chapter

2
René Descartes, who
invented the coordi-
nate system we use
to graph equations,
explaining his work
to Queen Christina of
Sweden (from an 18th -
century painting by
Dumesnil).

Combining Algebra and

Geometry
Analytic geometry, which combines algebra and geometry, provides a tremen-
dously powerful tool for visualizing equations with two variables.
We begin this chapter with a description of the coordinate plane, including
a discussion of distance and length. Then we turn our attention to lines and
their slopes, which are simple concepts that have immense importance.
We then investigate quadratic expressions. We will see how to complete
the square and solve quadratic equations. Quadratic expressions will also
lead us to the conic sections (ellipses, parabolas, and hyperbolas).
We conclude the chapter by learning methods for computing the area of
triangles, trapezoids, circles, and ellipses.

41
 42 chapter 2 Combining Algebra and Geometry

2.1 The Coordinate Plane

learning objectives
By the end of this section you should be able to
locate points in the coordinate plane;
graph equations with two variables in the coordinate plane, possibly using
technology;
compute the distance between two points;
compute the circumference of a circle.

Coordinates
Recall how the real line is constructed: We start with a horizontal line, pick
a point on it that we label 0, pick a point to the right of 0 that we label 1,
and then we label other points using the scale determined by 0 and 1 (see
Section 1.1 to review the construction of the real line).
The coordinate plane is constructed in a similar fashion, but using a
horizontal and a vertical line rather than just a horizontal line.

The coordinate plane

• The coordinate plane is constructed by starting with a horizon-
3 tal line and a vertical line in a plane. These lines are called the
coordinate axes.
2

1 • The intersection point of the coordinate axes is called the origin; it

receives a label of 0 on both axes.
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3
-1
• On the horizontal axis, pick a point to the right of the origin and
label it 1. Then label other points on the horizontal axis using the
-2
scale determined by the origin and 1.

• Similarly, on the vertical axis, pick a point above the origin and label
-3

The coordinate plane,

it 1. Then label other points on the vertical axis using the scale
with a dot at the origin.
determined by the origin and 1.

Sometimes it is important to use the same scale on both axes, as is done in

the figure above. Other times it may be more convenient to use two different
scales on the two axes.
A point in the plane is identified with its coordinates, which are written as
an ordered pair of numbers surrounded by parentheses, as described below.
 section 2.1 The Coordinate Plane 43

The plane with this

Coordinates system of labeling
is often called the
• The first coordinate indicates the horizontal distance from the origin,
Cartesian plane in
with positive numbers corresponding to points right of the origin
honor of the French
and negative numbers corresponding to points left of the origin. mathematician René
Descartes (1596–
• The second coordinate indicates the vertical distance from the origin,
1650), who described
with positive numbers corresponding to points above the origin and
this technique in his
negative numbers corresponding to points below the origin. 1637 book Discourse
on Method.

Locate on a coordinate plane the following points:

example 1
(a) (2, 1); (b) (−1, 2.5); (c) (−2.5, −2.5); (d) (3, −2).

solution
(a) The point (2, 1) can be located by starting at the origin, moving 2 units to the
right along the horizontal axis, and then moving up 1 unit; see the figure below.
(b) The point (−1, 2.5) can be located by starting at the origin, moving 1 unit to The notation (−1, 2.5)
the left along the horizontal axis, and then moving up 2.5 units; see the figure could denote either
below. the point with coordi-
(c) The point (−2.5, −2.5) can be located by starting at the origin, moving 2.5 units nates (−1, 2.5) or the
to the left along the horizontal axis, and then moving down 2.5 units; see the open interval (−1, 2.5).
figure below. You should be able
to tell from the con-
(d) The point (3, −2) can be located by starting at the origin, moving 3 units to the text which meaning is
right along the horizontal axis, and then moving down 2 units; see the figure intended.
below.

3
H-1, 2.5 L

H2, 1L
These coordinates
1
are sometimes
called rectangular
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 coordinates because
-1 each point’s coordi-
nates are determined
-2
H3, -2L by a rectangle, as
H-2.5 , -2.5 L shown in this figure.
-3

The horizontal axis is often called the x-axis and the vertical axis is often
called the y-axis. In this case, the coordinate plane can be called the xy-
plane. However, other variables can also be used, depending on the problem
at hand.
 44 chapter 2 Combining Algebra and Geometry

Regardless of the If the horizontal axis has been labeled the x-axis, then the first coordinate
names of the axes, of a point is often called the x-coordinate. Similarly, if the vertical axis
remember that the has been labeled the y-axis, then the second coordinate is often called the
first coordinate cor- y-coordinate.
responds to horizon-
The potential confusion of this terminology becomes apparent when we
tal distance from the
want to consider a point whose coordinates are (y, x); here y is the x-
origin and the sec-
coordinate and x is the y-coordinate. Furthermore, always calling the first
ond coordinate corre-
sponds to vertical dis-
coordinate the x-coordinate will lead to confusion when the horizontal axis
tance from the origin. is labeled with another variable such as t or θ.

Graphs of Equations
The coordinate plane allows us to visualize the set of points satisfied by
equations with two variables.

Graph of an equation
The graph of an equation with two variables is the set of points in the
corresponding coordinate plane satisfied by the equation.

The graph of the equation 4x 4 + y 2 = 2 is shown in the margin.

example 2
(a) Where does this graph intersect the x-axis?
y (b) Where does this graph intersect the y-axis?
2
(c) Is the point ( 12 , 75 ) on this graph?
(d) Find four points on this graph that are not on either of the coordinate axes.

1
solution
(a) The x-axis is the set of points where y = 0. Thus to find the points where the
graph intersects the x-axis, substitute y = 0 in the equation 4x 4 + y 2 = 2 to
1
obtain the equation 4x 4 = 2, which implies that x 4 = 2 , which implies that
x x = 1/21/4 ≈ 0.8 or x = −1/21/4 ≈ −0.8 (we will discuss fractional exponents
1
in detail in Section 5.1, but you are probably already familiar with this concept
-1

from a previous course).

Thus the points where the graph intersects the x-axis are approximately
-1 (0.8, 0) and (−0.8, 0). Make sure you can locate these points on the graph in the
margin.
(b) The y-axis is the set of points where x = 0. Thus to find the points where the
graph intersects the y-axis, substitute x = 0 in the equation 4x 4 + y 2 = 2 to
-2 √ √
obtain the equation y 2 = 2, which implies that y = 2 ≈ 1.4 or y = − 2 ≈
The graph of the equation
−1.4.
4x 4 + y 2 = 2.
Thus the points where the graph intersects the y-axis are approximately
(0, 1.4) and (0, −1.4). Make sure you can locate these points on the graph in the
margin.
 section 2.1 The Coordinate Plane 45

y
(c) Asking whether ( 12 , 75 ) is on the graph of the equation 4x 4 + y 2 = 2 is equiv-
4 2 2
alent to asking whether 4( 21 ) + ( 75 ) equals 2. A little arithmetic shows that
4 2
4( 12 )
+ ( 75 )
equals 221
100
, which equals 2.21, which is close but not equal to 2.
Thus the point ( 12 , 75 ) is not on the graph of 4x 4 + y 2 = 2.
1
The red dot in the figure in the margin shows the point ( 12 , 5 ). As you can
7

4 2
see, it is not on the graph of 4x + y = 2, although it is close. The vertical line
segment has endpoints at ( 12 , 0) and ( 12 , 75 ), showing that the red dot has first
coordinate equal to 12 .
x
(d) To find some points on the graph not on the coordinate axes, substitute y = 1 1
1
in the equation 4x 4 + y 2 = 2 to obtain the equation 4x 4 = 1, which implies
-1
2

that x = 1/41/4 ≈ 0.7 or x = −1/41/4 ≈ −0.7. Thus (1/41/4 , 1) and (−1/41/4 , 1),
which are approximately (0.7, 1) and (−0.7, 1), are points on the graph.
Because (−y)2 = y 2 , the points (1/41/4 , −1) and (−1/41/4 , −1), which are -1

approximately (0.7, −1) and (−0.7, −1), are also on the graph.
The blue dots in the figure in the margin show the four points on the graph
that we have just found. The top horizontal line segment has endpoints at -2
(−1/41/4 , 1) and (1/41/4 , 1), showing that these two points have second co- The graph of the equation
ordinate equal to 1. The bottom horizontal line segment has endpoints at 4x 4 + y 2 = 2,
(−1/41/4 , −1) and (1/41/4 , −1), showing that these two points have second along with one point not
coordinate equal to −1. on the graph and four
points on the graph.

Later in this chapter we will discuss in detail graphs that are lines, circles,
ellipses, parabolas, and hyperbolas. Throughout the book we will discuss
the graphs of a large variety of functions that we will study. Meanwhile, use
Wolfram|Alpha or a graphing calculator to experiment with the graphs of
equations.
The next example uses Wolfram|Alpha in the solution, but you could use a
graphing calculator or any other technology instead.

(a) Graph the equation 2t 3 + z = z3 + t. example 3

3 3
(b) Graph the equation 2t + z = z + t for t in the interval [−6, 6].
z
(c) Determine whether or not the point (4.5, 5.5) is on the graph of 2t 3 + z = z3 + t.
3
solution
2
(a) Point a web browser to www.wolframalpha.com. In the one-line entry box that
appears near the top of the web page, enter 1

graph 2t^3 + z = z^3 + t t

-2 -1 1 2

and then press the enter key on your keyboard or click the = box on the -1
right side of the Wolfram|Alpha entry box, getting a graph that should look like
the one shown in the margin here. -2

Wolfram|Alpha selects the variable lowest in alphabetical order to use as -3

the horizontal axis and the variable highest in alphabetical order to use as the
The graph of the equation
vertical axis, as has been done here with t and z and as is usually what you want
2t 3 + z = z3 + t.
to do when the variables are x and y.
46 chapter 2 Combining Algebra and Geometry

(b) Unlike the previous graph we examined, the graph of 2t 3 + z = z3 + t includes

points arbitrarily far left, right, up, and down. Thus the figure shown in the
margin above is not the entire graph of 2t 3 + z = z3 + t. No figure could show
the entire graph of this equation.
Wolfram|Alpha usually chooses an interesting part of the graph to show, but
you may want to zoom in to see more detail or zoom out to see a bigger picture.
For example, to zoom out to see the graph for t in the interval [−6, 6], type

graph 2t^3 + z = z^3 + t from t =–6 to 6

in a Wolfram|Alpha entry box to obtain the graph shown below.

z
Here the horizon-
8
tal and vertical axes
6
have different scales,
which can distort the 4

shape of the graph. 2

However, the use of t
different scales is of- -6 -4 -2 2 4 6
-2
ten necessary to pre-
vent the graph from
-4

becoming too large. -6

-8

The graph of 2t 3 + z = z3 + t for t in the interval [−6, 6].

(c) From the graph above, it appears possible that the point (4.5, 5.5) may be on
the graph of 2t 3 + z = z3 + t. To check whether or not this is true, we substitute
t = 4.5 and z = 5.5 into the equation and check whether we get a true statement.
To do this check using Wolfram|Alpha, type

is 2 * 4.5^3 + 5.5 = 5.5^3 + 4.5

in a Wolfram|Alpha entry box to obtain the answer False. Thus the point
(4.5, 5.5) is not on the graph of 2t 3 + z = z3 + t.

Distance Between Two Points

We start gently with some concrete examples before getting to the formula
for the distance between two points.

example 4 Find the distance between the point (4, 3) and the origin.

H4,3L solution The distance between the point (4, 3) and the origin is the length of
the hypotenuse in the right triangle shown here. By the Pythagorean Theorem, this
√ √
hypotenuse has length 42 + 32 , which equals 25, which equals 5.

4
 section 2.1 The Coordinate Plane 47

Here is another example, this time with neither of the points being the
origin.

Find the distance between the points (5, 6) and (2, 1). example 5
solution The distance between the points (5, 6) and (2, 1) is the length of the H5,6L
6
hypotenuse in the right triangle shown here. The horizontal side of this triangle has
length 5 − 2, which equals 3, and the vertical side of this triangle has length 6 − 1, 5
√
which equals 5. By the Pythagorean Theorem, the hypotenuse has length 32 + 52 ,
√ 4
which equals 34.
5
3

More generally, to find the formula for the distance between two points 2
(x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ), consider the right triangle in the figure below: 3
1
H2,1L H5,1L
Hx 2 , y 2 L
1 2 3 4 5

The length of the hypotenuse

y 2 - y 1
equals the distance between
(x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ).

Hx 1 , y 1 L x 2 - x 1 Hx 2 , y 1 L

Starting with the points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) in the figure above, make sure
you understand why the third point in the triangle (the vertex at the right
angle) has coordinates (x2 , y1 ). Also, verify that the horizontal side of the
triangle has length x2 − x1 and the vertical side of the triangle has length
y2 − y1 , as indicated in the figure above. The Pythagorean Theorem then
gives the length of the hypotenuse, leading to the following formula:

Distance between two points As a special case of

The distance between the points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) is this formula, the dis-
tance between a point
(x,qy) and the origin
q
(x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 .
is x2 + y 2.

Using the formula above, we can now find the distance between two points
without drawing a figure.

Find the distance between the points (3, 1) and (−4, −99). example 6

2
2 q
solution The distance between these two points is 3 − (−4) + 1 − (−99) ,
√ √ √
which equals 72 + 1002 , which equals 49 + 10000, which equals 10049.
 48 chapter 2 Combining Algebra and Geometry

Length, Perimeter, and Circumference

The length of a line segment is the distance between the two endpoints. For
example, the length of the line segment connecting the points (−1, 4) and
(2, 6) equals q

2
2 − (−1) + (6 − 4)2 ,
√
which equals 13.
Defining the length of a path or curve in the coordinate plane is more
complicated. A rigorous definition requires calculus, so we use the following
intuitive definition:

Length
The length of a path or curve can be determined by placing a string on
the path or curve and then measuring the length of the string when it is
straightened into a line segment.

Find the length of the path shown here consisting of the line segment connecting
example 7 (−2, 2) with (5, 3) followed by the line segment connecting (5, 3) with (2, 1).

(5,3) solution The first line segment has length

3

2
q
2
(-2,2) 5 − (−2) + (3 − 2)2 ,
1
(2,1) √
which equals 50. The second line segment has length
-2 -1 1 2 3 4 5
q
If a path consists of line (2 − 5)2 + (1 − 3)2 ,
segments, then the length
√ √ √
of the path is the sum of which equals 13. Thus this path has length 50 + 13.
the lengths of the line
segments.
You are probably already familiar with two other words that are used to
denote the lengths of certain paths that begin and end at the same point.
One word probably would have been enough, but the two following words
are commonly used:

Perimeter and circumference

• The perimeter of a polygon is the length of the path that surrounds
the polygon.

• The circumference of a region is the length of the curve that sur-

rounds the region.
 section 2.1 The Coordinate Plane 49

(a) What is the perimeter of an equilateral triangle with sides of length s? example 8
(b) What is the perimeter of a square with sides of length s?
(c) What is the perimeter of a rectangle with width w and height h?

solution
(a) An equilateral triangle with sides of length s has perimeter 3s.
(b) A square with sides of length s has perimeter 4s.
(c) A rectangle with width w and height h has perimeter 2w + 2h.
Just for fun, here are
the first 504 digits of
The perimeter of an equilateral triangle is proportional to the length of π:
one of its sides (the ratio is 3) and the perimeter of a square is proportional
to the length of one of its sides (the ratio is 4). Thus it is reasonable to believe 3.14159265358979323
that the circumference of a circle is proportional to its diameter. 846264338327950288
Physical experiments confirm this belief. For example, suppose you have 419716939937510582
097494459230781640
a very accurate ruler that can measure lengths with 0.01-inch accuracy. If
628620899862803482
you place a string on top of a circle with diameter 1 inch, then straighten
534211706798214808
the string to a line segment, you will find that the string has length about 651328230664709384
3.14 inches. Similarly, if you place a string on top of a circle with diameter 460955058223172535
2 inches, then straighten the string to a line segment, you will find that the 940812848111745028
string has length about 6.28 inches. Thus the circumference of a circle with 410270193852110555
diameter two inches is twice the circumference of a circle with diameter 1 964462294895493038
inch. 196442881097566593
344612847564823378
678316527120190914
564856692346034861
045432664821339360
726024914127372458
700660631558817488
152092096282925409
The circle on the left has been straightened into the line segment on the right. 171536436789259036
001133053054882046
A measurement shows that this line segment is approximately 3.14 times as
652138414695194151
long as the diameter of the circle, which is shown above in red.
160943305727036575
959195309218611738
Similarly, you will find that for any circle you measure, the ratio of the
193261179310511854
circumference to the diameter is approximately 3.14. The exact value of this 807446237996274956
ratio is so important that it gets its own symbol: 735188575272489122
793818301194912983
π
Does the decimal ex-
The ratio of the circumference to the diameter of a circle is called π .
pansion of π contain
one thousand con-
It turns out that π is an irrational number. For most practical purposes, secutive 4’s? No one
3.14 is a good approximation of π —the error is about 0.05%. If more accurate knows, but mathemati-
computations are needed, then 3.1416 is an even better approximation—the cians suspect that the
error is about 0.0002%. answer is “yes”.
50 chapter 2 Combining Algebra and Geometry

22
The remarkable ap- A fraction that approximates π well is 7 (notice how page 22 is numbered
proximation π ≈ 355
113 in this book)—the error is about 0.04%. A fraction that approximates π even
was discovered over better is 355
113 —the error is extremely small at about 0.000008%.
1500 years ago by 22 355
Keep in mind that π is not equal to 3.14 or 3.1416 or 7 or 113 . All of
the Chinese mathe-
these are useful approximations, but π is an irrational number that cannot
matician Zu Chongzhi.
be represented exactly as a decimal number or as a fraction.
We have defined π to be the number such that a circle with diameter d
has circumference π d. Because the diameter of a circle is equal to twice the
radius, we have the following formula:

Circumference of a circle
A circle with radius r has circumference 2π r .

Suppose you want to design a 400-meter track consisting of two half-circles con-
example 9 nected by parallel line segments. Suppose also that you want the total length of the
curved part of the track to equal the total length of the straight part of the track.
What dimensions should the track have?

solution We want the total length of the straight part of the track to be 200
c meters. Thus each of the two straight pieces must be 100 meters long. Hence we
d take c = 100 meters in the figure in the margin.
We also want the total length of the two half-circles to be 200 meters. Thus we
want π d = 200. Hence we take d = 200 π
≈ 63.66 meters in the figure in the margin.

exercises
For Exercises 1–8, give the coordinates of the spec- 9. Sketch a coordinate plane showing the follow-
ified point using the figure below: ing four points, their coordinates, and the rect-
angles determined by each point (as in Exam-
3
ple 1): (1, 2), (−2, 2), (−3, −1), (2, −3).
C B A 10. Sketch a coordinate plane showing the follow-
2
ing four points, their coordinates, and the rect-
D
1 angles determined by each point (as in Exam-
ple 1): (2.5, 1), (−1, 3), (−1.5, −1.5), (1, −3).
-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 11. Find the distance between the points (3, −2)
and (−1, 4).
F H
-1

12. Find the distance between the points (−4, −7)

E G and (−8, −5).
-2

-3 13. Find two choices for t such that the distance

between (2, −1) and (t, 3) equals 7.

1. A 3. C 5. E 7. G 14. Find two choices for t such that the distance

between (3, −2) and (1, t) equals 5.
2. B 4. D 6. F 8. H
 section 2.1 The Coordinate Plane 51

15. Find two choices for b such that (4, b) has dis- 22. Suppose you walk from 5th Avenue and 24th
tance 5 from (3, 6). Street to Times Square at 7th Avenue and 42nd
16. Find two choices for b such that (b, −1) has Street.
distance 4 from (3, 2). (a) What is the length of your path if you
17. Find two points on the horizontal axis whose walk along 5th Avenue to 42nd Street, then
distance from (3, 2) equals 7. along 42nd Street to 7th Avenue?

18. Find two points on the horizontal axis whose (b) What is the length of your path if you walk
distance from (1, 4) equals 6. along Broadway, which goes in a straight
line from 5th Avenue and 24th Street to 7th
19. A ship sails north for 2 miles and then west for
Avenue and 42nd Street?
5 miles. How far is the ship from its starting
point? (c) How much shorter is the direct path along
Broadway than walking along 5th Avenue
20. A ship sails east for 7 miles and then south for
and 42nd Street?
3 miles. How far is the ship from its starting
point? (d) At the normal city walking speed of 250
feet per minute, how much time would
Use the following information concerning Manhat- you save by walking along Broadway as
tan (New York City) for Exercises 21–22: compared to walking along 5th Avenue
and 42nd Street?
• Avenues in Manhattan run roughly
north-south; streets run east-west. 23. Find two points on the vertical axis whose dis-
• For much of its length, Broadway runs tance from (5, −1) equals 8.
diagonally across the grid formed by 24. Find two points on the vertical axis whose dis-
avenues and streets. tance from (2, −4) equals 5.
• The distance between consecutive 25. Find the perimeter of the triangle that has ver-
avenues in Manhattan is 922 feet. tices at (1, 2), (5, −3), and (−4, −1).
• The distance between consecutive streets 26. Find the perimeter of the triangle that has ver-
in Manhattan is 260 feet. tices at (−3, 1), (4, −2), and (5, −1).
21. Suppose you walk from the corner of Central 27. Find the radius of a circle that has circumfer-
Park at 8th Avenue and 59th Street to 10th Av- ence 12 inches.
enue and 71st Street. 28. Find the radius of a circle that has circumfer-
(a) What is the length of your path if you walk ence 20 feet.
along 8th Avenue to 71st Street, then along 29. Find the radius of a circle that has circumfer-
71st Street to 10th Avenue? ence 8 more than its diameter.
(b) What is the length of your path if you walk 30. Find the radius of a circle that has circumfer-
along Broadway, which goes in a straight ence 12 more than its diameter.
line from 8th Avenue and 59th Street to
31. Find an equation whose graph in the xy-plane
10th Avenue and 71st Street?
is the set of points whose distance from the
(c) How much shorter is the direct path along origin is 3.
Broadway than walking along 8th Avenue
32. Find an equation whose graph in the xy-plane
and 71st Street?
is the set of points whose distance from the
(d) At the normal city walking speed of 250 origin is 5.
feet per minute, how much time would
33. Find the length of the graph of the equation
you save by walking along Broadway as
x 2 + y 2 = 9.
compared to walking along 8th Avenue
and 71st Street? 34. Find the length of the graph of the equation
x 2 + y 2 = 25.
52 chapter 2 Combining Algebra and Geometry

35. Find an equation whose graph in the r t-plane 40. Suppose you want to design a 200-meter indoor
is the set of points whose distance from (3, 2) track consisting of two half-circles connected
is 2. by parallel line segments. Suppose also that
36. Find an equation whose graph in the bc-plane you want the total length of the curved part
is the set of points whose distance from (−2, 1) of the track to equal three-fourths the total
is 3. length of the straight part of the track. What
37. Find two points that have distance 2 from the dimensions should the track have?
origin and distance 3 from (3, 0). 41. Suppose a rope is just long enough to cover the
38. Find two points that have distance 3 from the equator of the Earth. About how much longer
origin and distance 2 from (2, 0). would the rope need to be so that it could be
39. Suppose you want to design a 400-meter track suspended seven feet above the entire equator?
consisting of two half-circles connected by par- 42. Suppose a satellite is in orbit one hundred
allel line segments. Suppose also that you want miles above the equator of the Earth. About
the total length of the curved part of the track how much further does the satellite travel in
to equal half the total length of the straight one orbit than would a person traveling once
part of the track. What dimensions should the around the equator on the surface of the Earth?
track have?

problems
Some problems require considerably more thought than the exercises.
Unlike exercises, problems often have more than one correct answer.

