The distance from point X to Y is taken as cm while the
distance from point Y to point Z is taken as cm which can be
(100- cm
 Metre bridge can be drawn similar to wheat stone bridge as :

From the above arrangement :

Now , { as , R = }

Further , {

For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
 Hence ,

Potentiometer
 Potentiometer is a device which measures the emf of particular
cell and helps in comparing the emfs of different cells .
 Potentiometer depends in deflection method where zero
deflection results in non drawn of current from the cell or circuit
.
 It serves as an ideal instrument of infinite resistance for
measuring the potential difference
 Potentiometer comprises of long resistive wire AB of length L
(about 6m to 10 m long ) made up of a manganin or constantan .
 In this , a battery of known voltage E and internal resistance r
forms a primary circuit .
 In the potentiometer circuit , one terminal of other cells is
connected at one end of main circuit while other terminal is
connected at any point on the resistive wire through
galvanometer G which forms the secondary circuit

Where , J= Jockey , K=Key , Rh= Variable resistance which

controls the current through the wire AB
In the circuit

For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
 Specific resistance ( ) of wire is high while its temperature
coefficient of resistance is low
 At point A , all high potential points of primary and secondary
circuits are connected together , while all low potential points
are connected to point B or Jockey
 Value of known potential difference is more than the value of
unknown potential difference that is to be measured
 The current in primary circuit should remain constant and jockey
should not slide with the wire
Principle of potentiometer
 Potentiometer are displacement sensors that produce
electrical output in proportion to the mechanical displacement
 It can be used to measure the internal resistance and emf of a
cell which cannot be measured by the voltmeter
 The basic principle of potentiometer is that the potential drop
along any length of the wire is directly proportional to its
length . So when a constant current flows through a wire of
uniform cross – section and composition then .
V l
 When there is zero potential difference between two points ,
there will be no flow of electric current
 Application of Potentiometer : in measuring potential
difference and comparing emf of cells potentiometer in
measuring potential difference
 In a potentiometer auxiliary circuit comprises of battery of
emf E connected across terminals A and B with rheostat Rh
resistance box and key K1 is closed , current will flow through
resistance R1 where a potential difference is developed

For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
  The output voltage is similar to the output of battery which
is always positive .
 The positive waveform is bumpy as single diode is applied to
produce half wave rectification where one half of AC wave is
removed that will not pass through the diode.

Full wave rectification

 For rectifying AC power for using both half cycles of sine wave ,
full wave rectification is used .

 A simple kind of full wave rectifier uses centre tap transformer

with two diodes
 In full wave rectification , in first-half cycle , , when source
voltage polarity is positive (+) on top and negative (-) on bottom
, then only top diode will conduct while bottom diode blocked
the current . When source voltage polarity is negative (-) on top
and positive (+) on bottom then only bottom diode will conduct
while the top diode blocks the current .
For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
Special purpose p-n junction diodes
Apart from simple p-n junction diodes , there are many more types of
diodes which are used in various specific applications that take
advantage of the behaviour and features

LED
 Light Emitting Diode or LED is most commonly used
semiconductor diodes among all different type of semiconductor
diodes available today.
 It emits visible light or invisible infrared light when forward
biased .
 The LEDs which emit invisible infrared light are used for remote
control.
 In this, diode in forward biased will make electrons and holes to
move fast across the junction and helps in combining constantly
by removing one another .
 Electrons which move from N-type to p-type silicon will
combine the holes and give energy in the form of light .

For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
  Recombination of electrons and holes in depletion region
decreases the width of the region which allows more charge
carriers to cross the p-n junction .
 Here, some of the charge carriers from p-side and n-side will
cross the p-n junction before they recombine in depletion region
.

Photodiode
 Photodiode is a transducer which takes light energy and
converts it to electrical energy.

For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
 It is a p-n junction which consumes light energy to generate
electric current .

