CHAPTER 10

1. Can you explain the two terms “likelihood” and

“requirement”?
2. By what devices are “likelihood” and “requirement”
expressed? Give examples.
3. Expressions of “likelihood” and “requirement” can be
grouped according to the level of likelihood/ requirement
they expressed. How many levels are there?
4. Judgments of “likelihood” and “requirement” can be
made both explicitly personal and impersonal. Can you
give examples to demonstrate this comment?
A. MODALITY

1. LIKELIHOOD vs. REQUIREMENT

- Likelihood: probability, the chance that sth will

happen
- Requirement: sth you must do, or sth you need
The expression of degrees of likelihood and
requirement are two areas of modality.
 A. MODALITY

What is modality?
- A speaker or a writer may express an attitude
towards the world, which can be certainty,
possibility, willingness, obligation, necessity and
ability, by using modal words and expressions.
- They can have different opinions about the same
thing despite looking at the same thing.
A. MODALITY

2. LIKELIHOOD

- Modal auxiliaries
Ex: He might be late for the meeting.
- Modal adjuncts
Ex: He is probably late for the meeting.
- Attributive clauses
Ex: I’m sure he will be late for the meeting.
- Mental process clauses of cognition
Ex: I doubt that he will arrive on time.
Task 10a. Identify expressions of likelihood in the following examples.

1. I do not remember witnessing overt discrimination as a child in Oakland or being

consciously aware of prejudice, but I am certain both were present, directed not
only at African-Americans but also at Asian-Americans.
2. It is not likely that electronic novels will supplant today's Gutenberg novels.
Electronic publishing may be confined largely to the publication of educational
materials.
3. I am sure that I will visit them again within a few years.
4. You have to be quiet while I talk to each person, because you might be the
person who gets left out and doesn’t know your address properly.
5. The annual conference . . . will be arranged this year on a joint cooperative basis
with the association and the university. This should give the association
members a greater opportunity to influence the style and content of the
conference.
6. Somebody must have taken the message.
7. Why am I so devoted to teaching? It’s definitely not for money.
8. Now I think I know what that is.
9. The salon is probably the chateau's most magnificent room.
10. ... but I doubt if anyone who knew Meng in school ever visited him at home.
11. It is probable that the earth is just as old as the moon.
 A. MODALITY

2. LIKELIHOOD – MODAL AUXILIARIES

Can be grouped according to the level of likelihood.

- High  certainly
Ex: He must have been tired after a long journey.
He can’t arrive on time. He just woke up 5 minutes ago.
- Mid  probably
Ex: He can leave soon.
- Low  possibly
Ex: He might arrive on time.
 A. MODALITY

2. LIKELIHOOD – MODAL AUXILIARIES

Can be used to make deductions and predictions.

- Deductions
Ex: He must have been tired after a long journey.
He can’t arrive on time. He just woke up 5 minutes ago.
- Predictions
Ex: The price may continue to rise.
The new policy should benefit customers.
 A. MODALITY

2. LIKELIHOOD – MODAL ADJUNCTS of LIKELIHOOD

Can be grouped according to the level of likelihood.

Can be adverbs or prepositional phrase.
- Adverbs
Ex: He certainly felt tired after a long journey.
He is possibly very angry about what has happened.
- Prepositional phrase
Ex: This has been, without doubt, the best solution so far.
In all probability he failed to realize how rude he was.
 A. MODALITY

2. LIKELIHOOD – PERSONAL JUDGEMENTS

of LIKELIHOOD
Can be certain mental process clauses (cognition type) or
attributive clauses.
- Mental process clauses
Ex: I doubt that he will arrive on time.
- Attributive clauses
Ex: I’m sure he will be late for the meeting.
(“sure” : attribute I: carrier)
A. MODALITY

2. LIKELIHOOD – IMPERSONAL JUDGEMENTS

of LIKELIHOOD
Can be attributive clauses with adjectives of likelihood
functioning as attributes and postponed carriers.
Ex: It is certain that she will never gets the job.
(“certain”: attribute “it”: postponed carrier)

It is probable that the disease has a genetic element.