43. Find two points, one on the horizontal axis and 49. (a) Graph the equation y 3 − 3y = x 2 for x
one on the vertical axis, such that the distance in the interval [−3, 3].
between these two points equals 15. (b) What is unusual about this graph as com-
44. Explain why there does not exist a point on pared to other graphs we have examined?
the horizontal axis whose distance from (5, 4) 50. Show that a square whose diagonal has length
equals 3. √
d has perimeter 2 2d.
45. Use Wolfram|Alpha or a calculator to find 51. The figure below illustrates an isosceles right
the distance between the points (−21, −15) and triangle with legs of length 1, along with one-
(17, 28). [In Wolfram|Alpha, you can do this by fourth of a circle centered at the right-angle
typing distance from (–21, –15) to (17, 28) in vertex of the triangle. Using the result that
an entry box. Note that in addition to the dis- the shortest path between two points is a line
tance in both exact and approximate form, you segment, explain why this figure shows that
get a figure showing the two points. Experiment √
2 2 < π.
with finding the distance between other pairs of
points, and notice the placement of the points
on the figures produced by Wolfram|Alpha.]
46. Find six distinct points whose distance from
the origin equals 3.
47. Find six distinct points whose distance from
(3, 1) equals 4.
48. Graph the equation x 4 + y 4 = 1.
 section 2.1 The Coordinate Plane 53

worked-out solutions to Odd-numbered Exercises

Do not read these worked-out solutions before first Best way to learn: Carefully read the section of the
attempting to do the exercises yourself. Otherwise textbook, then do all the odd-numbered exercises
you may merely mimic the techniques shown here (even if they have not been assigned) and check your
without understanding the ideas. answers here. If you get stuck on an exercise, reread
the section of the textbook—then try the exercise
again. If you are still stuck, then look at the worked-
out solution here.

For Exercises 1–8, give the coordinates of the spec- 9. Sketch a coordinate plane showing the follow-
ified point using the figure below: ing four points, their coordinates, and the rect-
angles determined by each point (as in Exam-
3 ple 1): (1, 2), (−2, 2), (−3, −1), (2, −3).
C B A
2 solution
D
1 H-2,2L H1,2L
2

1 2 3 4
1
-4 -3 -2 -1

F H
-1

-4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3
E G
-2

-1
-3
H-3,-1L

-2

1. A
-3
H2,-3L
solution To get to the point A starting at the
origin, we must move 3 units right and 2 units
up. Thus A has coordinates (3, 2). 11. Find the distance between the points (3, −2)
Numbers obtained from a figure should be and (−1, 4).
considered approximations. Thus the actual
solution The distance between the points
coordinates of A might be (3.01, 1.98).
(3, −2) and (−1, 4) equals
3. C
q
2
(−1 − 3)2 + 4 − (−2) ,
solution To get to the point C starting at the which equals (−4)2 + 62 , which equals
p
√ √
origin, we must move 1 unit left and 2 units up. 16 + 36, which equals 52, which can be sim-
Thus C has coordinates (−1, 2). plified as follows:
p p √ p p
5. E 52 = 4 · 13 = 4 · 13 = 2 13.

solution To get to the point E starting at the Thus the distance between the points (3, −2)
√
origin, we must move 3 units left and 2 units and (−1, 4) equals 2 13.
down. Thus E has coordinates (−3, −2). 13. Find two choices for t such that the distance
7. G between (2, −1) and (t, 3) equals 7.

solution To get to the point G starting at the solution The distance between (2, −1) and
origin, we must move 1 unit right and 2 units (t, 3) equals q
down. Thus G has coordinates (1, −2). (t − 2)2 + 16.
54 chapter 2 Combining Algebra and Geometry

We want this to equal 7, which means that we 5

must have
(t − 2)2 + 16 = 49. 2

Subtracting 16 from both sides of the equation

above gives
(t − 2)2 = 33, We have assumed that the surface of the Earth
√
which implies that t − 2 = ± 33. Thus t = is part of a plane rather than part of a sphere.
√ √
2 + 33 or t = 2 − 33. For distances of less than a few hundred miles,
this is a good approximation.
15. Find two choices for b such that (4, b) has dis-
tance 5 from (3, 6). Use the following information concerning Manhat-
tan (New York City) for Exercises 21–22:
solution The distance between (4, b) and
(3, 6) equals q • Avenues in Manhattan run roughly
1 + (6 − b)2 . north-south; streets run east-west.
We want this to equal 5, which means that we • For much of its length, Broadway runs
must have diagonally across the grid formed by
1 + (6 − b)2 = 25. avenues and streets.
Subtracting 1 from both sides of the equation
• The distance between consecutive
above gives
avenues in Manhattan is 922 feet.
(6 − b)2 = 24,
√ • The distance between consecutive streets
which implies that 6 − b = ± 24. Thus b =
√ √ in Manhattan is 260 feet.
6 − 24 or b = 6 + 24.

17. Find two points on the horizontal axis whose 21. Suppose you walk from the corner of Central
distance from (3, 2) equals 7. Park at 8th Avenue and 59th Street to 10th Av-
enue and 71st Street.
solution A typical point on the horizontal
axis has coordinates (x, 0). The distance from (a) What is the length of your path if you walk
this point to (3, 2) is (x − 3)2 + (0 − 2)2 . Thus along 8th Avenue to 71st Street, then along
p

we need to solve the equation 71st Street to 10th Avenue?

(b) What is the length of your path if you walk
q
(x − 3)2 + 4 = 7.
along Broadway, which goes in a straight
Squaring both sides of the equation above, and line from 8th Avenue and 59th Street to
then subtracting 4 from both sides gives 10th Avenue and 71st Street?
(x − 3)2 = 45. (c) How much shorter is the direct path along
√ √ √ Broadway than walking along 8th Avenue
Thus x − 3 = ± 45 = ±3 5. Thus x = 3 ± 3 5.
Hence the two points on the horizontal axis and 71st Street?
whose distance from (3, 2) equals 7 are (d) At the normal city walking speed of 250
√ √
(3 + 3 5, 0) and (3 − 3 5, 0). feet per minute, how much time would
you save by walking along Broadway as
19. A ship sails north for 2 miles and then west for
compared to walking along 8th Avenue
5 miles. How far is the ship from its starting
and 71st Street?
point?

solution The figure below shows the path of

the ship. The length of the red line is the dis-
tance of the ship from its starting point. By the
√
Pythagorean Theorem, this distance is 22 + 52
√
miles, which equals 29 miles.
 section 2.1 The Coordinate Plane 55

solution 25. Find the perimeter of the triangle that has ver-
tices at (1, 2), (5, −3), and (−4, −1).
(a) Walking along 8th Avenue from 59th Street to
71st Street is 12 blocks (because 71 − 59 = 12), solution The perimeter of the triangle equals
each of which is 260 feet, for a total of 12 × 260 the sum of the lengths of the three sides of
feet, which equals 3120 feet. the triangle. Thus we find the lengths of those
Walking along 71st Street from 8th Avenue to three sides.
10th Avenue is 2 blocks, each of which is 922 The side of the triangle connecting the vertices
feet, for a total of 1844 feet. (1, 2) and (5, −3) has length
Thus the total path consists of 3120 feet plus q √
1844 feet, which equals 4964 feet. (5 − 1)2 + (−3 − 2)2 = 41.

(b) The length of the path along Broadway is the The side of the triangle connecting the vertices
length of the hypotenuse of a right triangle (5, −3) and (−4, −1) has length
whose other sides have length 3120 feet and q
2 p
1844 feet, as calculated in part (a). Thus the (−4 − 5)2 + −1 − (−3) = 85.
length of the path along Broadway is The side of the triangle connecting the vertices
p p (−4, −1) and (1, 2) has length
31202 + 18442 = 13134736 ≈ 3624 feet.
q
2
2 p
1 − (−4) + 2 − (−1) = 34.
(c) Subtracting the results of part (b) from the
result of part (a), we see that the path along Thus the perimeter of the triangle equals
Broadway is about 1340 feet shorter. Because √ √ √
41 + 85 + 34.
a mile contains 5280 feet, the path along
Broadway is about a quarter-mile shorter 27. Find the radius of a circle that has circumfer-
( 1340
5280
≈ 0.25). ence 12 inches.
(d) Part (c) shows that the path along Broadway is solution Let r denote the radius of this cir-
about 1340 feet shorter. Thus the amount of cle in inches. Thus 2π r = 12, which implies
1340
time saved is 250 minutes, which equals a bit that r = π6 inches.
more than 5 minutes.
29. Find the radius of a circle that has circumfer-
23. Find two points on the vertical axis whose dis- ence 8 more than its diameter.
tance from (5, −1) equals 8.
solution Let r denote the radius of this cir-
solution A typical point on the vertical axis cle. Thus the circle has circumference 2π r and
has coordinates (0,qy). The distance from this has diameter 2r . Because the circumference is
8 more than diameter, we have 2π r = 2r + 8.

2
point to (5, −1) is (0 − 5)2 + y − (−1) .
4
Thus we need to solve the equation Thus (2π − 2)r = 8, which implies that r = π −1 .

31. Find an equation whose graph in the xy-plane

q
25 + (y + 1)2 = 8.
is the set of points whose distance from the
Squaring both sides of the equation above, and origin is 3.
then subtracting 25 from both sides gives
solution The q distance from a point (x, y) to
2
(y + 1) = 39. the origin is x 2 + y 2 . Thus the equation we
√ √ seek is
Thus y + 1 = ± 39. Thus y = −1 ± 39. Hence
q
x 2 + y 2 = 3.
the two points on the vertical axis whose dis-
√ To write this equation without using square
tance from (5, −1) equals 8 are (0, −1 + 39)
√ roots, square both sides to get the equivalent
and (0, −1 − 39).
equation
x 2 + y 2 = 9.
56 chapter 2 Combining Algebra and Geometry

33. Find the length of the graph of the equation to equal half the total length of the straight
x 2 + y 2 = 9. part of the track. What dimensions should the
track have?
solution From Exercise 31, we see that the
graph of x 2 + y 2 = 9 is the set of points in the solution Let t equal the total length of the
xy-plane whose distance from the origin is 3. straight part of the track in meters. We want
In other words, the graph of x 2 + y 2 = 9 is the the curved part of the track to have total length
t
circle of radius 3 centered at the origin. The 2
. Thus we want
length (or circumference) of this graph is 2π · 3, t
which equals 6π . t+ 2
= 400.

35. Find an equation whose graph in the r t-plane Solving this equation for t, we get t = 800
3
me-
is the set of points whose distance from (3, 2) ters. Thus each of the two straight pieces
is 2. must be 400
3
meters long. Hence we take
c = 400
3
≈ 133.33 meters in the figure in the
solution The distance from a point (r , t) to below.
(3, 2) is (r − 3)2 + (t − 2)2 . Thus the equation
p

we seek is c
q d
(r − 3)2 + (t − 2)2 = 2.

To write this equation without using square

roots, square both sides to get the equivalent We also want the total length of the two
equation half-circles to be 400
3
meters. Thus we want
π d = 400
3
. Hence we take d = 400
3π
≈ 42.44 me-
(r − 3)2 + (t − 2)2 = 4. ters in the figure above.

41. Suppose a rope is just long enough to cover the

37. Find two points that have distance 2 from the
equator of the Earth. About how much longer
origin and distance 3 from (3, 0).
would the rope need to be so that it could be
solution Suppose (x, y) has distance 2 from suspended seven feet above the entire equator?
the origin and distance 3 from (3, 0). Thus
q q solution Assume that the equator of the
x 2 + y 2 = 2 and (x − 3)2 + y 2 = 3. Earth is a circle. This assumption is close
enough to being correct to answer a question
Squaring both sides of these equations gives that requires only an approximation.
x2 + y 2 = 4 and x 2 − 6x + 9 + y 2 = 9. Assume that the radius of the Earth is r , mea-
sured in feet (note that we do not need to know
Subtracting the second equation from the first the value of r for this exercise). For a rope to
equation gives cover the equator, it needs to have length 2π r
6x = 4. feet. For a rope to be suspended seven feet
Thus x = 23 . Substituting this value of x into above the equator, it would need to have length
the equation x 2 + y 2 √= 4 gives
√ the equation 2π (r + 7) feet, which equals (2π r + 14π ) feet.
32 32 4 2
y 2 = 9 . Thus y = ± 3 = ± 3 . Hence the two In other words, to be suspended seven feet
√ √
2 4 2
2 4 2
above the equator, the rope would need to be
points we seek are 3 , 3 and 3 , − 3 .
only 14π feet longer than a rope covering the
39. Suppose you want to design a 400-meter track 22
equator. Because 14π ≈ 14 · 7 = 44, the rope
consisting of two half-circles connected by par- would need to be about 44 feet longer than a
allel line segments. Suppose also that you want rope covering the equator.
the total length of the curved part of the track
 section 2.2 Lines 57

2.2 Lines
learning objectives
By the end of this section you should be able to
find the slope of a line;
find the equation of a line given its slope and a point on it;
find the equation of a line given two points on it;
determine whether or not two lines are parallel;
find the equation of a line perpendicular to a given line and containing a
given point;
find the midpoint of a line segment.

Slope
Consider a line in the coordinate plane, along with four points (x1 , y1 ),
(x2 , y2 ), (x3 , y3 ), and (x4 , y4 ) on the line. Draw two right triangles with
horizontal and vertical edges as in the figure below:

Hx 4 , y 4 L
In this figure, each
y - y
side of the larger tri-
4 3
angle has twice the
Hx 3 , y 3 L
x 4 - x 3
Similar triangles. length of the corre-
Hx 2 , y 2 L
sponding side of the
y 2 - y 1
Hx 1 , y 1 L smaller triangle.
x 2 - x 1

The two right triangles in the figure above are similar because their angles
are equal. Thus the ratios of the corresponding sides of the two triangles
above are equal. Specifically, taking the ratio of the vertical side and horizon-
tal side for each triangle, we have

y2 − y1 y4 − y3
= .
x2 − x1 x4 − x3

The equation above states that for any pair of points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 )
y −y
on the line, the ratio x22 −x11 does not depend on the particular pair of points
chosen on the line. If we choose another pair of points on the line, say
(x3 , y3 ) and (x4 , y4 ) instead of (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ), then the difference of
second coordinates divided by the difference of first coordinates remains the
same, as shown by the equation above.
y −y
Thus the ratio x22 −x11 is a constant depending only on the line and not on
the particular points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) chosen on the line. This constant
is called the slope of the line.
 58 chapter 2 Combining Algebra and Geometry

Slope
If (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) are any two points on a line, with x1 6= x2 , then
the slope of the line is

y2 − y1
.
x2 − x1

Find the slope of the line containing the points (2, 1) and (5, 3).
example 1
solution The line containing (2, 1) and (5, 3) is shown here. The slope of this line
3−1
is 5−2 , which equals 23 .
3 H5,3L

1 H2,1L slope = 2
A line with positive slope slants
1 2 3 4 5 6
up from left to right; a line with neg-
2 slope = 1
A line with slope 3
. ative slope slants down from left to
slope = 12
right. Lines whose slopes have larger
absolute value are steeper than lines
whose slopes have smaller absolute slope = -12
value. This figure shows some lines slope = -1
and their slopes; the same scale has
been used on both axes.
slope = -2

In the figure above, the horizontal axis has slope 0, as does every horizontal
line. Vertical lines, including the vertical axis, do not have a slope, because a
vertical line does not contain two points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) with x1 6= x2 .

The Equation of a Line

Consider a line with slope m, and suppose (x1 , y1 ) is a point on this line.
y
Let (x, y) denote a typical point on the line, as shown here.
Because this line has slope m, we have
Hx , y L
y − y1
Hx 1 , y 1 L
= m.
x − x1
x

A line with slope Multiplying both sides of the equation above by x − x1 , we get the following
y − y1 formula:
.
x − x1
 section 2.2 Lines 59

The equation of a line, given its slope and one point on it

The line in the xy-plane that has slope m and contains the point (x1 , y1 ) The symbol m is often
is given by the equation used to denote the
slope of a line.
y − y1 = m(x − x1 ).

The equation above can be solved for y to get an equation for the line in
the form y = mx + b, where m and b are constants.

1
Find the equation of the line in the xy-plane that has slope 2
and contains (4, 1). example 2
solution In this case the equation displayed above becomes
2
y − 1 = 12 (x − 4).
1
H4,1L
Adding 1 to both sides and simplifying, we get
1 2 3 4 5
y = 21 x − 1. -1

As a check for possible errors, if we take x = 4 in the equation above, we get y = 1. The line with slope 12 that
Thus the point (4, 1) is indeed on this line. contains the point (4, 1).

As a special case of finding the equation of a line when given its slope
and one point on it, suppose we want to find the equation of the line in the
xy-plane with slope m that intersects the y-axis at the point (0, b). In this The point where a line
case, the formula above becomes intersects the y-axis
is often called the
y − b = m(x − 0). y-intercept.

Solving this equation for y, we have the following result:

The equation of a line, given its slope and y-intercept

The line in the xy-plane with slope m that intersects the y-axis at (0, b)
is given by the equation
y = mx + b.

1
Find the equation of the line in the xy-plane that has slope 2
and intersects the example 3
y-axis at (0, −1).

solution The formula above shows that the desired equation is

y = 12 x − 1.
This line is shown in Example 2, where you can see that the line intersects the y-axis
at (0, −1).
 60 chapter 2 Combining Algebra and Geometry

If a line contains the origin, then b = 0 in the formula above. For example,
the line in the xy-plane that has slope 2 and contains the origin is given by
the equation y = 2x. The figure below Example 1 shows the line y = 2x and
several other lines containing the origin.
Suppose now that we want to find the equation of the line containing two
specific points. We can reduce this problem to a problem we have already
solved by computing the slope of the line and then using the formula in the
box above.
Specifically, suppose we want to find the equation of the line contain-
ing the points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ), where x1 6= x2 . This line has slope
(y2 − y1 )/(x2 − x1 ). Thus our formula for the equation of a line when given
its slope and one point on it gives the following result:

The equation of a line, given two points on it

The line in the xy-plane that contains the points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ),
where x1 6= x2 , is given by the equation
y − y 
2 1
y − y1 = (x − x1 ).
x2 − x1

Find the equation of the line in the xy-plane that contains the points (2, 4) and
example 4
(5, 1).

6 solution In this case the equation above becomes

5
1 − 4
y −4= (x − 2).
H2,4L 5−2
4

3 Solving this equation for y, we get

2
H5,1L y = −x + 6.
1
As a check, if we take x = 2 in the equation above, we get y = 4, and if we take x = 5
1 2 3 4 5 6 in the equation above, we get y = 1; thus the points (2, 4) and (5, 1) are indeed on
The line containing the this line.
points (2, 4) and (5, 1).

Conversion between different units of measurement is usually done by an

equation that represents one unit as a suitable multiple of another unit. For
The formula example, a pound is officially defined to be exactly 0.45359237 kilograms.
p = 2.2k Thus the equation that gives the weight k in kilograms for a object weighing
is often used, but p pounds is
it is an approxima- k = 0.45359237p.
tion rather than
an exact formula.
Conversion between temperature scales is unusual because the zero tem-
perature on one scale does not correspond to the zero temperature on
 section 2.2 Lines 61

another scale. Most other quantities such weights, lengths, and currency
have the same zero point regardless of the units used. For example, without
knowing the conversion rate, you know that 0 centimeters is the same length
as 0 inches.
The next example shows how to find a formula for converting from Celsius
temperatures to Fahrenheit temperatures. The solution to the next example
also shows that rather than memorizing the formula, for example, of the
equation of a line given two points on it, sometimes it is simpler just to use
the available information to find the constants m and b that characterize the
line y = mx + b.

Find an equation that gives the temperature F on the Fahrenheit scale corresponding example 5
to temperature C on the Celsius scale.

solution We seek an equation of the form

F = mC + b

for some constants m and b.