 It is referred to as photo detector , photo-sensor or light

detector
 It is specially designed to operate in reverse bias condition
where p-side is connected to negative terminal of battery and n-
side connected to positive terminal of battery.
 It is sensitive to light as when light or photons fall on it , it easily
converts light into electrical energy.
 In photodiode circuit , current flows from the cathode to anode
when exposed to light.
 Photodiode is capable of converting light energy into electrical
energy and can be expressed as percentage known as Quantum
Efficiency (Q.E)

For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
Solar Cells
 Solar Cell is an electronic device which absorbs sunlight and
generates emf.
 In this, there are n-type silicon and p-type silicon layers that
generates electricity using sunlight to make electrons in order to
jump across the junction between different types of silicon
material .

 When sunlight shines on solar cell , photons bombard the upper

surface and generates electron –hole pairs.
For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
  They get separated due to voltage barrier at junction , electrons
are swept to n side & holes are swept to p-side .
 Metal contacts hold these electron –hole pairs. Thus p-side
become positive and n side become negative and hence it act as
photo voltage cell .

Zener Diode and its characteristics

 Zener diode is an electronic component which can be used to
make very simple voltage regulator circuit .

 They are special type of semiconductor diodes which allow the

current to flow in one direction when exposed to high voltage.
 It is a p-m junction semiconductor device which is designed to
operate in reverse breakdown region .

For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
 The breakdown voltage of zener diode is set by controlling the
doping level.
 Zener diode allows electric current in forward direction similar
to normal diode and also allows electric current in reverse
direction when applied reverse voltage is more than zener
voltage.
 It is always connected in reverse direction since it is specially
designed to work in reverse direction .
 Zener diode circuit enables a fixed stable voltage to be taken
from a unstable voltage source like battery that fluctuates as per
state of charge of battery.

 The circuit of Zener Diode has a resistor in series with diode

which limits the output current.
 In Zener Diode, there are two breakdown mechanisms. Zener
Breakdown or Avalanche Breakdown mechanism .
 I-V Characteristics curve of zener diode shows current –voltage
relationship .

For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
 In I-V curve , in right half side , zener diode receives forward
voltage which is positive voltage across its anode to cathode
terminal .
 In right half side of zener diode characteristics curve , diode is
forward biased and current is more.
 In left half side of I-V curve , zener diode will receive positive
voltage across its cathode to anode terminals where diode is
reverse biased .
 At reverse voltage, current will be very small which is known as
leakage current that flows through the diode.
 After hitting breakdown voltage , avalanche current will sharply
increase.
 At breakdown voltage point , when voltage of zener diode
reaches , it remains constant in spite of increase in current
making zener diode suitable for voltage regulation .

For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
Zener diode as voltage regulator
 Voltage regulation is a measure of ability of circuit to maintain
constant voltage output under variation either in input voltage
or load current.
 In zener diode voltage regulator circuit:
 Resistors is used to limit reverse current through diode
to safer value .
 and are selected such that diode operates in
breakdown region.
 Series resistor absorbs output voltage fluctuations to
maintain voltage across load to constant value .

 Zener diode maintains constant voltage across load as long

as supply voltage is more than zener voltage.
 When input voltage increases , current through Zener diode
also increases keeping the voltage drop constant .
 Current in the circuit increases the voltage drop across the
resistor which increases by an amount equal to difference
between the input voltage and zener voltage of the diode .

For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
 Revision notes
Chap 15 Communication Systems
Topic 1
Elements of communication system
 Communication is the method of transmitting and receiving
information of data .
 There may be two types of communication :
1. Point to point communication:
In this type of communication transmitter and receiver are single
point . example :telephonic communication.
2. Broadcasting communication:
In this type of communication ,there is one transmitter and
many receivers .example :transmission of radio or television .
 When input message (any form of signal variation)is combined
with some intelligence input (encoding and compatibility in
machine language ), it becomes information.
 Generalised communication system :

 Important terminology and their application in communication

system :

For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
 1. Information source :the information source is the generator
of information which we want to communicate ,it may be
audio ,video or data .
2. Electric Transductor : Electric transductor convert physical
variable into electrical signal variable .
3. Signal : information converted in electrical form and
suitable for transmission is called signal.
4. Transmitter : process of the incoming message signal and
making it suitable for transmission through particular
channel.
5. Noise : unwanted signal which interferes with the
information signal and disturbs the information .
6. Channel : It is a medium through which signal from
transmitter propagates to the receiver . for example :
optical fibre , coaxial cables .
7. Receiver : Collects the message from the channel and
extracts signal .
8. Attenuation : Signal loses energy during propagation
through channel .this is called attenuation .
9. Amplifier : it is the device which increases the strength by
increasing its amplitude.
10. Range :maximum distance between transmitter and
receiver at which signal can be recovered is called the range .
11. Bandwidth : it is frequency range over which an equipment
operates or range of frequencies a signal has .
12. Modulation : mixing of signal with carrier frequency is
known as demodulation.
13. Demodulation :extracting of signal from carrier frequency is
known as demodulation .