(“probable”: attribute “it”: postponed carrier)
A. MODALITY

3. REQUIREMENT

- Modal auxiliaries
Ex: He had to leave for the meeting.
- Clauses with verbs
Ex: He needs a break.
- Clauses with attributes
Ex: It is advisable to book early.
 A. MODALITY

3. REQUIREMENT – MODAL AUXILIARIES

Can be ranked according to the strength of requirement.

- High  obligation / necessity
Ex: You must wear seatbelt while driving.
He has to leave home early so as not to miss the train.
- Mid  advice
Ex: You should read the manual before assembling it.
- Low  permission
Ex: You can leave now.
A. MODALITY

3. REQUIREMENT – MODAL AUXILIARIES

Can be used express past requirement.

Ex: You shouldn’t have told her the truth.

You had to keep it secret from her.
You didn’t have to come.
 A. MODALITY

3. REQUIREMENT – PERSONAL and IMPERSONAL

JUDGEMENT of REQUIREMENT
Can be clauses with verbs.

- Personal
Ex: I expected him to arrive on time.
These pets require a lot of care and attention.
- Impersonal (in passive voice)
Ex: He is expected to arrive on time.
 A. MODALITY

4. OTHER AREAS OF MODALITY - FREQUENCY

- Frequency: expresses judgments about how often a state

of affairs is.
Ex: She will be late for the conference.
(meaning often takes your books)
Bitter melons can be unpleasant to eat.
(meaning sometimes)
 A. MODALITY

4. OTHER AREAS OF MODALITY - INCLINATION

- Inclination: expresses the strength of an offer to do

something
+ High inclination  determination
Ex: I will finish it today as I don’t want to come tomorrow.
+ Mid inclination  intention
Ex: I will finish it today, then I will do the report tomorrow.
+ Low inclination  willingness
I will finish it today if you want me to.
 A. MODALITY

4. OTHER AREAS OF MODALITY - INCLINATION

- Other ways of expressing inclination are:

+ Low  willingness
Ex: I am willing to mow the grass.
+ Mid  intention
Ex: I’m going to wash your clothes.
+ High  determination
Ex: I was determined to reach that top.
 A. MODALITY

4. OTHER AREAS OF MODALITY – ABILTY and

POTENTIALITY
- Ability: internal skills to make certain actions to be
performed or certain situations to come about.
Ex: She can speak English well.
- Potentiality: external circumstances that makes it
possible.
Ex: You can’t speak English well if you are not confident.
 A. MODALITY

4. OTHER AREAS OF MODALITY – ABILTY and

POTENTIALITY

- Can and Be able to refer to ability.

Ex: Jack can play the piano.
Jack is able to play the piano.
- Can expresses potentiality.
Ex: The direction of the storm can change.
A. MODALITY

4. OTHER AREAS OF MODALITY – ABILTY and

POTENTIALITY
- Could expresses past ability and potentiality.
Ex: My father could type well.
My village could produce more rice.
- Could also combines with relative past tense
(modal perfect).
Ex: He could have passed the entrance exam to
Medical University.
A. MODALITY

4. OTHER AREAS OF MODALITY – ABILTY and

POTENTIALITY

- Potentiality can be expressed impersonally.

Ex: It is possible that she is learning now.
It is possible to dry hay now.
The same modals can be used to express
different kinds of modal meanings. Learners face
difficulties when controlling modality.
B. MODALITY, CONTEXT, and SPEECH ACT

In different areas of modal meaning and contexts,

a particular modal expression will vary significantly.
Ex: You may sit down.
+ In a context of a job interview, it can be
classified as low requirement (permission).
+ In a context of a class, it can be an order to
be obeyed.
B. MODALITY, CONTEXT, and SPEECH ACT

Modals are used with different moods to express a

range of speech.
Ex: Can you pick me up at five?
expressing request
Ex: Can I come and pick you up?
expressing offer
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