To find m and b, we start by recalling that the freezing temperature of water
equals 0 degrees Celsius and 32 degrees Fahrenheit. Plugging C = 0 and F = 32 into
the equation above gives 32 = b. Now that we know that b = 32, the equation above
can be rewritten as
F = mC + 32.
This thermometer
Recall now that the boiling point of water equals 100 degrees Celsius and 212 shows Celsius degrees
degrees Fahrenheit. Plugging C = 100 and F = 212 into the equation above and then on the left, Fahrenheit
solving for m shows that m = 59 . Thus the formula we seek is degrees on the right.

F = 95 C + 32. F

212

Parallel Lines
Consider two parallel lines in the coordinate plane, as shown in the figure
below:
32
y
C
100

The graph of
F = 95 C + 32 on the
interval [−10, 110].
Parallel lines.
d
b
x
a c
62 chapter 2 Combining Algebra and Geometry

Because the two lines are parallel, the corresponding angles in the two
triangles above are equal (as shown by the arcs in the figure above), and thus
the two right triangles are similar. This implies that

b d
= .
a c
b d
Because a is the slope of the top line and c is the slope of the bottom line,
we conclude that these parallel lines have the same slope.
The logic used in the paragraph above is reversible. Specifically, suppose
instead of starting with the assumption that the two lines in the figure above
are parallel, we start with the assumption that the two lines have the same
b
slope. Thus a = dc , which implies that the two right triangles in the figure
above are similar. Hence the two lines make equal angles with the horizontal
axis, as shown by the arcs in the figure, which implies that the two lines are
parallel.
The figure and reasoning given above do not work if both lines are hori-
The phrase “if and zontal or both lines are vertical. But horizontal lines all have slope 0, and
only if”, when con- the slope is not defined for vertical lines. Thus we can summarize our
necting two state- characterization of parallel lines as follows:
ments, means that
the two statements
Parallel lines
are either both true
or both false. For Two nonvertical lines in the coordinate plane are parallel if and only if
example, x + 1 > 6 they have the same slope.
if and only if x > 5.

example 6 (a) Are the lines in the xy-plane given by the following equations parallel?

y = 4x − 5 and y = 4x + 18

(b) Are the lines in the xy-plane given by the following equations parallel?

y = 6x + 5 and y = 7x + 5

solution
(a) These lines are parallel because they have the same slope (which equals 4).
(b) These lines are not parallel because their slopes are not equal—the first line has
slope 6 and the second line has slope 7.

Perpendicular Lines
Before beginning our treatment of perpendicular lines, we take a brief detour
to make clear the geometry of a line with negative slope. A line with negative
slope slants down from left to right. The figure below shows a line with
negative slope; to avoid clutter the coordinate axes are not shown.
 section 2.2 Lines 63

a
Hx 2 , y 1 L
Hx 1 , y 1 L

c
A line with slope − ac .
Hx 2 , y 2 L

In the figure above, a is the length of the horizontal line segment and c
is the length of the vertical line segment. Of course a and c are positive
numbers, because lengths are positive. In terms of the coordinates as shown
in the figure above, we have a = x2 − x1 and c = y1 − y2 . The slope of this
line equals (y2 − y1 )/(x2 − x1 ), which equals −c/a.
The following result gives a useful characterization of perpendicular lines:

Perpendicular lines
Two nonvertical lines are perpendicular if and only if the product of their
slopes equals −1.
Q

To explain why the result above holds, consider two perpendicular lines as Θ

shown in blue in the figure here. In addition to the two perpendicular lines
in blue, the figure shows the horizontal line segment P S and the vertical line
segment QT , which intersect at S.
b
We assume that the angle P QT is θ degrees. To check that the other three
labeled angles in the figure are labeled correctly, first note that the two angles
labeled 90 − θ are each the third angle in a right triangle (the right triangles
are P SQ and QP T ), one of whose angles is θ. Consideration of the right
angle QP T now shows that angle T P S is θ degrees, as labeled. 90-Θ a
S
P
The line containing the points P and Q has slope b/a, as can be seen from
Θ

the figure. Furthermore, our brief discussion of lines with negative slope
c
shows that the line containing the points P and T has slope −c/a. 90-Θ
Consider the right triangles P SQ and T SP in the figure. These trian-
gles have the same angles, and thus they are similar. Thus the ratios of T
corresponding sides are equal. Specifically, we have

b a
= .
a c

Multiplying both sides of this equation by −c/a, we get

b  c 
· − = −1.
a a

As we have already seen, the first quantity on the left above is the slope of
the line containing the points P and Q, and the second quantity is the slope
of the line containing the points P and T . Thus we can conclude that the
product of the slopes of these two perpendicular lines equals −1, as desired.
The logic used above is reversible. Specifically, suppose instead of starting
with the assumption that the two lines in blue are perpendicular, we start
26 chapter 2 Combining Algebra and Geometry

Numbers m1 and m2 with the assumption that the product of their slopes equals −1. This implies
b a
such that m1 m2 = −1 that a = c , which implies that the two right triangles P SQ and T SP are
are sometimes called similar; thus these two triangles have the same angles. This implies that the
negative reciprocals angles are labeled correctly in the figure above (assuming that we start by
of each other.
declaring that angle P QS measures θ degrees). This then implies that angle
QP T measures 90◦ . Thus the two lines in blue are perpendicular, as desired.

example 7 Show the lines in the xy-plane given by the following equations are perpendicular:

y = 4x − 5 and y = − 14 x + 18

solution The first line has slope 4; the second line has slope − 14 . The product of
these slopes is 4 · (− 41 ), which equals −1. Because the product of the two slopes
equals −1, the two lines are perpendicular.

To show that two lines are perpendicular, we only need to know the slopes
of the lines, not their full equations, as shown by the following example.

example 8 Show that the line containing the points (1, −2) and (3, 3) is perpendicular to the
line containing the points (9, −1) and (4, 1).

3−(−2)
solution The line containing (1, −2) and (3, 3) has slope 3−1
, which equals
5 1−(−1)
2
.Also, the line containing (9, −1) and (4, 1) has slope 4−9
, which equals − 25 .
Because the product 52 · (− 52 ) equals −1, the two lines are perpendicular.

3
H3,3L

H4,1L The line containing (1, −2) and

1
(3, 3) is perpendicular to the
line containing (9, −1) and
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 (4, 1).
-1
H9,-1L
H1,-2L
-2

Midpoints
This subsection begins with an intuitive definition of the midpoint of a line
segment:

Midpoint
The midpoint of a line segment is the point on the line segment that lies
halfway between the two endpoints.
 section 2.2 Lines 65

As you might guess, the first coordinate of the midpoint of a line segment
is the average of the first coordinates of the endpoints. Similarly, the second
coordinate of the midpoint is the average of the second coordinates of the
endpoints. Here is the formal statement of this formula:

Problems 51–53 at the

Midpoint
end of this section
The midpoint of the line segment connecting (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) equals will lead you to an
explanation of why
x + x y + y 
1 2 1 2 this formula for the
, .
2 2 midpoint is correct.

The next example illustrates the use of the formula above.

(a) Find the midpoint of the line segment connecting (1, 3) and (5, 9). example 9
(b) Verify that the distance between the midpoint found in (a) and the first endpoint
y
(1, 3) equals the distance between the midpoint found in (a) and the second
endpoint (5, 9). H5,9L
9
(c) Verify that the midpoint found in (a) lies on the line connecting (1, 3) and (5, 9).

solution
(a) Using the formula above, we see that the midpoint of the line segment connecting
(1, 3) and (5, 9) equals 6
1 + 5 3 + 9 H3,6L
, ,
2 2
which equals (3, 6).
(b) First compute the distance between the midpoint and the endpoint (1, 3):
3
H1,3L
q q
distance between (3, 6) and (1, 3) = (3 − 1)2 + (6 − 3)2 = 22 + 32
p
= 13.

Next compute the distance between the midpoint and the endpoint (5, 9): x
1 3 5

q q The point (3, 6) is the

distance between (3, 6) and (5, 9) = (3 − 5)2 + (6 − 9)2 = (−2)2 + (−3)2 midpoint of the line
p segment connecting
= 13.
(1, 3) and (5, 9).
As expected, these two distances are equal—the distance between the midpoint
√
and either endpoint is 13.
(c) First compute the slope of the line containing the midpoint and the endpoint
(1, 3):
6−3 3
slope of line containing (3, 6) and (1, 3) = = .
3−1 2

Next compute the slope of the line containing the midpoint and the endpoint
(5, 9):
66 chapter 2 Combining Algebra and Geometry

6−9 −3 3
slope of line containing (3, 6) and (5, 9) = = = .
3−5 −2 2
As expected, these two slopes are equal. In other words, the line segment from
(1, 3) to (3, 6) points in the same direction as the line segment from (3, 6) to
(5, 9). Thus these three points all lie on the same line.

exercises
1. What are the coordinates of the unlabeled ver- 9. Suppose your cell phone company offers two
tex of the smaller of the two right triangles in calling plans. The pay-per-call plan charges $14
the figure at the beginning of this section? per month plus 3 cents for each minute. The
2. What are the coordinates of the unlabeled ver- unlimited-calling plan charges a flat rate of $29
tex of the larger of the two right triangles in the per month for unlimited calls.
figure at the beginning of this section? (a) Find an equation that gives the cost c in
3. Find the slope of the line that contains the dollars for making m minutes of phone
points (3, 4) and (7, 13). calls per month on the pay-per-call plan.

4. Find the slope of the line that contains the (b) How many minutes per month must you
points (2, 11) and (6, −5). use for the unlimited-calling plan to be-
come cheaper?
5. Find a number t such that the line containing
the points (1, t) and (3, 7) has slope 5. 10. Suppose your cell phone company offers two
calling plans. The pay-per-call plan charges $11
6. Find a number c such that the line containing
per month plus 4 cents for each minute. The
the points (c, 4) and (−2, 9) has slope −3.
unlimited-calling plan charges a flat rate of $25
7. Suppose the tuition per semester at Euphoria per month for unlimited calls.
State University is $525 plus $200 for each
(a) Find an equation that gives the cost c in
class unit taken.
dollars for making m minutes of phone
(a) Find an equation that gives the tuition t in calls per month on the pay-per-call plan.
dollars for taking u class units.
(b) How many minutes per month must you
(b) Find the total tuition for accumulating 120 use for the unlimited-calling plan to be-
units over 8 semesters. come cheaper?
(c) Find the total tuition for accumulating 120 11. Find the equation of the line in the xy-plane
units over 12 semesters. with slope 2 that contains the point (7, 3).
8. Suppose the tuition per semester at Luxim Uni- 12. Find the equation of the line in the xy-plane
versity is $900 plus $850 for each class unit with slope −4 that contains the point (−5, −2).
taken. 13. Find the equation of the line that contains the
points (2, −1) and (4, 9).
(a) Find an equation that gives the tuition t in
dollars for taking u class units. 14. Find the equation of the line that contains the
points (−3, 2) and (−5, 7).
(b) Find the total tuition for accumulating 120
units over 8 semesters. 15. Find a number t such that the point (3, t) is
on the line containing the points (7, 6) and
(c) Find the total tuition for accumulating 120
(14, 10).
units over 10 semesters.
16. Find a number t such that the point (−2, t) is
on the line containing the points (5, −2) and
(10, −8).
 section 2.2 Lines 67

17. Find a formula for the number of seconds s in 34. Find a number t such that the line containing
d days. the points (−3, t) and (2, −4) is parallel to the
18. Find a formula for the number of seconds s in line containing the points (5, 6) and (−2, 4).
w weeks. 35. Find the intersection in the xy-plane of the
19. Find a formula for the number of inches I in M lines y = 5x + 3 and y = −2x + 1.
miles. 36. Find the intersection in the xy-plane of the
20. Find a formula for the number of miles M in F lines y = −4x + 5 and y = 5x − 2.
feet. 37. Find a number b such that the three lines in the
21. Find a formula for the number of kilometers k xy-plane given by the equations y = 2x + b,
in M miles. y = 3x − 5, and y = −4x + 6 have a common
[The exact conversion between the English mea- intersection point.
surement system and the metric system is given 38. Find a number m such that the three lines
by the equation 1 inch = 2.54 centimeters.] in the xy-plane given by the equations y =
mx + 3, y = 4x + 1, and y = 5x + 7 have a
22. Find a formula for the number of miles M in m
common intersection point.
meters.
39. Find the equation of the line in the xy-plane
23. Find a formula for the number of inches I in c
that contains the point (4, 1) and that is
centimeters.
perpendicular to the line whose equation is
24. Find a formula for the number of meters m in y = 3x + 5.
F feet.
40. Find the equation of the line in the xy-plane
25. Find a number c such that the point (c, 13) is that contains the point (−3, 2) and that is
on the line containing the points (−4, −17) and perpendicular to the line whose equation is
(6, 33). y = −5x + 1.
26. Find a number c such that the point (c, −19) 41. Find a number t such that the line in the xy-
is on the line containing the points (2, 1) and plane containing the points (t, 4) and (2, −1) is
(4, 9). perpendicular to the line y = 6x − 7.
27. Find a number t such that the point (t, 2t) is 42. Find a number t such that the line in the xy-
on the line containing the points (3, −7) and plane containing the points (−3, t) and (4, 3) is
(5, −15). perpendicular to the line y = −5x + 999.
28. Find a number t such that the point (t, 2t ) is 43. Find a number t such that the line containing
on the line containing the points (2, −4) and the points (4, t) and (−1, 6) is perpendicular
(−3, −11). to the line that contains the points (3, 5) and
29. Find the equation of the line in the xy-plane (1, −2).
that contains the point (3, 2) and that is paral- 44. Find a number t such that the line containing
lel to the line y = 4x − 1. the points (t, −2) and (−3, 5) is perpendicular
30. Find the equation of the line in the xy-plane to the line that contains the points (4, 7) and
that contains the point (−4, −5) and that is (1, 11).
parallel to the line y = −2x + 3. 45. Find the midpoint of the line segment connect-
31. Find the equation of the line that contains the ing (−3, 4) and (5, 7).
point (2, 3) and that is parallel to the line con- 46. Find the midpoint of the line segment connect-
taining the points (7, 1) and (5, 6). ing (6, −5) and (−3, −8).
32. Find the equation of the line that contains the 47. Find numbers x and y such that (−2, 5) is the
point (−4, 3) and that is parallel to the line midpoint of the line segment connecting (3, 1)
containing the points (3, −7) and (6, −9). and (x, y).
33. Find a number t such that the line containing 48. Find numbers x and y such that (3, −4) is
the points (t, 2) and (3, 5) is parallel to the line the midpoint of the line segment connecting
containing the points (−1, 4) and (−3, −2). (−2, 5) and (x, y).
68 chapter 2 Combining Algebra and Geometry

problems
49. The Kelvin temperature scale is defined by 55. Find six distinct points on the circle with
K = C + 273.15, where K is the temperature center (4, 1) and circumference 3.
on the Kelvin scale and C is the temperature 56. We used similar triangles to show that the prod-
on the Celsius scale. (Thus −273.15 degrees uct of the slopes of two perpendicular lines
Celsius, which is the temperature at which all equals −1. The steps below outline an alter-
molecular movement ceases and thus is the native proof that avoids the use of similar tri-
lowest possible temperature, corresponds to 0 angles but uses more algebra instead. Use the
on the Kelvin scale.) figure below, which is the same as the figure
(a) Find an equation that gives the tempera- used earlier except that there is now no need to
ture F on the Fahrenheit scale correspond- label the angles.
ing to temperature K on the Kelvin scale.
Q
(b) Explain why the graph of the equation
from part (a) is parallel to the graph of the
equation obtained in Example 5.
b

50. Find the equation of the line in the xy-plane

that has slope m and intersects the x-axis at
a
(c, 0). P S

51. Suppose (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) are the endpoints c

of a line segment.

(a) Show that the distance between the point T

x1 +x2 y1 +y2

2
, 2 and the endpoint (x1 , y1 ) QP is perpendicular to P T .
equals half the length of the line segment.
(a) Apply the Pythagorean Theorem to tri-
(b) Show that the distance between the point
x1 +x2 y1 +y2
angle P SQ to find the length of the line
2
, 2 and the endpoint (x2 , y2 )
segment P Q in terms of a and b.
equals half the length of the line segment.
(b) Apply the Pythagorean Theorem to tri-
52. Suppose (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) are the endpoints angle P ST to find the length of the line
of a line segment. segment P T in terms of a and c.
(a) Show that the line containing the point (c) Apply the Pythagorean Theorem to tri-
x1 +x2 y1 +y2

2
, 2 and the endpoint (x1 , y1 ) angle QP T to find the length of the line
y −y
has slope x2 −x 1 .
2 1
segment QT in terms of the lengths of the
(b) Show that the line containing the point line segments of P Q and P T calculated in
x1 +x2 y1 +y2

, 2 and the endpoint (x2 , y2 ) the first two parts of this problem.
2
y −y
has slope x2 −x 1 . (d) As can be seen from the figure, the length
2 1

(c) Explain why parts (a) and (b) of this prob- of the line segment QT equals b + c. Thus
x +x y +y

lem imply that the point 1 2 2 , 1 2 2 set the formula for length of the line seg-
lies on the line containing the endpoints ment QT , as calculated in the previous
(x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ). part of this problem, equal to b + c, and
solve the resulting equation for c in terms
53. Explain why the two previous problems imply of a and b.
x +x y +y

that 1 2 2 , 1 2 2 is the midpoint of the line (e) Use the result in the previous part of this
segment with endpoints (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ). problem to show that the slope of the line
54. Find six distinct points on the circle with center containing P and Q times the slope of the
(2, 3) and radius 5. line containing P and T equals −1.
 section 2.2 Lines 69

57. Suppose a and b are nonzero numbers. Where 59. Show that the points (−8, −65), (1, 52), and
does the line in the xy-plane given by the (3, 77) do not lie on a line.
equation 60. Change just one of the six numbers in the prob-
x y
+ =1 lem above so that the resulting three points do
a b
intersect the coordinate axes? lie on a line.
61. Show that for every number t, the point
58. Show that the points (−84, −14), (21, 1), and
(5 − 3t, 7 − 4t) is on the line containing the
(98, 12) lie on a line.
points (2, 3) and (5, 7).

worked-out solutions to Odd-numbered Exercises

1. What are the coordinates of the unlabeled ver- (c) Find the total tuition for accumulating 120
tex of the smaller of the two right triangles in units over 12 semesters.
the figure at the beginning of this section?
solution
solution Drawing vertical and horizontal
lines from the point in question to the coor- (a) The tuition t in dollars for taking u class units
dinate axes shows that the coordinates of the is given by the equation
point are (x2 , y1 ).
t = 200u + 525.
3. Find the slope of the line that contains the
(b) Taking 120 units over 8 semesters will cost
points (3, 4) and (7, 13).
200 × 120 + 8 × 525 dollars, which equals
solution The line containing the points (3, 4) $28,200.
and (7, 13) has slope (c) Taking 120 units over 12 semesters will cost
13 − 4 200 × 120 + 12 × 525 dollars, which equals
,
7−3 $30,300.
9
which equals 4
.
9. Suppose your cell phone company offers two
5. Find a number t such that the line containing calling plans. The pay-per-call plan charges $14
the points (1, t) and (3, 7) has slope 5. per month plus 3 cents for each minute. The
unlimited-calling plan charges a flat rate of $29
solution The slope of the line containing the per month for unlimited calls.
points (1, t) and (3, 7) equals
7−t (a) Find an equation that gives the cost c in
, dollars for making m minutes of phone
3−1
7−t
calls per month on the pay-per-call plan.
which equals 2 . We want this slope to equal 5.
Thus we must find a number t such that (b) How many minutes per month must you
use for the unlimited-calling plan to be-
7−t
= 5. come cheaper?
2
Solving this equation for t, we get t = −3. solution

7. Suppose the tuition per semester at Euphoria (a) As usual, units must be consistent throughout
State University is $525 plus $200 for each any calculation. Thus we think of 3 cents as
class unit taken. 0.03 dollars. Hence the cost c in dollars for
making m minutes of phone calls per month is
(a) Find an equation that gives the tuition t in
given by the equation
dollars for taking u class units.
(b) Find the total tuition for accumulating 120 c = 0.03m + 14.
units over 8 semesters.
70 chapter 2 Combining Algebra and Geometry

(b) Setting c = 29 in the equation above gives the y = 5x − 11. In other words, we need to verify
equation 29 = 0.03m + 14. Thus the alleged equations
29−14 15 1500 ? ?
m= 0.03
= 0.03
= 3
= 500. −1 = 5 · 2 − 11 and 9 = 5 · 4 − 11.