For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
 14. Repeater : it receives the signal , reconditions it and then
transmits it .
15. Repeater : it receives the signal ,reconditions it and then
retransmits it.
 Signal may be classified into two categories :
1. Analog signal :continuous variation of signal with respect to
time is known as analog signal .for example : telephone
signal ,video signal etc ,.
In modern technology we can convert analog signal to digital
signal for communicating and convert back to analog signal at
receiver.
2. Digital signal :Discrete value of signal variation with respect
to time is known as digital signal .for example : computer
etc.
Coding helps in sending digital signal with much more
accuracy .there are several coding techniques .for example
in computer data , we employ suitable combination of
number systems such as binary coded decimal
(BCD),American Standard Code for Information Interchange
(ASCII).
Operational advantage of digital communication systems over analog
communication systems are :

 An improved form of sending message securely.

 Increased immunity to noise and external interference.
 A common format for encoding different kinds of message
signals for the purpose of transmission.

For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
 Hence in modern technology ,analog signals are transmitted
through digital communication .in the final stage they are
converted back to analog signals.
 Different types of message signals have different range of
frequencies.
1.Audio signal -20Hz to 20KHz
2. Video signal -4.2 MHz
3. TV signal = 6MHz
 Large bandwidth is required to accommodate complete
information of wave .
 Frequency bands of some important wireless communications:
Service Frequency bands Comments
Standard AM 540 -1600 KHz
broadcast
FM broadcast 88 – 108 MHz
Television 54 -72 MHz VHF(very high
frequencies)
76 -88 MHz TV
174-216 MHz UHF(ultra high
frequency)
420-890 MHz TV
Cellular mobile radio 896-901MHz Mobile to base
station
840-935 MHz Base station to
mobile
Satellite 5.925-6.425 GHz Uplink
communication
3.7-4.2 GHz Downlink

 Propagation of electromagnetic wave:

For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
 Earth’s atmosphere plays a vital role in propagation of
electromagnetic wave .there are three ways of communication
through electromagnetic wave.

 Ground wave:
1.the radio waves which travel through atmosphere following
the surface of the earth are called ground waves or surface
waves and their propagation is known as ground wave
propagation or surface wave propagation.
2.the ground waves have vertical orientation and travel parallel
to the ground.
3.The ground wave propagation is suitable for low and medium
frequency ,that is from few hundred KHz to 2 MHz only.
4. Its power is less as they operate in low frequency.
5.It can bend round the corners of the object on the earth ,hence
can jump the restriction ( ,low frequency means is more
bending )
6. Attenuation is high for ground wave transmission and
increases with increase in frequency .this is because more
absorption of ground waves(near earth)takes place at higher
frequency during propagation through atmosphere.
7.length of antenna is directly proportional to the wavelength of
EM wave .hence ,for ground wave large antenna is required.
8.The ground wave propagation is generally used for local band
broadcasting and is commonly known as medium wave.
Sky wave propagation:
1.The sky waves are the radio waves of frequency between few
MHz to 40 MHz

For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
 2.these radio waves can propagate in atmosphere and are
reflected back by the ionosphere of earth’s atmosphere .
3. The sky from transmitter antenna to receiver antenna
,through sky they reflect back from ionosphere .hence ,their
propagation is called sky wave propagation.
4.Critical frequency ( ) is that highest frequency of radio waves
,which when sent straight ( that is normally)towards the layer of
ionosphere gets reflected and returns to earth .if the frequency
of radio waves is more than critical frequency it will not reflected
by the ionosphere.
5.The value of C.F is found to be 4 MHz ,5MHz and 6 to 8 MHz for
D(part of stratosphere), (part of mesosphere) and
(thermosphere)layers of ionosphere which are at heights about
110 km ,180 km and 300 to 350 Km respectively from the surface
of earth.
6.Its range is very large as compared to range of ground waves.
Range can be targeted and can be increased by multiple
transmitters.
Limitaions: 3 MHz to 30MHz is very small band bandwidth of
frequency of present application .higher frequencies penetrate
the ionosphere and can’t be reflected .