Thus the two plans cost an equal amount if Simple arithmetic shows that both alleged equa-
500 minutes per month are used. If more than tions are indeed true.
500 minutes per month are used, then the
unlimited-calling plan is cheaper. 15. Find a number t such that the point (3, t) is
on the line containing the points (7, 6) and
11. Find the equation of the line in the xy-plane (14, 10).
with slope 2 that contains the point (7, 3).
solution First we find the equation of the
solution If (x, y) denotes a typical point on line containing the points (7, 6) and (14, 10).
the line with slope 2 that contains the point To do this, note that the line containing those
(7, 3), then two points has slope
y −3
= 2. 10 − 6
x−7 ,
14 − 7
Multiplying both sides of this equation by x − 7
and then adding 3 to both sides gives the equa- which equals 47 . Thus if (x, y) denotes a typical
tion point on this line, then
y = 2x − 11.
y −6 4
= .
x−7 7
check The line whose equation is y = 2x − 11
has slope 2. We should also check that the Multiplying both sides of this equation by x − 7
point (7, 3) is on this line. In other words, we and then adding 6 gives the equation
need to verify the alleged equation
y = 47 x + 2.
?
3 = 2 · 7 − 11.
Now we can find a number t such that the point
Simple arithmetic shows that this is indeed (3, t) is on the line given by the equation above.
true. To do this, in the equation above replace x by 3
and y by t, getting
13. Find the equation of the line that contains the
4
points (2, −1) and (4, 9). t= 7
· 3 + 2.

solution The line that contains the points Performing the arithmetic to compute the right
26
(2, −1) and (4, 9) has slope side, we get t = 7 .
9 − (−1)
, check We should check that all three points
4−2 26

(7, 6), (14, 10), and 3, 7 are on the line
which equals 5. Thus if (x, y) denotes a typical y = 47 x + 2. In other words, we need to verify
point on this line, then the alleged equations
y −9 ? 4 ? 4 26 ? 4
= 5. 6= · 7 + 2, 10 = · 14 + 2, = 7 · 3 + 2.
x−4 7 7 7

Multiplying both sides of this equation by x − 4 Simple arithmetic shows that all three alleged
and then adding 9 to both sides gives the equa- equations are indeed true.
tion
17. Find a formula for the number of seconds s in
y = 5x − 11.
d days.

check We need to check that both (2, −1) solution Each minute has 60 seconds, and
and (4, 9) are on the line whose equation is each hour has 60 minutes. Thus each hour has
 section 2.2 Lines 71

60 × 60 seconds, or 3600 seconds. Each day has 1

1 centimeter = inches.
24 hours; thus each day has 24 × 3600 seconds, 2.54
or 86400 seconds. Thus Multiplying both sides of the equation above
by a number c shows that c centimeters =
s = 86400d. c
2.54
inches. In other words,

c
19. Find a formula for the number of inches I in M I= .
2.54
miles.

solution Each foot has 12 inches, and 25. Find a number c such that the point (c, 13) is
each mile has 5280 feet. Thus each mile has on the line containing the points (−4, −17) and
5280 × 12 inches, or 63360 inches. Thus (6, 33).

I = 63360M. solution First we find the equation of the

line containing the points (−4, −17) and (6, 33).
To do this, note that the line containing those
21. Find a formula for the number of kilometers k
two points has slope
in M miles.
33 − (−17)
solution Multiplying both sides of the equa- ,
6 − (−4)
tion
1 inch = 2.54 centimeters which equals 5. Thus if (x, y) denotes a typical
point on this line, then
by 12 gives
y − 33
1 foot = 12 × 2.54 centimeters = 5.
x−6
= 30.48 centimeters. Multiplying both sides of this equation by x − 6
and then adding 33 gives the equation
Multiplying both sides of the equation above by
5280 gives y = 5x + 3.

1 mile = 5280 × 30.48 centimeters

Now we can find a number c such that the
= 160934.4 centimeters point (c, 13) is on the line given by the equa-
tion above. To do this, in the equation above
= 1609.344 meters
replace x by c and y by 13, getting
= 1.609344 kilometers.
13 = 5c + 3.
Multiplying both sides of the equation
Solving this equation for c, we get c = 2.
above by a number M shows that M miles =
1.609344M kilometers. In other words,
check We should check that the three points
k = 1.609344M. (−4, −17), (6, 33), and (2, 13) are all on the line
whose equation is y = 5x + 3. In other words,
[The formula above is exact. However, the ap- we need to verify the alleged equations
proximation k = 1.61M is often used.] ? ? ?
−17 = 5·(−4)+3, 33 = 5·6+3, 13 = 5·2+2.
23. Find a formula for the number of inches I in c
Simple arithmetic shows that all three alleged
centimeters.
equations are indeed true.
solution Dividing both sides of the equation

1 inch = 2.54 centimeters

by 2.54 gives
72 chapter 2 Combining Algebra and Geometry

27. Find a number t such that the point (t, 2t) is above. Replacing x by 3 and replacing y by 2 in
on the line containing the points (3, −7) and the equation above, we have
(5, −15).
2 = 4 · 3 + b.
solution First we find the equation of the Solving this equation for b, we get b = −10.
line containing the points (3, −7) and (5, −15). Thus the line that we seek is described by the
To do this, note that the line containing those equation
two points has slope y = 4x − 10.
−7 − (−15)
, 31. Find the equation of the line that contains the
3−5
point (2, 3) and that is parallel to the line con-
which equals −4. Thus if (x, y) denotes a point taining the points (7, 1) and (5, 6).
on this line, then
solution The line containing the points (7, 1)
y − (−7)
= −4. and (5, 6) has slope
x−3
6−1
Multiplying both sides of this equation by x − 3 ,
5−7
and then subtracting 7 gives the equation
which equals − 52 . Thus each line parallel to it
y = −4x + 5. also has slope − 52 and hence has the form
y = − 25 x + b
Now we can find a number t such that the
for some constant b.
point (t, 2t) is on the line given by the equa-
tion above. To do this, in the equation above Thus we need to find a constant b such that the
replace x by t and y by 2t, getting point (2, 3) is on the line given by the equation
above. Replacing x by 2 and replacing y by 3 in
2t = −4t + 5. the equation above, we have
5
Solving this equation for t, we get t = 65 . 3 = − 2 · 2 + b.
Solving this equation for b, we get b = 8. Thus
check We should check that the three points
the line that we seek is described by the equa-
(3, −7), (5, −15), and 56 , 2 · 56 are all on the line


tion
whose equation is y = −4x + 5. In other words, 5
y = − 2 x + 8.
we need to verify the alleged equations
? ? 5 ? 33. Find a number t such that the line containing
−7 = −4·3+5, −15 = −4·5+5, 3
= −4· 56 +5.
the points (t, 2) and (3, 5) is parallel to the line
Simple arithmetic shows that all three alleged containing the points (−1, 4) and (−3, −2).
equations are indeed true.
solution The line containing the points
29. Find the equation of the line in the xy-plane (−1, 4) and (−3, −2) has slope
that contains the point (3, 2) and that is paral- 4 − (−2)
,
lel to the line y = 4x − 1. −1 − (−3)
which equals 3. Thus each line parallel to it
solution The line in the xy-plane whose
also has slope 3.
equation is y = 4x − 1 has slope 4. Thus each
line parallel to it also has slope 4 and hence has The line containing the points (t, 2) and (3, 5)
the form has slope
5−2
y = 4x + b ,
3−t
for some constant b. 3
which equals 3−t . From the paragraph above,
Thus we need to find a constant b such that the we want this slope to equal 3. In other words,
point (3, 2) is on the line given by the equation we need to solve the equation
 section 2.2 Lines 73

3 Thus y = − 72 .
= 3.
3−t
At this stage, we have shown that the lines
Dividing both sides of the equation above by 3 given by the equations y = 3x − 5 and y =
and then multiplying both sides by 3 − t gives −4x + 6 intersect at the point 11 , − 72 . We want


7
the equation 1 = 3 − t. Thus t = 2. the line given by the equation y = 2x + b also
to contain this point. Thus we set x = 11 and
35. Find the intersection in the xy-plane of the 7
y = − 72 in this equation, getting
lines y = 5x + 3 and y = −2x + 1.

solution Setting the two right sides of the − 27 = 2 · 11

7
+ b.
equations above equal to each other, we get Solving this equation for b, we get b = − 24 .
7

5x + 3 = −2x + 1.
check As a check that the line given by the
To solve this equation for x, add 2x to both equation y = −4x + 6 contains the point
11
, − 72 , we can substitute the value x = 7

11
sides and then subtract 3 from both sides, get- 7
ting 7x = −2. Thus x = − 27 . into the equation for that line and see if it gives
the value y = − 27 . In other words, we need to
To find the value of y at the intersection point,
verify the alleged equation
we can plug the value x = − 27 into either of the
equations of the two lines. Choosing the first 2 ?
− 7 = −4 · 11
+ 6.
7
equation, we have y = −5 · 27 + 3, which implies
that y = 117
. Thus the two lines intersect at the Simple arithmetic shows that this is true. Thus
point − 27 , 11 . we indeed found the correct point of intersec-


7
tion.
check As a check, we can substitute the value
We chose the line whose equation is given by
x = − 27 into the equation for the second line
y = −4x + 6 for this check because the other
and see if that also gives the value y = 11
7
. In
two lines had been used in direct calculations
other words, we need to verify the alleged equa-
in our solution.
tion
11 ?
7
= −2(− 27 ) + 1. 39. Find the equation of the line in the xy-plane
Simple arithmetic shows that this is true. Thus that contains the point (4, 1) and that is
we indeed have the correct solution. perpendicular to the line whose equation is
y = 3x + 5.
37. Find a number b such that the three lines in the
xy-plane given by the equations y = 2x + b, solution The line in the xy-plane whose
y = 3x − 5, and y = −4x + 6 have a common equation is y = 3x + 5 has slope 3. Thus every
intersection point. line perpendicular to it has slope − 31 . Hence
the equation of the line that we seek has the
solution The unknown b appears in the first form
equation; thus our first step will be to find the y = − 13 x + b
point of intersection of the last two lines. To
for some constant b. We want the point (4, 1)
do this, we set the right sides of the last two
to be on this line. Substituting x = 4 and y = 1
equations equal to each other, getting
into the equation above, we have
3x − 5 = −4x + 6. 1
1 = − 3 · 4 + b.
To solve this equation for x, add 4x to both 7
Solving this equation for b, we get b = 3 . Thus
sides and then add 5 to both sides, getting
11 the equation of the line that we seek is
7x = 11. Thus x = 7 . Substituting this value
of x into the equation y = 3x − 5, we get y = − 13 x + 73 .
11
y =3· 7
− 5.
74 chapter 2 Combining Algebra and Geometry

32
41. Find a number t such that the line in the xy- Solving this equation for t, we get t = 7
.
plane containing the points (t, 4) and (2, −1) is
perpendicular to the line y = 6x − 7. 45. Find the midpoint of the line segment connect-
ing (−3, 4) and (5, 7).
solution The line in the xy-plane whose
equation is y = 6x − 7 has slope 6. Thus every solution The midpoint of the line segment
line perpendicular to it has slope − 16 . Thus we connecting (−3, 4) and (5, 7) is
want the line containing the points (t, 4) and  −3 + 5 4 + 7 
, ,
(2, −1) to have slope − 16 . In other words, we 2 2
want
4 − (−1) 1 which equals 1, 11 .


=− . 2
t−2 6
Solving this equation for t, we get t = −28. 47. Find numbers x and y such that (−2, 5) is the
midpoint of the line segment connecting (3, 1)
43. Find a number t such that the line containing and (x, y).
the points (4, t) and (−1, 6) is perpendicular
to the line that contains the points (3, 5) and solution The midpoint of the line segment
(1, −2). connecting (3, 1) and (x, y) is
3 + x 1 + y 
solution The line containing the points (3, 5) , .
2 2
and (1, −2) has slope
5 − (−2) We want this to equal (−2, 5). Thus we must
, solve the equations
3−1
which equals 72 . Thus every line perpendicu- 3+x 1+y
= −2 and = 5.
lar to it has slope − 27 . Thus we want the line 2 2
containing the points (4, t) and (−1, 6) to have
Solving these equations gives x = −7 and
slope − 27 . In other words, we want
y = 9.
t−6 2
=− .
4 − (−1) 7
 section 2.3 Quadratic Expressions and Conic Sections 75

2.3 Quadratic Expressions and Conic Sections

learning objectives
By the end of this section you should be able to
rewrite a quadratic expression using the completing-the-square technique;
find the point on a line closest to a given point;
derive and use the quadratic formula;
find the center and radius of a circle from its equation;
find the vertex of a parabola;
recognize and work with equations of ellipses and hyperbolas.

Completing the Square

Suppose you want to find the numbers x such that

x 2 − 5 = 0.

The solution is easy to obtain. Simply add 5 to both sides of the equation
√
above, getting x 2 = 5, and then conclude that x = ± 5. Here ± indicates that
Now consider the harder problem of finding the numbers x such that we can choose either
the plus sign or the
x 2 + 6x − 4 = 0. minus sign.

Nothing obvious works here. Adding either 4 or 4 − 6x to both sides of this

equation does not produce a new equation that leads to the solution.
However, a technique called completing the square can be used to deal
with equations such as the one above. The key to this technique is the identity
Be sure that you are
(x + t) = x + 2tx + t .
2 2 2 thoroughly familiar
with this crucial
The next example illustrates the technique of completing the square. identity.

Find the numbers x such that example 1

2
x + 6x − 4 = 0.

solution The idea here is that we want the 6x term in the equation above to match
term 2tx term in the expansion above for (x + t)2 . In other words, we want 2t = 6,
and hence we choose t = 3.
When (x + 3)2 is expanded, we get x 2 + 6x + 9. The x 2 and 6x terms match the
corresponding terms in the expression x 2 + 6x, but the expansion of (x + 3)2 has
an extra constant term of 9. Thus we subtract 9, rewriting x 2 + 6x in the equation
above as (x + 3)2 − 9, getting

(x + 3)2 − 9 − 4 = 0.
76 chapter 2 Combining Algebra and Geometry

Now add 13 to both sides of the equation above, getting (x + 3)2 = 13, which implies
√ √
that x + 3 = ± 13. Finally, add −3 to both sides, concluding that x = −3 ± 13.

The general formula for the substitution to make when completing the
square is shown below. Do not memorize this formula. You only need to
remember that the coefficient of the x term will need to be divided by 2,
and then the appropriate constant will need to be subtracted to get a correct
identity.

Completing the square

 b 2  b 2
x 2 + bx = x + −
2 2

For example, if b = −10, then the identity above becomes

x 2 − 10x = (x − 5)2 − 25.

b
2
Note that the term that is subtracted is always positive because 2 is
positive regardless of whether b is positive or negative.
The next example shows the usefulness of completing the square.

example 2 (a) What value of x makes 3x 2 − 5x + 4 as small as possible?

(b) What is the smallest value of 3x 2 − 5x + 4?

solution
(a) We factor out the coefficient 3 from the x 2 and x terms and then apply the
completing-the-square identity, as follows:
The new expression
3x 2 − 5x + 4 = 3 x 2 − 53 x + 4
 
has fractions making
it look more cumber- 5
2 25 
=3 x− 6 − +4

some than the original 36

expression. However, 5
2 25
this new expression =3 x− 6
− 12
+4
allows us to answer 5
2 23
the questions above. =3 x− 6
+ 12

5
The term (x − 6 )2 in the last expression is positive for all values of x except
for x = 56 , which makes (x − 56 )2 equal to 0. Thus 3x 2 − 5x + 4 is as small as
possible when x = 56 .
(b) We could substitute the value x = 56 into the expression 3x 2 − 5x + 4 to find the
smallest value of this expression. However, without doing any work we can see
from the last equation above that this expression equals 2312
when x = 65 . Thus
23 2
12
is the smallest value of 3x − 5x + 4.
 section 2.3 Quadratic Expressions and Conic Sections 77

The next example illustrates another application of the completing-the-

square technique.

Find the point on the line y = 2x − 1 that is closest to the point (2, 1). example 3
y
solution A typical point on the line y = 2x − 1 has coordinates (x, 2x − 1). The
distance between this point and (2, 1) equals 3
q
2
(x − 2)2 + (2x − 1 − 1) ,

which with a bit of algebra (do it!) can be rewritten as

p 2
5x 2 − 12x + 8.

We want to make the quantity above as small as possible, which means that we need
to make 5x 2 − 12x as small as possible. This can be done by completing the square: 1
2 2 12
5x − 12x = 5[x − 5
x]
2
= 5 (x − 56 ) − 36 
.

25 x
6 6 1 2
The last quantity will be as small as possible when x = Plugging x = into the
5
. 5
equation y = 2x − 1 gives y = 75 .
Thus 65 , 5 is the point on the line y = 2x − 1 that is closest to the point (2, 1).
7

The picture in the margin shows that 56 , 75 is indeed a plausible solution.

-1

The line y = 2x − 1, the

point (2, 1), and the point
on the line closest to (2, 1).
The Quadratic Formula

Quadratic expression
A quadratic expression has the form

ax 2 + bx + c,

where a 6= 0.

Consider the quadratic expression ax 2 + bx + c, where a 6= 0. Factor out We will follow the
a from the first two terms and then complete the square, as follows: same pattern as in
previous concrete ex-
h b i amples and complete
ax 2 + bx + c = a x 2 + x + c
a the square with an
arbitrary quadratic
h b 2 b2 i expression. This will
=a x+ − +c
2a 4a2 allow us to derive the
quadratic formula.
 b 2 b 2
=a x+ − +c
2a 4a
 b 2 b2 − 4ac
=a x+ − .
2a 4a
78 chapter 2 Combining Algebra and Geometry

Suppose now that we want to find the numbers x, such that ax 2 +bx +c =
0. Setting the last expression equal to 0, we get

 b 2 b2 − 4ac
a x+ = ,
2a 4a

and then dividing both sides by a gives

 b 2 b2 − 4ac
x+ = .
2a 4a2

Regardless of the value of x, the left side of the last equation is a positive
number or 0. Thus if the right side is negative, the equation does not hold
for any real number x. In other words, if b2 − 4ac < 0, then the equation
ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has no real solutions.
If b2 − 4ac ≥ 0, then we can take the square root of both sides of the last
equation, getting √
b b2 − 4ac
x+ =± ,
2a 2a
b
and then adding − 2a to both sides gives
By completing
√
the square, we −b ± b2 − 4ac
have derived the x= .
2a
quadratic formula!

Quadratic formula
Consider the equation
ax 2 + bx + c = 0,

where a, b, and c are real numbers with a 6= 0.

• If b2 − 4ac < 0, then the equation above has no (real) solutions.

• If b2 − 4ac = 0, then the equation above has one solution:

b
x=− .
2a

• If b2 − 4ac > 0, then the equation above has two solutions:

√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x= .
2a

The quadratic formula often is useful in problems that do not initially

seem to involve quadratic expressions. The following example illustrates
how a simply stated problem can lead to a quadratic expression.
 section 2.3 Quadratic Expressions and Conic Sections 79

Find two numbers whose sum equals 7 and whose product equals 8. example 4
solution Let’s call the two numbers s and t. We want

s+t =7 and st = 8.

Solving the first equation for s, we have s = 7 − t. Substituting this expression for s
into the second equation gives (7 − t)t = 8, which is equivalent to the equation

t 2 − 7t + 8 = 0.

Using the quadratic formula to solve this equation for t gives

√ √
7 ± 72 − 4 · 8 7 ± 17
t= = .
2 2
√
7+ 17
Let’s choose the solution t = 2
. Plugging this value of t into the equation You should verify
√
7− 17
s = 7 − t then gives s = 2
. that if√we had chosen
√ 7− 17
Thus two numbers whose sum equals 7 and whose product equals 8 are 7− 17 t = 2 , then we
√ 2
7+ 17 would have ended up
and 2
.
with the same pair of
remark To check that this solution is correct, note that numbers.
√ √
7 − 17 7 + 17 14
+ = =7
2 2 2
and √ √ √ 2
7− 17 7+ 17 72 − 17 49 − 17 32
· = = = = 8.
2 2 4 4 4

Circles
The set of points that have distance 3 from the origin in a coordinate plane
is the circle with radius 3 centered at the origin. The next example shows
how to find an equation that describes this circle.

Find an equation that describes the circle with radius 3 centered at the origin in the example 5
xy-plane.
y
q
3
solution Recall that the distance from a point (x, y) to the origin is x 2 + y 2 .
Hence a point (x, y) has distance 3 from the origin if and only if
q
x 2 + y 2 = 3.
x
3
Squaring both sides, we get -3

x 2 + y 2 = 9.

-3

The circle of radius 3

centered at the origin.
 80 chapter 2 Combining Algebra and Geometry

More generally, suppose r is a positive number. Using the same reasoning

as above, we see that
x2 + y 2 = r 2

is the equation of the circle with radius r centered at the origin in the
xy-plane.
We can also consider circles centered at points other than the origin.

example 6 Find the equation of the circle in the xy-plane centered at (2, 1) with radius 5.
y
solution This circle is the set of points whose distance from (2, 1) equals 5. In
6
other words, the circle centered at (2, 1) with radius 5 is the set of points (x, y)
4 satisfying the equation q
(x − 2)2 + (y − 1)2 = 5.
2
Squaring both sides, we can more conveniently describe this circle as the set of
x points (x, y) such that
-2 2 4 6
(x − 2)2 + (y − 1)2 = 25.
-2

-4
Using the same reasoning as in the example above, we get the following
The circle centered at
more general result:
(2, 1) with radius 5.

For example, Equation of a circle

the equation
The circle with center (h, k) and radius r is the set of points (x, y)
(x − 3)2 + (y + 5)2 = 7
describes the cir-
satisfying the equation
cle in the xy-plane
√ (x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r 2 .
with radius 7 cen-
tered at (3, −5).
Sometimes the equation of a circle may be in a form in which the radius
and center are not obvious. You may then need to complete the square to
find the radius and center. The following example illustrates this procedure:

example 7 Find the radius and center of the circle in the xy-plane described by
x 2 + 4x + y 2 − 6y = 12.

solution Completing the square, we have

Here the completing-
12 = x 2 + 4x + y 2 − 6y
the-square technique
has been applied = (x + 2)2 − 4 + (y − 3)2 − 9
separately to the
= (x + 2)2 + (y − 3)2 − 13.
x and y variables.
Adding 13 to the first and last sides of the equation above shows that
(x + 2)2 + (y − 3)2 = 25.
Thus we have a circle with radius 5 centered at (−2, 3).
 section 2.3 Quadratic Expressions and Conic Sections 81

Ellipses

Ellipse
Stretching a circle horizontally and/or vertically produces a curve called
an ellipse.

Find an equation describing the ellipse in the xy-plane produced by stretching a

circle of radius 1 centered at the origin horizontally by a factor of 5 and vertically by
example 8
a factor of 3.

solution To find an equation describing this ellipse, consider a typical point (u, v)
on the circle of radius 1 centered at the origin. Thus u2 + v2 = 1.

y y
3 3

x x
-5 -1 1 5 -5 5

-3 -3

Stretching horizontally by a factor of 5 and vertically by a factor of 3

transforms the circle on the left into the ellipse on the right.

Stretching horizontally by a factor of 5 and stretching vertically by a factor of 3 The German

transforms the point (u, v) to the point (5u, 3v). Rewrite the equation u2 + v2 = 1 mathematician Johannes
in terms of this new point, getting Kepler, who in 1609
published his discovery
(5u)2 (3v)2 that the orbits of the
+ = 1.
25 9 planets are ellipses, not
Write the transformed point (5u, 3v) as (x, y), thus setting x = 5u and y = 3v, circles or combinations of
getting circles as had been
x2 y2 previously thought.
+ = 1,
25 9
which is the equation of the ellipse shown above on the right.
The points (±5, 0) and (0, ±3) satisfy this equation and thus lie on the ellipse, as
can also be seen from the figure above.

More generally, suppose a and b are positive numbers. Suppose the circle Viewing an ellipse as
of radius 1 centered at the origin is stretched horizontally by a factor of a a stretched circle will
and stretched vertically by a factor of b. Using the same reasoning as above lead us to the formula
(just replace 5 by a and replace 3 by b), we see that the equation of the for the area inside an
ellipse in Section 2.4.
resulting ellipse in the xy-plane is

x2 y2
+ 2 = 1.
a 2 b
 82 chapter 2 Combining Algebra and Geometry

The points (±a, 0) and (0, ±b) satisfy this equation and lie on the ellipse.
Planets have orbits that are ellipses, but you may be surprised to learn
that the sun is not located at the center of those orbits. Instead, the sun is
located at what is called a focus of each elliptical orbit. The plural of focus
is foci, which are defined as follows:

Foci of an ellipse
The foci of an ellipse are two points with the property that the sum of the
The ancient Greeks
distances from the foci to a point on the ellipse is a constant independent
discovered that the
of the point on the ellipse.
intersection of a cone
and an appropriately
positioned plane is x2 y2
As we will see in the next example, the foci for the ellipse 25 + 9 = 1 are
an ellipse.
the points (−4, 0) and (4, 0). This example shows how to verify that a pair of
points are foci for an ellipse.

example 9 (a) Find a formula in terms of x for the distance from a typical point (x, y) on the
x2 y2
ellipse 25
+ 9
= 1 to the point (4, 0).
(b) Find a formula in terms of x for the distance from a typical point (x, y) on the
x2 y2
ellipse 25
+ 9
= 1 to the point (−4, 0).
x2 y2
Isaac Newton showed (c) Show that (4, 0) and (−4, 0) are foci of the ellipse 25
+ 9
= 1.
that the equations of
gravity imply that a solution
q
planetary orbit around (a) The distance from (x, y) to the point (4, 0) is (x − 4)2 + y 2 , which equals
a star is an ellipse q
with the star at one x 2 − 8x + 16 + y 2 .
of the foci. For ex-
ample, if units are We want an answer solely in terms of x, assuming that (x, y) lies on the ellipse
x2 y2
chosen so that the or- 25
+ 9
= 1. Solving the ellipse equation for y 2 , we have
bit of a planet is the 9
2 y2 y2 = 9 − x2.
ellipse x25 + 9 = 1, 25

then the star must Substituting this expression for y 2 into the expression above shows that the
be located at either distance from (x, y) to (4, 0) equals
(4, 0) or (−4, 0). q
25 − 8x + 16
25
x2,
r
2
which equals (5 − 54 x) , which equals 5 − 45 x.
q
(b) The distance from (x, y) to the point (−4, 0) is (x + 4)2 + y 2 , which equals
q
x 2 + 8x + 16 + y 2 .

Now proceed as in the solution to part (a), with −8x replaced by 8x, concluding
that the distance from (x, y) to (−4, 0) is 5 + 45 x.
 section 2.3 Quadratic Expressions and Conic Sections 83

(c) As we know from the previous two parts of this example, if (x, y) is a point on
x2 y2
the ellipse 25
+ 9
= 1, then

distance from (x, y) to (4, 0) is 5 − 45 x

and
distance from (x, y) to (−4, 0) is 5 + 45 x.
Adding these distances, we see that the sum equals 10, which is a constant
independent of the point (x, y) on the ellipse. Thus (4, 0) and (−4, 0) are foci
of this ellipse.
y
3 Hx ,y L No pair of points
other than (4, 0) and
For every point (x, y) on the (−4, 0) has the prop-
2 y2
ellipse x25 + 9 = 1, the sum of erty that the sum of
x the lengths of the two red line the distances to points
4 5
segments equals 10.
-5 -4
on this ellipse is con-
stant.

-3

The next result generalizes the example above. The verification of this
result is outlined in Problems 72–77. To do this verification, simply use the
ideas from the example above.

Formula for the foci of an ellipse

x2 y2
• If a > b > 0, then the foci of the ellipse a2 + b2 = 1 are the points
This result does not
deal with the easy
p p
a2 b2 , 0 and a2 b2 , 0 .



− − −
case a = b, when the
ellipse is a circle cen-
x2 y2
• If b > a > 0, then the foci of the ellipse a2 + b2 = 1 are the points tered at the origin. In
p p this case, the foci can
0, b2 − a2 and 0, − b2 − a2 .



be thought of as two
copies of the origin.

Parabolas
A kicked or thrown football follows a path shaped like the curve in the margin.
You may be tempted to think that this curve is half of an ellipse. However,
the equations of gravity show that objects thrown into the air follow a path
that is part of a parabola, not part of an ellipse. Thus we now turn our The path of a football.
attention to parabolas and the equations that define them.
Parabolas can be defined geometrically, but for our purposes it is simpler
to look at a class of parabolas that are easy to define algebraically. For now,
we will restrict our attention to parabolas in the xy-plane that have a vertical
line of symmetry:
 84 chapter 2 Combining Algebra and Geometry

Parabolas
The graph of an equation of the form

y = ax 2 + bx + c,

where a 6= 0, is called a parabola.

y

1
For example, the graph of the equation y = x 2 is the familiar parabola
shown in the margin. This parabola is symmetric about the y-axis, meaning
that the parabola is unchanged if it is flipped across the y-axis. Note that this
x line of symmetry intersects this parabola at the origin, which is the lowest
1
point on this parabola.
-1

The graph of y = x 2
So that you can become familiar with the shape of parabolas, the figure
for −1 ≤ x ≤ 1.
below shows two more typical parabolas.

y y
37
6
12
x
7 5 17
-
6 6 6
2

107
x -
-5 -3 -1 12

y = x 2 + 6x + 11 y = −3x 2 + 5x + 1
7 17
for −5 ≤ x ≤ −1 for − 6 ≤ x ≤ 6

The parabola on the left is symmetric about the line x = −3 (shown in

red), which intersects the parabola at its lowest point. The parabola on the
right is symmetric about the line x = 65 (shown in red), which intersects the
parabola at its highest point.
Every parabola is symmetric about some line. The point where this line of
symmetry intersects the parabola is sufficiently important to deserve its own
name:

Vertex
The vertex of a parabola is the point where the line of symmetry of the
parabola intersects the parabola.

For example, the figure above shows that the vertex of the parabola y =
x 2 + 6x + 11 on the left is (−3, 2), which is the lowest point on the graph. The
figure above also shows that the vertex of the parabola y = −3x 2 + 5x + 1 is
( 56 , 37
12 ), which is the highest point on the graph.
The parabolas above exhibit the typical behavior described by the following
result:
 section 2.3 Quadratic Expressions and Conic Sections 85

Parabola direction
Consider the parabola given by the equation

y = ax 2 + bx + c,

where a 6= 0.

• If a > 0, then the parabola opens upward and the vertex of the
parabola is the lowest point on the graph.

• If a < 0, then the parabola opens downward and the vertex of the
parabola is the highest point on the graph.

When we deal with function transformations in Section 3.2, we will see why The ancient Greeks
discovered that the
the result above holds and we will learn how to use function transformations
intersection of a cone and
to obtain the graph of a parabola by appropriate transformations of the
an appropriately
graph of y = x 2 . Thus for now we give only one example showing how to positioned plane is a
find the vertex of a parabola. parabola.

(a) For what value of x does x 2 + 6x + 11 attain its minimum value? example 10
2
(b) Find the vertex of the graph of y = x + 6x + 11.

solution
(a) First complete the square to rewrite x 2 + 6x + 11, as follows:

x 2 + 6x + 11 = (x + 3)2 − 9 + 11

= (x + 3)2 + 2

The last expression shows that x 2 + 6x + 11 takes on its minimum value when
x = −3, because (x + 3)2 is positive for all values of x except x = −3.
(b) The last expression above shows that x 2 + 6x + 11 equals 2 when x = −3. Thus
the vertex of the graph of y = x 2 + 6x + 11 is the point (−3, 2), as shown in the
graph of this parabola above.

Hyperbolas
Some comets and all planets travel in orbits that are ellipses. However, many
comets have orbits that are not ellipses but instead lie on hyperbolas, which
A comet whose orbit lies
is another category of curves. Thus we now turn our attention to hyperbolas on a hyperbola will come
and the equations that define them. near earth at most once.
Hyperbolas can be defined geometrically, but we will restrict attention A comet whose orbit is an
to hyperbolas in the xy-plane that can be defined in the following simple ellipse will return
fashion: periodically.
 86 chapter 2 Combining Algebra and Geometry

Hyperbolas
The graph of an equation of the form

y2 x2
− 2 = c,
b 2 a

where a, b, and c are nonzero numbers, is called a hyperbola.

y2 2
The figure below shows the graph of the hyperbola 16 − x9 = 1 in blue for
−6 ≤ x ≤ 6. Note that this hyperbola consists of two branches rather than
the single curve we get for ellipses and parabolas. Some key properties of this
graph, which are typical of hyperbolas, are discussed in the next example.

example 11 Consider the hyperbola

y2 x2
y
− = 1.
16 9
(a) Explain why this hyperbola intersects the y-axis at (0, 4) and (0, −4).
(b) Explain why the hyperbola contains no points (x, y) with |y| < 4.
(c) Explain why points (x, y) on the hyperbola for large values of x are near the
4 line y = 43 x or the line y = − 34 x.

solution
x
y2
-6 6 (a) If x = 0, then the equation defining the hyperbola shows that 16 = 1. Thus
y = ±4. Hence the hyperbola intersects the y-axis, which is defined by x = 0, at
-4
(0, 4) and (0, −4).
(b) If (x, y) is a point on the hyperbola, then

x2

y 2 = 16 1 + ≥ 16,
9
The hyperbola
which implies that |y| ≥ 4. Thus the hyperbola contains no points (x, y) with
y2 x2 |y| < 4.
− =1
16 9
(c) The equation defining this parabola can be rewritten in the form
in blue for −6 ≤ x ≤ 6,
y2 16 16
along with the lines = + 2
x2 9 x
y = 43 x and y = − 43 x in
red. if x 6= 0. If x is large, then the equation above implies that

y2 16
≈ .
x2 9
Taking square roots then shows that y ≈ ± 43 x.

Each branch of a hyperbola may appear to be shaped like a parabola, but

these curves are not parabolas. As one notable difference, a parabola cannot
have the behavior described in part (c) of the example above.
Compare the following definition of the foci of a hyperbola with the
definition earlier in this section of the foci of an ellipse.
 section 2.3 Quadratic Expressions and Conic Sections 87

Foci of a hyperbola
The foci of a hyperbola are two points with the property that the dif-
ference of the distances from the foci to a point on the hyperbola is a
constant independent of the point on the hyperbola.

x y2 2
As we will see in the next example, the foci for the hyperbola 16 − 9 = 1 Problems 81–84 show
are the points (0, −5) and (0, 5). This example shows how to verify that a why the graph of
pair of points are foci for a hyperbola. y = x1 is also called
a hyperbola.

(a) Find a formula in terms of y for the distance from a typical point (x, y) with example 12
y2 x2
y > 0 on the hyperbola 16
− 9
= 1 to the point (0, −5).
(b) Find a formula in terms of y for the distance from a typical point (x, y) with
y2 x2
y > 0 on the hyperbola 16
− 9
= 1 to the point (0, 5).
y2 x2
(c) Show that (0, −5) and (0, 5) are foci of the hyperbola 16
− 9
= 1.

solution y
q
(a) The distance from (x, y) to the point (0, −5) is x 2 + (y + 5)2 , which equals
Hx ,y L
q
x 2 + y 2 + 10y + 25.
5
We want an answer solely in terms of y, assuming that (x, y) lies on the 4
y2 x2
hyperbola 16
− 9
= 1 and y > 0. Solving the hyperbola equation for x 2 , we
have
9 x
x2 = 16
y2 − 9. -6 6
Substituting this expression for x 2 into the expression above shows that the
distance from (x, y) to (0, −5) equals -4
q -5
25 2
16
y + 10y + 16,
r
2
which equals ( 54 y + 4) , which equals + 4. 5
4
y
q For every point (x, y) on
(b) The distance from (x, y) to the point (0, 5) is x 2 + (y − 5)2 , which equals y2
the hyperbola 16 − x9 = 1,
2

the difference of the

q
x 2 + y 2 − 10y + 25.
lengths of the two red line
Now proceed as in the solution to part (a), with 10y replaced by −10y, conclud- segments equals 8.
ing that the distance from (x, y) to (0, 5) is 45 y − 4.
(c) As we know from the previous two parts of this example, if (x, y) is a point on
y2 x2
the hyperbola 16
− 9
= 1 and y > 0, then No pair of points
5 other than (0, −5) and
distance from (x, y) to (0, −5) is 4
y +4
(0, 5) has the property
and that the difference of
5
distance from (x, y) to (0, 5) is 4
y − 4. the distances to points
Subtracting these distances, we see that the difference equals 8, which is a on this hyperbola is
constant independent of the point (x, y) on the hyperbola. Thus (0, −5) and constant.
(0, 5) are foci of this hyperbola.
88 chapter 2 Combining Algebra and Geometry

Isaac Newton showed The next result generalizes the example above. The verification of this
that a comet’s orbit result is outlined in Problems 78–80. To do this verification, simply use the
around a star lies ideas from the example above.
either on an ellipse or
on a parabola (rare)
or on a hyperbola Formula for the foci of a hyperbola
with the star at one y2 2
If a and b are nonzero numbers, then the foci of the hyperbola b2 −x
a2 = 1
of the foci. For ex-
are the points
ample, if units are
chosen so that the or- p p
0, − a2 + b2 and 0, a2 + b2 .



bit of a comet is the
upper branch of the
y2 2
hyperbola 16 − x9 = 1, Sometimes when a new comet is discovered, there are not enough observa-
then the star must tions to determine whether the comet is in an elliptical orbit or in a hyperbolic
be located at (0, 5). orbit. The distinction is important, because a comet in a hyperbolic orbit will
disappear and never again be visible from earth.

exercises
For Exercises 1–12, use the following information: 4. Suppose the motion detection/protection mech-
If an object is thrown straight up into the air from anism of a notebook computer takes 0.4 sec-
height H feet at time 0 with initial velocity V feet onds to work after the computer starts to fall.
per second, then at time t seconds the height of What is the minimum height from which the
the object is notebook computer can fall and have the pro-
−16.1t 2 + V t + H tection mechanism work?
feet. This formula uses only gravitational force, 5. Suppose a ball is tossed straight up into the
ignoring air friction. It is valid only until the ob- air from height 5 feet with initial velocity 20
ject hits the ground or some other object. feet per second.
Some notebook computers have a sensor that (a) How long before the ball hits the ground?
detects sudden changes in motion and stops the
notebook’s hard drive, protecting it from damage. (b) How long before the ball reaches its maxi-
mum height?
1. Suppose a notebook computer is acciden-
tally knocked off a shelf that is six feet high. (c) What is the ball’s maximum height?
How long before the computer hits the ground? 6. Suppose a ball is tossed straight up into the
2. Suppose a notebook computer is acciden- air from height 4 feet with initial velocity 40
tally knocked off a desk that is three feet high. feet per second.
How long before the computer hits the ground?
(a) How long before the ball hits the ground?
3. Suppose the motion detection/protection mech-
(b) How long before the ball reaches its maxi-
anism of a notebook computer takes 0.3 sec-
mum height?
onds to work after the computer starts to fall.
What is the minimum height from which the (c) What is the ball’s maximum height?
notebook computer can fall and have the pro-
7. Suppose a ball is tossed straight up into the
tection mechanism work?
air from height 5 feet. What should be the ini-
tial velocity to have the ball stay in the air for 4
seconds?
 section 2.3 Quadratic Expressions and Conic Sections 89

8. Suppose a ball is tossed straight up into the 22. The graph of the equation
air from height 4 feet. What should be the ini-
x 2 + 5x + y 2 − 3y = − 17
tial velocity to have the ball stay in the air for 3 2

seconds? contains exactly one point. Find the coordi-

9. Suppose a ball is tossed straight up into the nates of that point.
air from height 5 feet. What should be the ini- 23. Find the point on the line y = 3x + 1 in the
tial velocity to have the ball reach its maximum xy-plane that is closest to the point (2, 4).
height after 1 second?
24. Find the point on the line y = 2x − 3 in the
10. Suppose a ball is tossed straight up into the xy-plane that is closest to the point (5, 1).
air from height 4 feet. What should be the ini-
25. Find a number t such that the distance between
tial velocity to have the ball reach its maximum
(2, 3) and (t, 2t) is as small as possible.
height after 2 seconds?
26. Find a number t such that the distance between
11. Suppose a ball is tossed straight up into the
(−2, 1) and (3t, 2t) is as small as possible.
air from height 5 feet. What should be the ini-
tial velocity to have the ball reach a height of 27. Find the length of the graph of the curve de-
50 feet? fined by p
y = 9 − x2
12. Suppose a ball is tossed straight up into the
air from height 4 feet. What should be the ini- with −3 ≤ x ≤ 3.
tial velocity to have the ball reach a height of 28. Find the length of the graph of the curve de-
70 feet? fined by p
13. Find the equation of the circle in the xy-plane y = 25 − x 2
centered at (3, −2) with radius 7. with 0 ≤ x ≤ 5.
14. Find the equation of the circle in the xy-plane 29. Find the two points where the circle of radius
centered at (−4, 5) with radius 6. 2 centered at the origin intersects the circle of
radius 3 centered at (3, 0).
15. Find two choices for b such that (5, b) is on the
circle with radius 4 centered at (3, 6). 30. Find the two points where the circle of radius
3 centered at the origin intersects the circle of
16. Find two choices for b such that (b, 4) is on the
radius 4 centered at (5, 0).
circle with radius 3 centered at (−1, 6).
31. Find the equation of the circle in the xy-plane
17. Find all numbers x such that
centered at the origin with circumference 9.
x−1 2x − 1
= . 32. Find the equation of the circle in the xy-plane
x+3 x+2
centered at (3, 7) with circumference 5.
18. Find all numbers x such that 33. Find the equation of the circle centered at the
3x + 2 2x − 1 origin in the uv-plane that has twice the cir-
= .
x−2 x−1 cumference of the circle whose equation equals

19. Find two numbers w such that the points (3, 1), u2 + v2 = 10.
(w, 4), and (5, w) all lie on a straight line.
34. Find the equation of the circle centered at the
20. Find two numbers r such that the points
origin in the tw-plane that has three times the
(−1, 4), (r , 2r ), and (1, r ) all lie on a straight
circumference of the circle whose equation
line.
equals
21. The graph of the equation t 2 + w2 = 5.

x 2 − 6x + y 2 + 8y = −25
For Exercises 35 and 36, find the following
contains exactly one point. Find the coordi- information about the circles in the xy-plane
nates of that point. described by the given equation:
90 chapter 2 Combining Algebra and Geometry

(a) center (c) diameter 45. y = x 2 + 7x + 12

(b) radius (d) circumference 46. y = 5x 2 + 2x + 1
35. x 2 − 8x + y 2 + 2y = −14 47. y = −2x 2 + 5x − 2
36. x 2 + 5x + y 2 − 6y = 3 48. y = −3x 2 + 5x − 1
37. Find the intersection of the line containing the
49. Find a constant c such that the graph of
points (2, 3) and (4, 7) and the circle with ra-
√ y = x 2 + 6x + c has its vertex on the x-axis.
dius 15 centered at (3, −3).
50. Find a constant c such that the graph of
38. Find the intersection of the line containing the
y = x 2 + 5x + c in the xy-plane has its vertex
points (3, 4) and (1, 8) and the circle with ra-
√ on the line y = x.
dius 3 centered at (2, 9).
51. Find two numbers whose sum equals 10 and
For Exercises 39–44, find the vertex of the graph whose product equals 7.
of the given equation.
52. Find two numbers whose sum equals 6 and
39. y = 7x 2 − 12 42. y = (x + 3)2 + 4 whose product equals 4.
40. y = −9x 2 − 5 43. y = (2x − 5)2 + 6 53. Find two positive numbers whose difference
2
41. y = (x − 2) − 3 2
44. y = (7x + 3) + 5 equals 3 and whose product equals 20.
54. Find two positive numbers whose difference
In Exercises 45–48, for the given equation: equals 4 and whose product equals 15.
(a) Write the right side of the equation in the 55. Find the minimum value of x 2 − 6x + 2.
form k(x + t)2 + r .
56. Find the minimum value of 3x 2 + 5x + 1.
(b) Find the value of x where the right side
of the equation attains its minimum 57. Find the maximum value of 7 − 2x − x 2 .
value or its maximum value. 58. Find the maximum value of 9 + 5x − 4x 2 .
(c) Find the minimum or maximum value of
the right side of the equation.
(d) Find the vertex of the graph of the
equation.

problems
59. Show that 63. Suppose
(a + b)2 = a2 + b2 at 2 + 5t + 4 > 0
25
if and only if a = 0 or b = 0. for every real number t. Show that a > 16
.
60. Explain why the graph of the equation 64. Suppose a 6= 0 and b2 ≥ 4ac. Verify by direct
substitution that if
x 2 + 4x + y 2 − 10y = −30 √
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x= ,
contains no points. 2a
61. Suppose then ax 2 + bx + c = 0.
2x 2 + 3x + c > 0
65. Suppose a 6= 0 and b2 ≥ 4ac. Verify by direct
for every real number x. Show that c > 98 . calculation that
62. Suppose
ax 2 + bx + c =
3x 2 + bx + 7 > 0
√ √ √
for every real number x. Show that |b| < 2 21.
 −b + b2 − 4ac  −b − b2 − 4ac 
a x− x− .
2a 2a
 section 2.3 Quadratic Expressions and Conic Sections 91

66. Find a number ϕ such that in the figure below, 71. Show that there do not exist two real numbers
the yellow rectangle is similar to the large rect- whose sum is 7 and whose product is 13.
angle formed by the union of the blue square 72. Suppose a > b > 0. Find a formula in terms
and the yellow rectangle. of x for the distance from a typical point
x2 y2
1 j-1 (x, y) on the ellipse a2
+ b2
= 1 to the point
√
a2 − b2 , 0 .