Space wave propagation:

For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
  It is used for high frequency (>40 MHz).these can penetrate
ionosphere more efficiently.
 Due to high frequency ,wavelength is very small and energy is
very high.
 Television broadcast ,microwave links and satellite
communication are some examples of communication systems
that use space wave mode of propagation.
Line of sight communication by space wave:

 We also use this space wave in ground transmission .it is known

as line of sight transmission.
 These are (space wave)high frequency hence they travel nearly
in a line .mobile transmission or microwave links are based upon
this.
 Earth’s curvature restrict the range of line of sight transmission
.There is limited space between two antennas .
 If h is the height of transmitting antenna then its signal range is
d=√
 The range of communication =√ √
Where R is radius of the earth.
Area covered through one tower=
Population covered=population density area covered
Satellite communication:

 The satellite communication is a mode of communication of

signal between a transmitter and receiver through a satellite.
 The satellite communication is like a line of sight microwave
communication.

For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
  Since ,the satellite communication is through space hence, it is
also part of space communication.
 In satellite communication , abeam of modulated microwave
from the transmitter is sent directly towards the communication
satellite ,which receives the coming signal ,amplifies it and
returns it to the earth .transmitting frequency (uplink) and
receiving frequency(downlink)are different to avoid interference
between the uplink and the downlink.
 A satellite communication is possible through geostationary
satellites.
 A single geostationary satellite cannot cover the whole part of
the earth microwave communication .it is so because the large
part of the earth is out of sight due to curvature of the earth
.one satellite roughly covers one third of earth.
 In order to have global transmission ,at least three geostationary
satellites are required ,which are at particular distance from
each other.
 Global positioning system is also based upon satellite
communication.

Revision notes
Topic 2
Modulation
Low frequency signal could not travel large distances because of the
following reasons:

 Low frequency means low power , hence it gets attenuated that

is loss of signal strength .

For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
  Minimum size of antenna = and low frequency means large
wavelength so size of antenna becomes impractical.
 Overlapping of signals should be transmitted at high frequency.
 Hence the signal should be transmitted at high frequency.
 Combining low frequency message signal with high frequency
carrier wave is modulation.
 A high frequency wave has certain features like amplitude
,frequency and phase.

So ,variable parameters are amplitude (a) ,frequency( and

phase .
 Depending upon the parameter which we are varying in carrier
wave with our signal ,there are three main types of modulation
techniques.
1. Amplitude modulation
2. Frequency modulation
3. Phase modulation
Amplitude modulation: the amplitude of the carrier wave changes
according to the intensity of the signal .the amplitude variation of the
carrier wave is at the signal frequency .

For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
If message signal

Are combined together then bandwidth of modulated wave is

( to (

 ( and ( are known as lower and upper

sideband frequency respectively .signal in these side band
frequency

Modulation index: the ration of change of amplitude of modulated

wave to the amplitude of normal carrier wave is called modulation
index

to prevent distortion

For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)
We can derive that and

 Effect of noise on AM wave:

AM signal is more noisy than FM because in AM message is
transmitted through modulating the amplitude of carrier signal
.a low frequency noise can alter the amplitude of carrier
message .in frequency modulation message is transmitted
through frequency changes and hence amplitude of noise signal
will not effected .
 Detection of amplitude modulated wave:
 DEMODULATION: demodulation is the process of recovering the
signal frequency from a modulated carrier wave.
 The detected signal may not be strong enough to be made use of
and hence is required to be amplified.
 Below is the block diagram of typical receiver circuit.

 Other communicating modes

Internet
Facsimile (FAX)

For More Support Download Arvind Academy app (it is free) http://bit.ly/2kTWbkj
JK STUDY MATERIALS - Whatsp Group for More Notes (6006356890)