73. Suppose a > b > 0. Find a formula in terms

1 1 of x for the distance from a typical point
x2 y2
(x, y) on the ellipse a2
+ b2
= 1 to the point
√
− a2 − b2 , 0 .

1 j-1 74. Suppose a > b > 0. Use the results of the two
√
previous problems to show that a2 − b 2 , 0


√
The number ϕ that solves this problem is and − a2 − b2 , 0 are foci of the ellipse

called the golden ratio (the symbol ϕ is the

x2 y2
Greek letter phi). Rectangles whose ratio be- + 2 = 1.
a2 b
tween the length of the long side and the length
of the short side equals ϕ are supposedly the 75. Suppose b > a > 0. Find a formula in terms
most aesthetically pleasing rectangles. The of y for the distance from a typical point
x2 y2
large rectangle formed by the union of the blue (x, y) on the ellipse a2
+ b2
= 1 to the point
√
0, b2 − a2 .


square and the yellow rectangle has the golden
ratio, as does the yellow rectangle. Many works 76. Suppose b > a > 0. Find a formula in terms
of art feature rectangles with the golden ratio. of y for the distance from a typical point
x2 y2
67. Suppose a, b, and c are numbers with a 6= 0. (x, y) on the ellipse a2
+ b2
= 1 to the point
√
0, − b2 − a2 .


Show that the vertex of the graph of
77. Suppose b > a > 0. Use the results of the two
√
y = ax 2 + bx + c previous problems to show that 0, b2 − a2


√
and 0, − b2 − a2 are foci of the ellipse


b 4ac−b2

is the point − 2a , 4a
.
x2 y2
68. Suppose a, b, and c are numbers with a 6= 0 + 2 = 1.
a2 b
and that only one number t satisfies the equa-
tion 78. Suppose a and b are nonzero numbers. Find
at 2 + bt + c = 0. a formula in terms of y for the distance from
a typical point (x, y) with y > 0 on the hyper-
Show that t is the first coordinate of the vertex y2 2 √
bola b2 − xa2 = 1 to the point 0, − a2 + b2 .


of the graph of y = ax 2 + bx + c and that the
second coordinate of the vertex equals 0. 79. Suppose a and b are nonzero numbers. Find
a formula in terms of y for the distance from
69. Suppose a, b, and c are numbers such that ex-
a typical point (x, y) with y > 0 on the hyper-
actly two real numbers t satisfy the equation y2 2 √
bola b2 − xa2 = 1 to the point 0, a2 + b2 .


at 2 + bt + c = 0. Show that the average of these
two real numbers is the first coordinate of the 80. Suppose a and b are nonzero numbers. Use the
vertex of the graph of y = ax 2 + bx + c. results of the two previous problems to show
√ √
that 0, − a2 + b2 and 0, a2 + b2 are foci



70. Suppose b and c are numbers such that the of the hyperbola
equation
y2 x2
x 2 + bx + c = 0 − = 1.
b2 a2
has no real solutions. Explain why the equation
81. Suppose x > 0. Show that the distance from
√ √ √
x 2 + bx − c = 0 (x, x1 ) to the point (− 2, − 2) is x + x1 + 2.
[See Example 7 in Section 4.1 for a graph of
has two real solutions. y = x1 .]
92 chapter 2 Combining Algebra and Geometry

82. Suppose x > 0. Show that the distance from 85. Explain why graph x^2/25 + y^2/9 = 1 in
√ √ √
(x, x1 ) to the point ( 2, 2) is x + x1 − 2. Wolfram|Alpha produces what appears to be
83. Suppose x > 0. Show that the distance from a circle rather than a typical ellipse-shape as
√ √
(x, x1 ) to (− 2, − 2) minus the distance from shown in Examples 8 and 9.
√ √ √
(x, x1 ) to ( 2, 2) equals 2 2. [Hint: Notice the scales on the two axes.]
84. Explain why the result of the previous problem
justifies calling the curve y = x1 a hyperbola
√ √ √ √
with foci at (− 2, − 2) and ( 2, 2).

worked-out solutions to Odd-numbered Exercises

For Exercises 1–12, use the following information: Thus H = 16.1 × 0.32 = 1.449 feet.
If an object is thrown straight up into the air from
height H feet at time 0 with initial velocity V feet 5. Suppose a ball is tossed straight up into the
per second, then at time t seconds the height of air from height 5 feet with initial velocity 20
the object is feet per second.
−16.1t 2 + V t + H (a) How long before the ball hits the ground?
feet. This formula uses only gravitational force,
(b) How long before the ball reaches its maxi-
ignoring air friction. It is valid only until the ob-
mum height?
ject hits the ground or some other object.
(c) What is the ball’s maximum height?
Some notebook computers have a sensor that
detects sudden changes in motion and stops the solution
notebook’s hard drive, protecting it from damage.
(a) The ball hits the ground when
1. Suppose a notebook computer is acciden-
tally knocked off a shelf that is six feet high. −16.1t 2 + 20t + 5 = 0.
How long before the computer hits the ground?
The quadratic formula shows that t ≈ 1.46
solution In this case, we have V = 0 and seconds (the other solution produced by the
H = 6 in the formula above. We want to know quadratic formula has been discarded because
the time t at which the height equals 0. In other it is negative).
words, we need to solve the equation (b) Completing the square, we have
−16.1t 2 + 6 = 0.
q −16.1t 2 + 20t + 5
6
The solutions to the equation are t = ± 16.1 . h 20 i
The negative value makes no sense here, and = −16.1 t 2 − t +5
q
6
16.1
thus t = 16.1
≈ 0.61 seconds.
 10 2  10 2 i
= −16.1 t − − +5
3. Suppose the motion detection/protection mech- 16.1 16.1
anism of a notebook computer takes 0.3 sec-  10 2 100
= −16.1 t − + + 5.
onds to work after the computer starts to fall. 16.1 16.1
What is the minimum height from which the
The expression above gives the height of the
notebook computer can fall and have the pro-
ball at time t. Thus the ball reaches its maxi-
tection mechanism work? 10
mum height when t = ≈ 0.62 seconds.
16.1
solution We want to find the initial height
(c) The solution to part (b) shows that the maxi-
H such that the notebook computer will hit 100
the ground (meaning have height 0) after 0.3 mum height of the ball is + 5 ≈ 11.2 feet.
16.1
seconds. In other words, we want

−16.1 × 0.32 + H = 0.
 section 2.3 Quadratic Expressions and Conic Sections 93

7. Suppose a ball is tossed straight up into the 13. Find the equation of the circle in the xy-plane
air from height 5 feet. What should be the ini- centered at (3, −2) with radius 7.
tial velocity to have the ball stay in the air for 4
seconds? solution The equation of this circle is

(x − 3)2 + (y + 2)2 = 49.

solution Suppose the initial velocity of the
ball is V . Then the height of the ball at time t is
15. Find two choices for b such that (5, b) is on the
−16.1t 2 + V t + 5. circle with radius 4 centered at (3, 6).

We want t = 4 when the ball hits the ground, solution The equation of the circle with ra-
meaning its height is 0. In other words, we dius 4 centered at (3, 6) is
want
−16.1 × 42 + 4V + 5 = 0. (x − 3)2 + (y − 6)2 = 16.

Solving this equation for V gives V = 63.15 feet The point (5, b) is on this circle if and only if
per second.
(5 − 3)2 + (b − 6)2 = 16,
9. Suppose a ball is tossed straight up into the which is equivalent to the equation (b − 6)2 = 12.
air from height 5 feet. What should be the ini- Thus
tial velocity to have the ball reach its maximum √ √ p
b − 6 = ± 12 = ± 4 · 3 = ± 4 3 = ±2 3.
p p
height after 1 second?
√ √
Thus b = 6 + 2 3 or b = 6 − 2 3.
solution Suppose the initial velocity of the
ball is V . Then the height of the ball at time t is 17. Find all numbers x such that
2
−16.1t + V t + 5 x−1 2x − 1
= .
x+3 x+2
h Vt i
= −16.1 t 2 − +5 solution The equation above is equivalent to
16.1
the equation
h V 2  V 2 i
= −16.1 t − − +5
32.2 32.2 (x − 1)(x + 2) = (2x − 1)(x + 3).
 V 2 V2 Expanding and then collecting all terms on one
= −16.1 t − + + 5.
32.2 64.4 side leads to the equation
The ball reaches its maximum height when
V x 2 + 4x − 1 = 0.
t− = 0. We want this to happen when
32.2 The quadratic formula now shows that x =
V √
t = 1. In other words, we want 1 − = 0, −2 ± 5.
32.2
which implies that V = 32.2 feet per second.
19. Find two numbers w such that the points (3, 1),
11. Suppose a ball is tossed straight up into the (w, 4), and (5, w) all lie on a straight line.
air from height 5 feet. What should be the ini-
tial velocity to have the ball reach a height of solution The slope of the line containing
3
50 feet? (3, 1) and (w, 4) is w−3 . The slope of the line
containing (3, 1) and (5, w) is w−1
2
. We need
solution Suppose the initial velocity of the these two slopes to be equal, which means that
ball is V . As can be seen from the solution to 3 w−1
Exercise 9, the maximum height of the ball is = .
w−3 2
V2
+ 5, which we want to equal 50. Solving the Thus 2 · 3 = (w − 1)(w − 3), which means that
64.4
equation
w2 − 4w − 3 = 0.
V2
+ 5 = 50
64.4 The quadratic formula now shows that w =
√
for V gives V ≈ 53.83 feet per second. 2 ± 7.
94 chapter 2 Combining Algebra and Geometry

q
21. The graph of the equation (t − 2)2 + (2t − 3)2 .

x 2 − 6x + y 2 + 8y = −25 We want to make this as small as possible,

which happens when
contains exactly one point. Find the coordi-
nates of that point. (t − 2)2 + (2t − 3)2

is as small as possible. Note that

solution We complete the square to rewrite
the equation above: (t − 2)2 + (2t − 3)2 = 5t 2 − 16t + 13.

−25 = x 2 − 6x + y 2 + 8y This will be as small as possible when 5t 2 − 16t

is as small as possible. To find when that hap-
= (x − 3)2 − 9 + (y + 4)2 − 16 pens, we complete the square:

5t 2 − 16t = 5 t 2 − 16
h i
= (x − 3)2 + (y + 4)2 − 25. 5
t
2
Thus the original equation can be rewritten as
t − 58 − 64
h i
=5 25
.
(x − 3)2 + (y + 4)2 = 0. The only solution to this
equation is x = 3 and y = −4. Thus (3, −4) is This quantity is made smallest when t = 85 .
the only point on the graph of this equation.
27. Find the length of the graph of the curve de-
23. Find the point on the line y = 3x + 1 in the fined by
xy-plane that is closest to the point (2, 4).
p
y = 9 − x2
with −3 ≤ x ≤ 3.
solution A typical point on the line y =
3x + 1 in the xy-plane has coordinates solution Squaring both sides of the equation
√
(x, 3x + 1). The distance between this point y = 9 − x 2 and then adding x 2 to both sides
and (2, 4) equals gives the equation x 2 + y 2 = 9, which is the
q equation of the circle of radius 3 centered at
(x − 2)2 + (3x + 1 − 4)2 , √
the origin. However, the equation y = 9 − x 2
which with a bit of algebra can be rewritten as implies that y ≥ 0, and thus we have only the
p top half of the circle.
10x 2 − 22x + 13.
The entire circle of radius 3 has circumference
√
We want to make the quantity above as small 6π . Thus the graph of y = 9 − x 2 , which is
as possible, which means that we need to make half of the circle, has length 3π .
10x 2 − 22x as small as possible. This can be
29. Find the two points where the circle of radius
done by completing the square:
2 centered at the origin intersects the circle of
h 11 i radius 3 centered at (3, 0).
10x 2 − 22x = 10 x 2 − x
5
solution The equations of these two circles
h 11 2 121 i
= 10 x − − . are
10 100
The last quantity will be as small as possible x2 + y 2 = 4 and (x − 3)2 + y 2 = 9.
11
when x = 10 . Plugging x = 11
10
into the equation Subtracting the first equation from the second
43 11 43

y = 3x + 1 gives y = 10 . Thus 10 , 10 is the equation, we get
point on the line y = 3x + 1 that is closest to
(x − 3)2 − x 2 = 5,
the point (2, 4).
which simplifies to the equation −6x + 9 = 5,
25. Find a number t such that the distance between 2
whose solution is x = 3 . Plugging this value of
(2, 3) and (t, 2t) is as small as possible.
x into either of the equations
√ above and solv-
solution The distance between (2, 3) and ing for y gives y = ± 4 3 2 . Thus the two circles
√
√

(t, 2t) equals intersect at the points 32 , 4 3 2 and 23 , − 4 3 2 .
 section 2.3 Quadratic Expressions and Conic Sections 95

31. Find the equation of the circle in the xy-plane (c) Because the diameter is twice the radius, this
√
centered at the origin with circumference 9. circle has diameter 2 3.

solution Let r denote the radius of this cir- (d) Because the circumference is 2π times the ra-
√
9
cle. Then 2π r = 9, which implies that r = 2π . dius, this circle has circumference 2π 3.
Thus the equation of the circle is
37. Find the intersection of the line containing the
2 81
2 points (2, 3) and (4, 7) and the circle with ra-
x +y = . √
4π 2 dius 15 centered at (3, −3).

33. Find the equation of the circle centered at the solution First we find the equation of the
origin in the uv-plane that has twice the cir- line containing the points (2, 3) and (4, 7). This
cumference of the circle whose equation equals line will have slope 7−3
4−2
, which equals 2. Thus
the equation of this line will have the form
u2 + v2 = 10.
y = 2x + b. Because (2, 3) is on this line, we can
substitute x = 2 and y = 3 into the last equa-
solution The equation given above describes
tion and then solve for b, getting b = −1. Thus
a circle centered at the origin whose radius
√ the equation of the line containing the points
equals 10. Because the circumference is pro-
(2, 3) and (4, 7) is
portional to the radius, if we want a circle with
twice the circumference then we need to double y = 2x − 1.
the radius. Thus the circle we seek has radius
√ √ √ 2 √
2 10. Because (2 10)2 = 22 · 10 = 40, the The equation of the circle with radius 15 cen-
equation we seek is tered at (3, −3) is
u2 + v2 = 40.
(x − 3)2 + (y + 3)2 = 15.

To find the intersection of the circle and the

For Exercises 35 and 36, find the following
line, we replace y by 2x − 1 in the equation
information about the circles in the xy-plane
above, getting
described by the given equation:
(a) center (c) diameter (x − 3)2 + (2x + 2)2 = 15.
(b) radius (d) circumference
Expanding the terms in the equation above and
then collecting terms gives the equation
35. x 2 − 8x + y 2 + 2y = −14
5x 2 + 2x − 2 = 0.
solution Completing the square, we can
rewrite the left side of this equation as follows: Using the quadratic formula, we then find that
x 2 − 8x + y 2 + 2y = (x − 4)2 − 16 + (y + 1)2 − 1 √ √
−1 + 11 −1 − 11
x= or x = .
= (x − 4)2 + (y + 1)2 − 17. 5 5
Substituting these values of x into the equation
Substituting this expression into the left side
y = 2x − 1 shows that the line intersects the
of the original equation and then adding 17 to
circle in the points
both sides shows that the original equation is
equivalent to the equation  −1 + √11 −7 + 2√11 
,
5 5
(x − 4)2 + (y + 1)2 = 3.
and
(a) The equation above shows that this circle has  −1 − √11 −7 − 2√11 
, .
center (4, −1). 5 5
(b) The equation above shows that this circle has
√
radius 3.
96 chapter 2 Combining Algebra and Geometry

For Exercises 39–44, find the vertex of the graph y

of the given equation. 0.75

39. y = 7x 2 − 12
x
9 7 5
solution The value of 7x 2 − 12 is minimized - - - -0.25
2 2 2
when x = 0. When x = 0, the value of 7x 2 − 12
equals −12. Thus the vertex of the graph of (d) The figure above shows that the vertex of the
y = 7x 2 − 12 is (0, −12). graph of y = x 2 + 7x + 12 is the point (− 72 , − 41 ),
as follows from the solutions to parts (b) and
41. y = (x − 2)2 − 3 (c) and as is shown in the graph above.
solution The value of (x − 2)2 − 3 is mini-
mized when x − 2 = 0. When x = 2, the value of 47. y = −2x 2 + 5x − 2
(x − 2)2 − 3 equals −3. Thus the vertex of the solution
graph of y = (x − 2)2 − 3 is (2, −3).
(a) By completing the square, we can write
43. y = (2x − 5)2 + 6
−2x 2 + 5x − 2 = −2 x 2 − 25 x − 2
 
solution The value of (2x − 5)2 + 6 is min-

2
= −2 x − 54 −
25 
imized when 2x − 5 = 0. This happens when −2

16
x = 52 , which makes the value of (2x − 5)2 + 6
5
2 25
equal to 6. Thus the vertex of the graph of = −2 x − 4
+ 8
−2
y = (2x − 5)2 + 6 is 25 , 6 .


5
2
= −2 x − 4
+ 98 .
In Exercises 45–48, for the given equation: (b) The expression above shows that the value of
(a) Write the right side of the equation in the −2x 2 + 5x − 2 is maximized when x = 45 .
form k(x + t)2 + r . (c) The solution to part (a) shows that the maxi-
mum value of this expression is 98 , which oc-
(b) Find the value of x where the right side
curs when x = 54 .
of the equation attains its minimum
value or its maximum value. y
9

(c) Find the minimum or maximum value of 8

the right side of the equation.

x
1 5 9
(d) Find the vertex of the graph of the 7
4 4 4
-
equation. 8

(d) The figure above shows that the vertex of the

45. y = x 2 + 7x + 12
graph of y = −2x 2 + 5x − 2 is the point ( 54 , 98 ),
solution as follows from the solutions to parts (b) and
(c) and as is shown in the graph above.
(a) By completing the square, we can write
7
2 49
49. Find a constant c such that the graph of
x 2 + 7x + 12 = x + − + 12
2 4 y = x 2 + 6x + c has its vertex on the x-axis.
7
2
= x+ 2
− 14 . solution First we find the vertex of the graph
of y = x 2 + 6x + c. To do this, complete the
(b) The expression above shows that the value of
square:
the right side is minimized when x = − 72 .
(c) The solution to part (a) shows that the min- x 2 + 6x + c = (x + 3)2 − 9 + c.
imum value of this expression is − 14 , which Thus the value of x 2 + 6x + c is minimized when
occurs when x = − 72 . x = −3. When x = −3, the value of x 2 + 6x + c
 section 2.3 Quadratic Expressions and Conic Sections 97

equals −9+c. Thus the vertex of y = x 2 +6x +c t 2 + 3t − 20 = 0.

is (−3, −9 + c).
Using the quadratic formula to solve this equa-
The x-axis consists of the points whose second tion for t gives
coordinate equals 0. Thus the vertex of the √ √
−3 ± 32 + 4 · 20 −3 ± 89
graph of y = x 2 + 6x + c will be on the x-axis t= = .
2 2
when −9 + c = 0, or equivalently when c = 9.
Choosing the minus sign in the plus-or-minus
51. Find two numbers whose sum equals 10 and expression above would lead to a negative
whose product equals 7. value for t. Because this exercise
√ requires that t
89
be positive, we choose t = −3+2 . Plugging this
solution Let’s call the two numbers s and t.
√ t into the equation s = t + 3 then gives
value of
We want s = 3+2 89 .
s + t = 10 and st = 7. Thus two numbers whose difference√equals 3
Solving the first equation for s, we have and whose product equals 20 are 3+2 89 and
√
−3+ 89
s = 10 − t. Substituting this expression for s 2
.
into the second equation gives (10 − t)t = 7,
check To check that this solution is correct,
which is equivalent to the equation
note that
t 2 − 10t + 7 = 0. √ √
3 + 89 −3 + 89 6
− = =3
Using the quadratic formula to solve this equa- 2 2 2
tion for t gives and
√ √ √ √ √ √
10 ± 102 − 4 · 7 10 ± 72 3 + 89 −3 + 89 89 + 3 89 − 3
t= = · = ·
2 2 2 2 2 2
√ √ 2
10 ± 36 · 2 √ 89 − 3 2
80
= = 5 ± 3 2. = = = 20.
2 4 4
√
Let’s choose the solution t = 5 + 3 2. Plugging
this value of t into the equation s = 10 − t then
√ 55. Find the minimum value of x 2 − 6x + 2.
gives s = 5 − 3 2.
Thus two numbers whose sum equals 10 and solution By completing the square, we can
√ √
whose product equals 7 are 5 − 3 2 and 5 + 3 2. write
x 2 − 6x + 2 = (x − 3)2 − 9 + 2
check To check that this solution is correct,
note that = (x − 3)2 − 7.
√ √
(5 − 3 2) + (5 + 3 2) = 10 The expression above shows that the minimum
and value of x 2 − 6x + 2 is −7 (and that this mini-
√ √ √ 2 mum value occurs when x = 3).
(5 − 3 2)(5 + 3 2) = 52 − 32 2 = 25 − 9 · 2 = 7.
57. Find the maximum value of 7 − 2x − x 2 .

53. Find two positive numbers whose difference solution By completing the square, we can
equals 3 and whose product equals 20. write
7 − 2x − x 2 = −[x 2 + 2x] + 7
solution Let’s call the two numbers s and t.
We want = −[(x + 1)2 − 1] + 7
s−t =3 and st = 20. = −(x + 1)2 + 8.
Solving the first equation for s, we have s = t + 3.
The expression above shows that the maximum
Substituting this expression for s into the sec-
value of 7 − 2x − x 2 is 8 (and that this maximum
ond equation gives (t + 3)t = 20, which is equiv-
value occurs when x = −1).
alent to the equation
98 chapter 2 Combining Algebra and Geometry

2.4 Area
learning objectives
By the end of this section you should be able to
compute the areas of squares, rectangles, parallelograms, triangles, and
trapezoids;
explain how area changes when the coordinate axes are stretched;
compute the area inside a circle;
compute the area inside an ellipse.

You probably already have a good intuitive notion of area. In this section we
will try to strengthen this intuition and build a good understanding of the
formulas for the area of simple regions.

Squares, Rectangles, and Parallelograms

The most primitive notion of area is that a 1-by-1 square has area 1. If we
1
can decompose a region into 1-by-1 squares, then the area of that region is
1 the number of 1-by-1 squares into which it can be decomposed, as shown in
A 1-by-1 square. the figure below:

A 3-by-3 square can be decomposed into nine 1-by-1

squares. Thus a 3-by-3 square has area 9.

The expression m2 is If m is a positive integer, then an m-by-m square can be decomposed into
called “m squared” m2 squares of size 1-by-1. Thus it is no surprise that the area of an m-by-m
because a square square equals m2 .
whose sides have The same formula holds for squares whose side length is not necessarily
length m has area m2 .
an integer, as shown below:

Four 21 -by- 12 squares fill up a 1-by-1 square. Thus each 1 1

2 -by- 2
square has area 14 .

More generally, we have the following formula:

Area of a square
A square whose sides have length ` has area `2 .

Consider a rectangle with base 3 and height 2, as shown here. This 3-by-2
rectangle can be decomposed into six 1-by-1 squares. Thus this rectangle has
area 6.
 section 2.4 Area 99

Similarly, if b and h are positive integers, then a rectangle with base b and Use the same units
height h can be composed into bh squares of size 1-by-1, showing that the for the base and the
rectangle has area bh. More generally, the same formula is valid even if the height. The unit of
measurement for area
base and height are not integers.
is then the square of
the unit used for these
Area of a rectangle lengths. For example,
a rectangle with base 3
A rectangle with base b and height h has area bh.
feet and height 2 feet
has area 6 square feet.
In the special case where the base equals the height, the formula for the
area of a rectangle becomes the formula for the area of a square.
A parallelogram is a quadrilateral (a four-sided polygon) in which both
pairs of opposite sides are parallel, as shown here.
To find the area of a parallelogram, select one of the sides and call its
length the base. The opposite side of the parallelogram will have the same
length. The height of the parallelogram is then defined to be the length of a
line segment that connects these two sides and is perpendicular to both of h

them. Thus in the figure shown here, the parallelogram has base b and both
b
vertical line segments have length equal to the height h.
The yellow region is a
The two small triangles in the figure above have the same size and thus
parallelogram with base b
the same area. The rectangle in the figure above could be obtained from and height h. The area of
the parallelogram by moving the triangle on the right to the position of the the parallelogram is the
triangle on the left. This shows that the parallelogram and the rectangle same as the area of the
above have the same area. Because the area of the rectangle equals bh, we rectangle (outlined in red)
thus have the following formula for the area of a parallelogram: with base b and height h.

Area of a parallelogram
A parallelogram with base b and height h has area bh.

Triangles and Trapezoids

To find the area of a triangle, select one of the sides and call its length
the base. The height of the triangle is then defined to be the length of the h
perpendicular line segment that connects the opposite vertex to the side
determining the base, as shown in the figure in the margin.
b
To derive the formula for the area of a triangle with base b and height h,
A triangle with base b
draw two line segments, each parallel to and the same length as one of the and height h.
sides of the triangle, to form a parallelogram as in the figure below:

The triangle has been extended to a

h parallelogram by adjoining a second
triangle with the same side lengths as the
b original triangle.
 100 chapter 2 Combining Algebra and Geometry

The parallelogram above has base b and height h and hence has area bh. The
original triangle has area equal to half the area of the parallelogram. Thus
we obtain the following formula:

Area of a triangle
1
A triangle with base b and height h has area 2 bh.

Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are (1, 0), (9, 0), and (7, 3).
example 1
solution Choose the side connecting (1, 0) and (9, 0) as the base of this triangle.
3
Thus this triangle has base 9 − 1, which equals 8.
The height of this triangle is the length of the red line shown here; this height
1
equals the second coordinate of the vertex (7, 3). In other words, this triangle has
height 3.
1 3 5 7 9 1
Thus this triangle has area 2 · 8 · 3, which equals 12.

Consider the special case where our triangle happens to be a right triangle,
a with the right angle between sides of length a and b. Choosing b to be the
base of the triangle, we see that the height of this triangle equals a. Thus in
b this case the area of the triangle equals 12 ab.
A right triangle A trapezoid is a quadrilateral that has at least one pair of parallel sides,
with area 12 ab. as for example shown here. The lengths of a pair of opposite parallel sides
are called the bases, which are denoted below by b1 and b2 . The height of
the trapezoid, denoted h below, is then defined to be the length of a line
segment that connects these two sides and that is perpendicular to both of
them.
The diagonal in the figure here divides the trapezoid into two triangles.
b2
The lower triangle has base b1 and height h; thus the lower triangle has area
1
h 2 b1 h. The upper triangle has base b2 and height h; thus the upper triangle
1
has area 2 b2 h. The area of the trapezoid is the sum of the areas of these two
b1
triangles. Thus the area of the trapezoid equals 12 b1 h + 12 b2 h. Factoring out
A trapezoid with bases b1 1
the 2 and the h in this expression gives the following formula:
and b2 and height h.

Area of a trapezoid
1
A trapezoid with bases b1 , b2 and height h has area 2 (b1 + b2 )h.

1
Note that 2 (b1 + b2 ) is just the average of the two bases of the trapezoid.
In the special case where the trapezoid is a parallelogram, the two bases are
equal and we are back to the familiar formula that the area of a parallelogram
equals the base times the height.
 section 2.4 Area 101

Find the area of the region in the xy-plane under the line y = 2x, above the x-axis, example 2
and between the lines x = 2 and x = 5.

solution
10
The line x = 2 intersects the line y = 2x at the point
(2, 4). The line x = 5 intersects the line y = 2x at the 4
point (5, 10).
2 5

Thus the region in question is the trapezoid shown above. The parallel sides of
this trapezoid (the two vertical sides) have lengths 4 and 10, and thus this trapezoid
has bases 4 and 10. As can be seen from the figure above, this trapezoid has height
3 (note that in this trapezoid, the height is the length of the horizontal side). Thus
the area of this trapezoid is 21 · (4 + 10) · 3, which equals 21.

Stretching
Suppose a square whose sides have length 1 has its sides tripled in length, 3

resulting in a square whose sides have length 3, as shown here. You can
think of this transformation as stretching both vertically and horizontally 1
by a factor of 3. This transformation increases the area of the square by a
factor of 9. 1 3
Consider now the transformation that stretches horizontally by a factor
of 3 and stretches vertically by a factor of 2. This transformation changes a 2
square whose sides have length 1 into a rectangle with base 3 and height 2, 1
as shown here. Thus the area has been increased by a factor of 6.
More generally, suppose c, d are positive numbers, and consider the 1 3
transformation that stretches horizontally by a factor of c and stretches d
vertically by a factor of d. This transformation changes a square whose sides 1
have length 1 into a rectangle with base c and height d, as shown here. Thus
the area has been increased by a factor of cd. 1 c
We need not restrict our attention to squares. The transformation that
stretches horizontally by a factor of c and stretches vertically by a factor
of d will change any region into a new region whose area has been changed
by a factor of cd. This result follows from the result for squares, because
any region can be approximated by a union of squares, as shown here for a
triangle. Here is the formal statement of this result:

Area Stretch Theorem

Suppose R is a region in the coordinate plane and c, d are positive
numbers. Let R 0 be the region obtained from R by stretching horizontally
by a factor of c and stretching vertically by a factor of d. Then

the area of R 0 equals cd times the area of R.

102 chapter 2 Combining Algebra and Geometry

Circles and Ellipses

We will now derive Consider the region inside a circle of radius 1 centered at the origin. If we
the formula for the stretch both horizontally and vertically by a factor of r , this region becomes
area inside a circle the region inside the circle of radius r centered at the origin, as shown in the
of radius r . You are figure below for r = 2.
surely already famil-
iar with this formula. y y
The goal here is to 2

explain why it is true. 1

x x
-1 1 -2 2

-1

-2

Stretching both horizontally and vertically by a factor of 2

transforms a circle of radius 1 into a circle of radius 2.

Let p denote the area inside a circle of radius 1. The Area Stretch Theorem
implies that the area inside a circle of radius r equals r 2 p, which we write in
the more familiar form pr 2 . We need to find the value of p.
To find p, consider a circle of radius 1 surrounded by a slightly larger
circle with radius r , as shown in the margin. Cut out the region between the
two circles, then cut a slit in it and unwind it into the shape of a trapezoid
1 r
(this requires a tiny bit of distortion) as shown below.

The upper base of the trapezoid is the circumference of the circle of radius 1;
the bottom base is the circumference of the circle of radius r .

The trapezoid has height r − 1, which is the distance between the two
original circles. The trapezoid has bases 2π r and 2π , corresponding to the
circumferences of the two circles. Thus the trapezoid has area
1
2 (2π r + 2π )(r − 1),

which equals π (r + 1)(r − 1), which equals π (r 2 − 1).

The area inside the larger circle equals the area inside the circle of radius
1 plus the area of the region between the two circles. In other words, the area
Our derivation of inside the larger circle equals p + π (r 2 − 1). The area inside the larger circle
the formula for the also equals pr 2 , because the larger circle has radius r . Thus we have
area inside a circle
shows the intimate pr 2 = p + π (r 2 − 1).
connection between
the area and the cir- Subtracting p from both sides, we get
cumference of a circle.
p(r 2 − 1) = π (r 2 − 1).

Thus p = π . In other words, the area inside a circle of radius r equals π r 2 .

 section 2.4 Area 103

We have derived the following formula:

Area inside a circle

The area inside a circle of radius r is π r 2 .

Thus to find the area inside a circle, we must first find the radius of
the circle. Finding the radius sometimes requires a preliminary algebraic
Pie and π : The area of this
manipulation such as completing the square, as shown in the following pie with radius 4 inches is
example. 16π square inches.

Consider the circle described by the equation example 3

2 2
x − 8x + y + 6y = 4.

(a) Find the center of this circle.

(b) Find the radius of this circle.
(c) Find the circumference of this circle.
(d) Find the area inside this circle.

solution To obtain the desired information about the circle, we put its equation in
a standard form. This can be done by completing the square:

4 = x 2 − 8x + y 2 + 6y

= (x − 4)2 − 16 + (y + 3)2 − 9

= (x − 4)2 + (y + 3)2 − 25.

Adding 25 to the first and last sides above shows that the circle is described by the
equation
(x − 4)2 + (y + 3)2 = 29.
(a) The equation above shows that the center of the circle is (4, −3).
√
(b) The equation above shows that the radius of the circle is 29. Do not make the mis-
√ √ take of thinking that
(c) Because the circle has radius 29, its circumference is 2 29π .
√ this circle has radius
(d) Because the circle has radius 29, its area is 29π . 29.

In Section 2.3 we saw that the ellipse

x2 y2
+ =1
25 9

is obtained from the circle of radius 1 centered at the origin by stretching

horizontally by a factor of 5 and stretching vertically by factor of 3.
 104 chapter 2 Combining Algebra and Geometry

y y
3 3

x x
-5 -1 1 5 -5 5

-3 -3

Stretching horizontally by a factor of 5 and vertically by a factor of 3

transforms the circle on the left into the ellipse on the right.

Because 5 · 3 = 15, the Area Stretch Theorem tells us that the area inside
this ellipse equals 15 times the area inside the circle of radius 1. Because
the area inside a circle of radius 1 is π , we conclude that the area inside this
ellipse is 15π .
More generally, suppose a and b are positive numbers. Suppose the circle
of radius 1 centered at the origin is stretched horizontally by a factor of
a and stretched vertically by a factor of b. As we saw in Section 2.3, the
equation of the resulting ellipse in the xy-plane is
In addition to discovering
that the orbits of planets x2 y2
are ellipses, Kepler also + 2 = 1.
a 2 b
discovered that a line
joining a planet to the sun The Area Stretch Theorem now gives us the following formula:
sweeps out equal areas in
equal times.
Area inside an ellipse
Suppose a and b are positive numbers. Then the area inside the ellipse

x2 y2
+ 2 =1
a 2 b

is π ab.

Find the area inside the ellipse

example 4
4x 2 + 5y 2 = 3.

solution To put the equation of this ellipse in the form given by the area formula,
begin by dividing both sides by 3, and then force the equation into the desired form,
as follows:
 section 2.4 Area 105

1 = 34 x 2 + 53 y 2

x2 y2
= 3 + 3
4 5

x2 y2
= √ 2 + q 2.
( 23 ) 3
5
√ q √
3 3 3 5
Thus the area inside the ellipse is π · 2
· 5
, which equals 10
π.

Ellipses need not be centered at the origin. For example, the equation “The universe cannot
be read until we have
(x − 5)2 (y − 7)2 learned the language
+ =1
9 16 and become familiar
with the characters in
represents an ellipse centered at a point (5, 7). This ellipse is obtained by which it is written. It
2 y2
shifting the ellipse whose equation is x9 + 16 = 1 right 5 units and up 7 units. is written in mathe-
x2 y2 matical language, and
The formula above tells us that the area inside the ellipse 9 + 16 = 1 is 12π ,
(x−5)2 (y−7)2 the letters are trian-
and thus the area inside the ellipse + = 1 is also 12π .
9 16 gles, circles and other
More generally, if a and b are positive numbers, then the equation geometrical figures,
without which means
(x − h)2 (y − k)2 it is humanly impossi-
+ =1
a2 b2 ble to comprehend a
single word.”
represents an ellipse centered at a point (h, k). This ellipse is obtained by
2 y2 —Galileo
shifting the ellipse whose equation is x
a2 + b2 = 1. Thus the area inside the
(x−h)2 (y−k)2
ellipse a2 + b2 = 1 is π ab.

exercises
1. Find the area of a triangle that has two sides of 5. Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are
length 6 and one side of length 10. (2, 0), (9, 0), and (4, 5).
2. Find the area of a triangle that has two sides of 6. Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are
length 6 and one side of length 4. (−3, 0), (2, 0), and (4, 3).
3. (a) Find the distance from the point (2, 3) to 7. Suppose (2, 3),
3
the line containing the points (−2, −1) (1, 1), and (7, 1)
and (5, 4). are three vertices
1
(b) Use the information from part (a) to find of a parallelogram,
the area of the triangle whose vertices are two of whose sides 1 3 5 7

(2, 3), (−2, −1), and (5, 4). are shown here.
(a) Find the fourth vertex of this parallelo-
4. (a) Find the distance from the point (3, 4) to
gram.
the line containing the points (1, 5) and
(−2, 2). (b) Find the area of this parallelogram.

(b) Use the information from part (a) to find

the area of the triangle whose vertices are
(3, 4), (1, 5), and (−2, 2).
106 chapter 2 Combining Algebra and Geometry

8. Suppose (3, 4), 21. Find a number t such that the area inside the
4
(2, 1), and (6, 1) circle
are three vertices 3x 2 + 3y 2 = t
of a parallelogram, 2
is 8.
two of whose sides
are shown here. 22. Find a number t such that the area inside the
2 4 6 circle
(a) Find the fourth vertex of this parallelo- 5x 2 + 5y 2 = t
gram. is 2.
(b) Find the area of this parallelogram.
Use the following information for Exercises 23–28:
9. Find the area of A standard DVD disk has
3
this trapezoid, a 12-cm diameter (cm is
whose vertices are the abbreviation for cen-
1
(1, 1), (7, 1), (5, 3), timeters). The hole in the
and (2, 3). 1 3 5 7
center of the disk has a
10. Find the area of 0.75-cm radius. About
4
this trapezoid, 50.2 megabytes of data can be stored on each
whose vertices are 2 square cm of usable surface of the DVD disk.
(2, 1), (6, 1), (8, 4),
23. What is the area of a DVD disk, not counting
and (1, 4).
2 4 6 8 the hole?
11. Find the area of the region in the xy-plane
24. What is the area of a DVD disk, not counting
under the line y = x2 , above the x-axis, and
the hole and the unusable circular ring with
between the lines x = 2 and x = 6.
width 1.5 cm that surrounds the hole?
12. Find the area of the region in the xy-plane un-
25. A movie company is manufacturing DVD
der the line y = 3x + 1, above the x-axis, and
disks containing one of its movies. Part of the
between the lines x = 1 and x = 5.
surface of each DVD disk will be made usable
13. Let f (x) = |x|. Find the area of the region by coating with laser-sensitive material a circu-
in the xy-plane under the graph of f , above lar ring whose inner radius is 2.25 cm from the
the x-axis, and between the lines x = −2 and center of the disk. What is the minimum outer
x = 5. radius of this circular ring if the movie requires
14. Let f (x) = |2x|. Find the area of the region 3100 megabytes of data storage?
in the xy-plane under the graph of f , above
26. A movie company is manufacturing DVD
the x-axis, and between the lines x = −3 and
disks containing one of its movies. Part of the
x = 4.
surface of each DVD disk will be made usable
15. Find the area inside a circle with diameter 7. by coating with laser-sensitive material a circu-
16. Find the area inside a circle with diameter 9. lar ring whose inner radius is 2.25 cm from the
center of the disk. What is the minimum outer
17. Find the area inside a circle with circumference
radius of this circular ring if the movie requires
5 feet.
4200 megabytes of data storage?
18. Find the area inside a circle with circumference
7 yards. 27. Suppose a movie company wants to store
data for extra features in a circular ring on a
19. Find the area inside the circle whose equation
DVD disk. If the circular ring has outer radius
is
5.9 cm and 200 megabytes of data storage is
x 2 − 6x + y 2 + 10y = 1.
needed, what is the maximum inner radius of
20. Find the area inside the circle whose equation the circular ring for the extra features?
is
x 2 + 5x + y 2 − 3y = 1.
 section 2.4 Area 107

28. Suppose a movie company wants to store x2 y2

38. + =1
data for extra features in a circular ring on a 9 5
DVD disk. If the circular ring has outer radius
39. 2x 2 + 3y 2 = 1
5.9 cm and 350 megabytes of data storage is
needed, what is the maximum inner radius of 40. 10x 2 + 7y 2 = 1
the circular ring for the extra features?
29. Find the area of the region in the xy-plane un- 41. 3x 2 + 2y 2 = 7
√
der the curve y = 4 − x 2 (with −2 ≤ x ≤ 2)
42. 5x 2 + 9y 2 = 3
and above the x-axis.
30. Find the area of the region in the xy-plane un- 43. 3x 2 + 4x + 2y 2 + 3y = 2
√
der the curve y = 9 − x 2 (with −3 ≤ x ≤ 3)
and above the x-axis. 44. 4x 2 + 2x + 5y 2 + y = 2
31. Using the answer from Exercise 29, find the
45. Find a positive number c such that the area
area of the region in the xy-plane under the
√ inside the ellipse
curve y = 3 4 − x 2 (with −2 ≤ x ≤ 2) and
above the x-axis. 2x 2 + cy 2 = 5
32. Using the answer from Exercise 30, find the
area of the region in the xy-plane under the is 3.
√
curve y = 5 9 − x 2 (with −3 ≤ x ≤ 3) and 46. Find a positive number c such that the area
above the x-axis. inside the ellipse
33. Using the answer from Exercise 29, find the
cx 2 + 7y 2 = 3
area of theqregion in the xy-plane under the
2
curve y = 4 − x9 (with −6 ≤ x ≤ 6) and is 2.
above the x-axis.
47. Find numbers a and b such that a > b, a + b =
34. Using the answer from Exercise 30, find the 15, and the area inside the ellipse
area of theqregion in the xy-plane under the
2 x2 y2
curve y = 9 − x16 (with −12 ≤ x ≤ 12) and + 2 =1
a2 b
above the x-axis.
is 36π .
35. Find the area of the region in the xy-plane
under the curve 48. Find numbers a and b such that a > b, a + b =
p 5, and the area inside the ellipse
y = 1 + 4 − x2,
x2 y2
above the x-axis, and between the lines x = −2 + 2 =1
a2 b
and x = 2.
is 3π .
36. Find the area of the region in the xy-plane
under the curve 49. Find a number t such that the area inside the
p ellipse
y = 2 + 9 − x2, 4x 2 + 9y 2 = t
above the x-axis, and between the lines x = −3 is 5.
and x = 3. 50. Find a number t such that the area inside the
ellipse
In Exercises 37–44, find the area inside the ellipse
2x 2 + 3y 2 = t
in the xy-plane determined by the given equation.
x2 y2 is 7.
37. + =1
7 16
108 chapter 2 Combining Algebra and Geometry

problems
51. Explain why a square yard contains 9 square 64. Consider the following figure, which is drawn
feet. accurately to scale:
52. Explain why a square foot contains 144 square
9
inches.
53. Find a formula that gives the area of a square 7
in terms of the length of the diagonal of the
5
square.
54. Find a formula that gives the area of a square 3

in terms of the perimeter.

1
55. Suppose a and b are positive numbers. Draw
2 5 8 11 14 17 20
a figure of a square whose sides have length
a + b. Partition this square into a square whose
sides have length a, a square whose sides have (a) Show that the right triangle whose vertices
length b, and two rectangles in a way that illus- are (0, 0), (20, 0), and (20, 9) has area 90.
trates the identity (b) Show that the yellow right triangle has
2 2 2 area 27.5.
(a + b) = a + 2ab + b .
(c) Show that the blue rectangle has area 45.
56. Find an example of a parallelogram whose area
(d) Show that the red right triangle has area
equals 10 and whose perimeter equals 16 (give
18.
the coordinates for all four vertices of your
parallelogram). (e) Add the results of parts (b), (c), and (d),
showing that the area of the colored re-
57. Show that an equilateral
√ triangle with sides of
3 gion is 90.5.
length r has area 4 r 2 .
58. Show that an equilateral triangle with area A (f) Seeing the figure above, most people ex-
√
2 A
has sides of length 31/4 . pect that parts (a) and (e) will have the
same result. Yet in part (a) we found area
59. Suppose 0 < a < b. Show that the area of the
90, and in part (e) we found area 90.5. Ex-
region under the line y = x, above the x-axis,
b2 −a2 plain why these results differ.
and between the lines x = a and x = b is 2
.
60. Show that the area inside a circle with circum- 65. The figure below illustrates a circle of radius 1
c2 enclosed within a square. By comparing areas,
ference c is 4π .
explain why this figure shows that π < 4.
61. Find a formula that gives the area inside a cir-
cle in terms of the diameter of the circle.
62. In ancient China and Babylonia, the area inside
a circle was said to be one-half the radius times
the circumference. Show that this formula
agrees with our formula for the area inside a
circle.
63. Suppose a, b, and c are positive numbers.
Show that the area inside the ellipse

ax 2 + by 2 = c

is π √cab .
 section 2.4 Area 109

worked-out solutions to Odd-numbered Exercises

1. Find the area of a triangle that has two sides of y −3 7
=− ,
length 6 and one side of length 10. x−2 5
which can be rewritten as
solution By the Pythagorean Theorem (see
figure below), the height of this triangle equals
√ √ y = − 57 x + 29
5
.
62 − 52 , which equals 11.
To find where this line intersects the line con-
taining the points (−2, −1) and (5, 4), we need
to solve the equation
6 6 5 3
11
7
x + 7
= − 75 x + 29
5
.

Simple algebra shows that the solution to this

5
equation is x = 9437
. Plugging this value of x
A triangle that has two sides of length 6 into the equation of either line shows that
and one side of length 10. y = 83 . Thus the two lines intersect at the
37
point 94 , 83 .


√ 37 37
Thus the area of this triangle equals 5 11. Thus the distance from the point (2, 3) to the
line containing the points (−2, −1) and (5, 4) is
3. (a) Find the distance from the point (2, 3) to
the distance from the point (2, 3) to the point
the line containing the points (−2, −1) 94 83

,
37 37
. This distance equals
and (5, 4).
q
94 2 83 2
(b) Use the information from part (a) to find (2 − 37
) + (3 − 37
) ,
the area of the triangle whose vertices are q q
32 2
(2, 3), (−2, −1), and (5, 4). which equals 37
, which equals 4 37 .

solution (b) We will consider the line segment connecting

the points (−2, −1), and (5, 4) to be the base
(a) To find the distance from the point (2, 3) to the of this triangle. In part (a), we q
found that the
line containing the points (−2, −1) and (5, 4), height of this triangle equals 4 2
.
37
we first find the equation of the line containing
the points (−2, −1) and (5, 4). The slope of this y
line equals 4
4 − (−1)
, 3
5 − (−2)
5
which equals 7
.
Thus the equation of the line 2

containing the points (−2, −1) and (5, 4) is

1

y −4 5
= , x
x−5 7 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5

which can be rewritten as

-1

The triangle with vertices (2, 3), (−2, −1), and

y = 75 x + 37 . (5, 4), with a line segment showing its height.

To find the distance from the point (2, 3) to the The base of the triangle is the distance between
line containing the points (−2, −1) and (5, 4), the points (−2, −1) and (5, 4). This distance
√
we want to find the equation of the line contain- equals 74. Thus the area of the triangle (one-
ing the point (2, 3) that is perpendicular to the half the base times the height) equals
line containing the points (−2, −1) and (5, 4). √ q

1 2
The equation of this line is 2
74 4 37 ,
110 chapter 2 Combining Algebra and Geometry

which equals 4. (b) The base of this parallelogram is the length

[There are easier ways to find the area of this of the side connecting the points (1, 1) and
triangle, but the technique used here gives you (7, 1), which equals 6. The height of this par-
practice with several important concepts.] allelogram is the length of a vertical line seg-
ment connecting the two horizontal sides. Be-
5. Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are cause one of the horizontal sides lies on the
(2, 0), (9, 0), and (4, 5). line y = 1 and the other horizontal side lies on
the line y = 3, a vertical line segment connect-
solution Choose the side connecting (2, 0) ing these two sides will have length 2. Thus the
and (9, 0) as the base of this triangle. Thus the parallelogram has height 2. Because this par-
triangle below has base 9 − 2, which equals 7. allelogram has base 6 and height 2, it has area
12.
5

9. Find the area of

3
3 this trapezoid,
whose vertices are
1
1 (1, 1), (7, 1), (5, 3),
and (2, 3). 1 3 5 7
2 4 9
solution One base of this trapezoid is the
length of the side connecting the points (1, 1)
The height of this triangle is the length of the
and (7, 1), which equals 6. The other base of
red line shown here; this height equals the sec-
this trapezoid is the length of the side connect-
ond coordinate of the vertex (4, 5). In other
ing the points (5, 3) and (2, 3), which equals
words, this triangle has height 5.
3.
1
Thus this triangle has area 2
· 7 · 5, which equals
35 The height of this trapezoid is the length of a
2
.
vertical line segment connecting the two hor-
7. Suppose (2, 3), izontal sides. Because one of the horizontal
3
(1, 1), and (7, 1) sides lies on the line y = 1 and the other hori-
are three vertices zontal side lies on the line y = 3, a vertical line
1
of a parallelogram, segment connecting these two sides will have
two of whose sides 1 3 5 7 length 2. Thus the trapezoid has height 2.
are shown here. Because this trapezoid has bases 6 and 3 and
(a) Find the fourth vertex of this parallelo- has height 2, it has area 12 (6 + 3) · 2, which
gram. equals 9.
(b) Find the area of this parallelogram. 11. Find the area of the region in the xy-plane
under the line y = x2 , above the x-axis, and
solution
between the lines x = 2 and x = 6.
(a) Consider the horizontal side of the parallelo-
solution The line x = 2 intersects the line
gram connecting the points (1, 1) and (7, 1). x
y = 2 at the point (2, 1). The line x = 6 inter-
This side has length 6. Thus the opposite side,
sects the line y = x2 at the point (6, 3).
which connects the point (2, 3) and the fourth
vertex, must also be horizontal and have length
6. Thus the second coordinate of the fourth 3

vertex is the same as the second coordinate

of (2, 3), and the first coordinate of the fourth 1
vertex is obtained by adding 6 to the first coor-
2 6
dinate of (2, 3). Hence the fourth vertex equals
(8, 3).
 section 2.4 Area 111

Thus the region in question is the trapezoid 1 = x 2 − 6x + y 2 + 10y

shown above. The parallel sides of this trape-
= (x − 3)2 − 9 + (y + 5)2 − 25
zoid (the two vertical sides) have lengths 1
and 3, and thus this trapezoid has bases 1 and = (x − 3)2 + (y + 5)2 − 34.
3. As can be seen from the figure above, this
Adding 34 to both sides of this equation gives
trapezoid has height 4. Thus the area of this
trapezoid is 12 · (1 + 3) · 4, which equals 8. (x − 3)2 + (y + 5)2 = 35.

13. Let f (x) = |x|. Find the area of the region Thus we see that this circle is centered at
in the xy-plane under the graph of f , above (3, −5) (which is irrelevant for this exercise)
√
the x-axis, and between the lines x = −2 and and that it has radius 35. Thus the area inside
√ 2
x = 5. this circle equals π 35 , which equals 35π .

solution 21. Find a number t such that the area inside the
circle
The region under
5 3x 2 + 3y 2 = t
consideration is
the union of two is 8.
triangles, as shown
2 solution Rewriting the equation above as
here.
q
2
t
x2 + y 2 = 3
,
-2 5
we see that this circle has radius 3t . Thus the
q
One of the triangles has base 2 and height 2
q
2
and thus has area 2. The other triangle has t
area inside this circle is π 3 , which equals
25
base 5 and height 5 and thus has area 2 . Thus πt
3
.
We want this area to equal 8, which means
the area of the region under consideration πt
we need to solve the equation 3 = 8. Thus
equals 2 + 25 , which equals 29 . 24
2 2 t= π.
15. Find the area inside a circle with diameter 7.
Use the following information for Exercises 23–
solution A circle with diameter 7 has radius 28:
7 2
2
. Thus the area inside this circle is π ( 72 ) ,
which equals 49π . 23. What is the area of a DVD disk, not counting
4
the hole?
17. Find the area inside a circle with circumference
5 feet. solution The DVD disk has radius 6 cm (be-
cause the diameter is 12 cm). The area inside a
solution Let r denote the radius of this circle with radius 6 cm is 36π square cm.
circle in feet. Thus 2π r = 5, which implies
5
The area of the hole is 0.752 π square cm,
that r = 2π . Thus the area inside this circle is
2
which is 0.5625π square cm.
5 25
π ( 2π ) square feet, which equals 4π
square
Subtracting 0.5625π from 36π , we see that the
feet.
DVD disk has area 34.4375π square cm, which
19. Find the area inside the circle whose equation is approximately 111.33 square cm.
is
25. A movie company is manufacturing DVD
x 2 − 6x + y 2 + 10y = 1.
disks containing one of its movies. Part of the
solution To find the radius of the circle surface of each DVD disk will be made usable
given by the equation above, we complete the by coating with laser-sensitive material a circu-
square, as follows: lar ring whose inner radius is 2.25 cm from the
center of the disk. What is the minimum outer
radius of this circular ring if the movie requires
3100 megabytes of data storage?
112 chapter 2 Combining Algebra and Geometry

solution Because 50.2 megabytes of data can 31. Using the answer from Exercise 29, find the
be stored in each square cm of usable surface, area of the region in the xy-plane under the
√
the usable surface must have area at least 3100
50.2
curve y = 3 4 − x 2 (with −2 ≤ x ≤ 2) and
square cm, or about 61.753 square cm. above the x-axis.
If the outer radius of the circular ring of us- solution
able area is r , then the usable area will be
π r 2 − 2.252 π . Thus we solve the equation The region in
y
this exercise is
6
π r 2 − 2.252 π = 61.753 obtained from
the region in
for r , getting r ≈ 4.97 cm. Exercise 29
by stretching
27. Suppose a movie company wants to store
vertically by
data for extra features in a circular ring on a
a factor of 3.
DVD disk. If the circular ring has outer radius
Thus by the
5.9 cm and 200 megabytes of data storage is
Area Stretch
needed, what is the maximum inner radius of
Theorem, the
the circular ring for the extra features?
area of this re-
solution Because 50.2 megabytes of data can gion is 3 times x
be stored in each square cm of usable surface, the area of the -2 2
200
the usable surface must have area at least 50.2 region in Exer-
square cm, or about 3.984 square cm. cise 29. Thus
this region has
If the inner radius of the circular ring of us-
area 6π .
able area is r , then the usable area will be
5.92 π − π r 2 . Thus we solve the equation 33. Using the answer from Exercise 29, find the
area of theqregion in the xy-plane under the
5.92 π − π r 2 = 3.984 2
curve y = 4 − x9 (with −6 ≤ x ≤ 6) and
for r , getting r ≈ 5.79 cm. above the x-axis.

29. Find the area of the region in the xy-plane un- solution Define a function f with domain
√ √
der the curve y = 4 − x 2 (with −2 ≤ x ≤ 2) the interval [−2, 2] by f (x) = 4 − x 2 . Define a
and above the x-axis. function h with domain the interval [−6, 6] by
h(x) = f ( x3 ). Thus
solution r
x2
f ( x3 )
x 2
q
Square both h(x) = = 4−(3) = 4− 9
.
y
sides of the
2 Hence the graph of h is obtained by horizon-
equation
√ tally stretching the graph of f by a factor of 3
y = 4 − x2
(see Section 3.2). Thus the region in this exer-
and then add
cise is obtained from the region in Exercise 29
x 2 to both
x by stretching horizontally by a factor of 3.
sides. -2 2

This gives the equation x 2 + y 2 = 4, which is

y
the equation of a circle of radius 2 centered at
√ 2
the origin. However, the equation y = 4 − x 2
forces y to be nonnegative, and thus we have
only the top half of the circle. Thus the region
in question, which is shown above, has half the
area inside a circle of radius 2. Hence the area x
-6 6
of this region is 21 π · 22 , which equals 2π .
 section 2.4 Area 113

Thus by the Area Stretch Theorem, this region 1 = 2x 2 + 3y 2

has area 6π .
x2 y2
= 1 + 1
35. Find the area of the region in the xy-plane 2 3
under the curve
x2 y2
p = q 2 + q 2.
y = 1 + 4 − x2, 1 1
2 3

above the x-axis, and between the lines x = −2

q q
1 1
Thus the area inside the ellipse is π · 2 · 3 ,
and x = 2. π
which equals √6 . Multiplying numerator and
√ √
denominator by 6, √we see that we could also
solution The curve y = 1 + 4 − x 2 is ob-
√ express this area as 6π .
tained by shifting the curve y = 4 − x 2 up 1 6

unit. y 41. 3x 2 + 2y 2 = 7
3

solution To put the equation of the ellipse

in the form given by the area formula, begin
1 by dividing both sides by 7, and then force the
equation into the desired form, as follows:
3 2
x 1 = 7 x2 + 7 y 2
-2 2

Thus we have the region above, which should x2 y2

= 7 + 7
be compared to the region shown in the solu- 3 2
tion to Exercise 29.
x2 y2
To find the area of this region, we break it into = q 2 + q 2.
7 7
two parts. One part consists of the rectangle 3 2

shown above that has base 4 and height 1 (and

q q
7 7
Thus the area inside the ellipse is π · 3
· 2
,
thus has area 4); the other part is obtained by 7π
which equals √6 . Multiplying numerator and
shifting the region in Exercise 29 up 1 unit (and √
denominator by 6, we √ see that we could also
thus has area 2π , which is the area of the re-
express this area as 7 66π .
gion in Exercise 29). Adding together the areas
of these two parts, we conclude that the region 43. 3x 2 + 4x + 2y 2 + 3y = 2
shown above has area 4 + 2π .
solution To put the equation of this ellipse
In Exercises 37–44, find the area inside the ellipse
in a standard form, we complete the square, as
in the xy-plane determined by the given equation.
follows:
x2 y2 2 = 3x 2 + 4x + 2y 2 + 3y
37. + =1
7 16
= 3 x 2 + 34 x + 2 y 2 + 32 y
   

solution Rewrite the equation of this ellipse
2
2

= 3 x + 32 − 49 + 2 y + 43 − 9 
  
as 16
x2 y2
√ 2 + 2 = 1. =3 x+
2
2
− 4
+2 y + 3
2
− 9
7 4 3 3 4 8
√
Thus the area inside this ellipse is 4 7π . =3 x+
2
2
+2 y +
3
2
−
59
.
3 4 24

39. 2x 2 + 3y 2 = 1 Adding 59
to both sides of this equation gives
24

2
2
3 x + 32 + 2 y + 34 = 107 24
.
solution Rewrite the equation of this ellipse
in the form given by the area formula, as fol- Now multiplying both sides of this equation by
24
lows: 107
gives
114 chapter 2 Combining Algebra and Geometry

72 2
2 48 3
2
107
x+ 3
+ 107
y+ 4
= 1. 47. Find numbers a and b such that a > b, a + b =
15, and the area inside the ellipse
We rewrite this equation in the form
x2 y2

2
2 
3
2 + 2 =1
x+ 3
y+ 4
a2 b
 √ 2 +  √ 2 = 1.
√107 √107 is 36π .
72 48

solution The area inside the ellipse is π ab.

Thus the area inside this ellipse is
Thus we need to solve the simultaneous equa-
√ √
107 107 tions
π √ √ .
72 48 a + b = 15 and ab = 36.
√ √ √ √ √ √
Because 72 48 = 36 · 2 16 · 3 = 6 2 · 4 3, The first equation can be rewritten as b = 15 − a,
this equals and this value for b can then be substituted
107 into the second equation, giving the equation
π √ .
24 6
√ a(15 − a) = 36.
Multiplying numerator and denominator by 6
also allows us to express this area as This is equivalent to the equation
√ a2 − 15a + 36 = 0, whose solutions (which can be
107 6
π . found through either factoring or the quadratic
144
formula) are a = 3 and a = 12. Choosing a = 3
45. Find a positive number c such that the area gives b = 15 − a = 12, which violates the
inside the ellipse condition that a > b. Choosing a = 12 gives
b = 15 − 12 = 3. Thus the only solution to this
2x 2 + cy 2 = 5 exercise is a = 12, b = 3.

is 3. 49. Find a number t such that the area inside the

ellipse
solution To put the equation of the ellipse 4x 2 + 9y 2 = t
in the form given by the area formula, begin
is 5.
by dividing both sides by 5, and then force the
equation into the desired form, as follows: solution Dividing the equation above by t,
2 2 c 2 we have
1= 5
x + 5
y
1 = 4t x 2 + 9t y 2
x2 y2
= 5 + 5
2 c x2 y2
= t + t
x2 y2 4 9
= q 2 + q 2.
5 5 x2 y2
2 c = √ + √
.
t
2 t 2
q q 2 3
5 5
Thus the area inside the ellipse is π · 2
· c
,
5π Thus the area inside this ellipse is
which equals √
2c
. We want this area to equal 3,
√ √
so we must solve the equation √5π = 3. Squar- t t
2c π · ,
ing both sides and then solving for c gives 2 3
25π 2
c= 18
. πt
which equals 6 . Hence we want
πt
= 5, which
6
means that t = 30
π
.
 Chapter Summary and Chapter Review Questions 115

chapter summary
To check that you have mastered the most important concepts and skills covered in this chapter,
make sure that you can do each item in the following list:

Locate points on the coordinate plane. Use the completing-the-square technique with
Compute the distance between two points. quadratic expressions.
Find the equation of a line given its slope and a Solve quadratic equations.
point on it. Find the equation of a circle, given its center
Find the equation of a line given two points on and radius.
it.
Find the vertex of a parabola.
Find the equation of a line parallel to a given
Compute the area of triangles and trapezoids.
line and containing a given point.
Compute the area inside a circle or ellipse.
Find the equation of a line perpendicular to a
given line and containing a given point. Explain how area changes when stretching ei-
Find the midpoint of a line segment. ther horizontally or vertically or both.

To review a chapter, go through the list above to find items that you do not know how to do,
then reread the material in the chapter about those items. Then try to answer the chapter
review questions below without looking back at the chapter.

chapter review questions

1. Find the distance between the points (5, −6) 10. Find the equation of the line in the xy-plane
and (−2, −4). that has slope −4 and contains the point
(3, −7).
2. Find two points, one on the horizontal axis and
one on the vertical axis, such that the distance 11. Find the equation of the line in the xy-plane
between these two points equals 21. that contains the points (−6, 1) and (−1, −8).
3. Find the perimeter of the parallelogram whose 12. Find the equation of the line in the xy-plane
vertices are (2, 1), (7, 1), (10, 3), and (5, 3). that is perpendicular to the line y = 6x − 7 and
4. Find the perimeter of the triangle whose ver- that contains the point (−2, 9).
tices are (1, 2), (6, 2), and (7, 5).
13. Find a line segment that is not parallel to either
5. Find the perimeter of the trapezoid whose ver- of the coordinate axes and that has (−3, 5) as
tices are (2, 3), (8, 3), (9, 5), and (−1, 5). its midpoint.

6. Explain how to find the slope of a line if given 14. Find the vertex of the graph of the equation
the coordinates of two points on the line.
y = 5x 2 + 2x + 3.
7. Given the slopes of two lines, how can you de-
termine whether or not the lines are parallel?
15. Give an example of numbers a, b, and c such
8. Given the slopes of two lines, how can you that the graph of
determine whether or not the lines are perpen-
dicular? y = ax 2 + bx + c

9. Find a number t such that the line containing has its vertex at the point (−4, 7).
the points (3, −5) and (−4, t) has slope −6.
116 chapter 2 Combining Algebra and Geometry

16. Find a number c such that the equation 22. Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are
(1, 2), (6, 2), and (7, 5).
x 2 + cx + 3 = 0
23. Find the area of the trapezoid whose vertices
has exactly one solution. are (2, 3), (8, 3), (9, 5), and (−1, 5).
17. Find a number x such that 24. Find a number t such that the area inside the
x+1 circle
= 3x.
x−2 x 2 + 6x + y 2 − 8y = t
is 11.
18. Find the equation of the circle in the xy-plane
centered at (−4, 3) that has radius 6. 25. Find the area inside the ellipse

19. Find the center, radius, and circumference of 3x 2 + 2y 2 = 5.

the circle in the xy-plane described by

x 2 − 8x + y 2 + 10y = 2. 26. Suppose a newly discovered planet is orbiting

a far-away star and that units and a coordinate
Also, find the area inside this circle. system have been chosen so that planet’s orbit
is described by the equation
20. Find the area of a triangle that has two sides of
length 8 and one side of length 3. x2 y2
+ = 1.
29 20
21. Find the area of the parallelogram whose ver-
What are the two possible locations of the star?
tices are (2, 1), (7, 1), (10, 3), and (5, 3).