jUNIT II

INTRODUCTION TO COMPOSITES
~-1 INTRODUCTION
/ (A) What is a Composite?
• We need materials with special properti
es 1.k
I e
h' h .
19 strength and low density.
• Composites are multiphase matena
· 1s w h'1ch can be artificially made to get desired
· ·
properties.
• Composite materials are combination of two or more individual materials with different physical or chemical
properties.

• A composite material is a structural material that consists of two or more combined constituents which are combined
at macroscopic level and are not soluble in each other.

• It should be understood that the aforesaid composite material is not the by-product of any chemical reaction between
two or more of its constituents.

• A Composite material consists of two phases: a primary phase and a secondary phase.
• Primary phase forms the matrix within which secondary phase is embedded.
• The embedded phase is referred to as reinforcing agent, because it serves to strengthen the composite.

• The reinforcing phase may be in the form of fibers, particles, etc.

• One of its constituents is called the 'Reinforcing Phase' and the other one, in which the reinforcing phase material is
embedded, is called the 'Matrix'.
• The reinforcing phase material may be in the form of fibers, particles, or flakes (e.g. Glass fibers). The matrix phase
materials are generally continuous (e.g. Epoxy resin).
• The matrix phase is light but weak. The reinforcing phase is strong and hard and may not be light in weight.
Fiber Matrix Fiber composite
matrix

Provides slfength and Protects and transfers load Creates a material with
stiffness (glass. carbon, between fibers (polyster, attributes superior to
aramld, basalt, natural epoxy, vinyl ester. others) either component alone
fibers)
Fiber Matrix Composite

Fig. 1.1
(1.1)
 -
COMPOSITE MATERIALS ( 1.2 ) INTRODU CTION TO COMPos
--- ~
(B) What Is a Matrix?
• The matrix is basically .i homogeneous nnrl 1110 110li1hlc mill cdnl in which ., fiber sy~tcm of a composi te 1s embeddeo.
• It 1s completely cont inuous. lhe ma11 ix p1ovldcs n medium for binding ;incl holding reinforcemen ts together into
a
solid.
• Matrix material can be polymers, metals or ceramics which g ive shape to composite, maintains fiber alignment al'ld
protects them against environment and possible damage.
(C) What ls Reinforcement?
• Reinforcement is a stronger material d istributed w ithin the matrix.
• Reinfo rcement gives strength, stiffness and other mechanical properties to composite matrix.
• Matrix and reinforcements are chemically bonded or mechanically locked together.
• Reinforcements like fibers, particles, flakes, fillers, etc. are the main load carrying elements and provide strength al'ld
rigidity to the composites.
(D) Terms Used in Composites:
1. Staple fiber: Represents d iscontinuous fiber.
2. Filament: Represents a single continuous fiber (Refer Fig. 1.2).
3. Strand: Represents a collection of untwisted fibers (filament) approximately 100 to 200 in numbers.
4. Tow: Represents bundle of untwisted fi laments In large numbers, say 2000 to 12000 filaments.
5. Yam: Represents bundle of twisted fibers.
6. Sizes: Represents a thin coating of chemi_cal applied on filament surface to protect the fibers from damage and
environmental effects (e.g., polyvinyl acetane).
7. Coupling Agents: Used to get good bonding between fi ber and matrix (e.g. Chrome complexes, Silanes and Titanes).

Fig. 1.2 : Fibers

(E) Examples of Composites:
• In concrete reinforced with steel the matrix phase is concrete and the reinforcing phase is steel.
• In graphite/epoxy composites the graphite fibers are the reinforcing phase and the epoxy resin is the matrix phase.
• Wood is a fibrous composite: cellulose fibers in a lignin matrix. The cellulose fibers have high tensile strength but a~
very flexible (i.e., low stiffness), while the lignin matrix joins the fibers and furnishes the stiffness.
• Bone is yet another example of a natural composite that supports the weight of various members of the body.I
consists o f short and soft collagen fibers embedded in a mineral matrix called apatite.
A material shall be considered as a composite material if it satisfies the following conditions:
1. It is manufactured i.e., excluding naturally available composites.
1
2. It consists of two or more physically and/or chemically d istinct, suitably arranged or distributed phases wit/1
interface separating them.
3. It has characteristics that are not the replica of any of the components taken individually. __.-/

J
 COM PO~I TE MAT ERIA LS
(1.3) INTR ODU CTIO N TO COM POS ITES
!1.2 N EED OF CO MP OSITES
• Since the Nrly 1%O s. lhe, ., has bee
n ,m Increasing drm and for materials
]
that are sti ffer and stro nge r yet light
fields Ji; d,ve rsr as ne1 osµace. energy. er in
and civil co ns1ruc1ion.
• The dem ;mds mad e 0 11 m ater ials
for bett er overall performance are so
satisfy them . great and diverse that no one mat
erial can
• This natu rally led to a resurgen ce of
the ancient concept of com binin g d
mat ena l to satisfy the user requirem iffer ent mat erials in an inte gral - com
ents . pos ite
• Such com pos ite mat erial systems resu
lt in a performance unattainable by the
th e grea t adva individual con stitu ents, and they offe
ntag e of a flexible desi gn; that is, one r
an opti mum des ign. can, in princ iple, ta ilor- mak e the material as per specifi catio ns of

"'
!!
"'
!! 'iii

Steel 'iii &.

0
a. E
0

"'
Al g u
Q)
u
l
Al

Weight
E
8

Ther mal
expansion
·hl Stiffness
Steel Al

.
p 't
I
"
Strength Fatigue
resistance
Fig. 1.3
• Gla~s fibe r rein forc ed resins are very
ligh t and stro ng materials, alth oug h
mainly beca use the g lass fibe r itse lf is not very their stiffness (mo dulus) is not very
stiff. high ,
• The third qua rter of the twen tieth cen tury
saw the emergence of the _ so-called advanced fibers of extr eme
mod ulus, for exa mpl e, boro n, carbon, ly high
silic on, carb ide, and alumina.
• These fibe rs have bee n used for rein
forc eme nt of resin, metal, and ceramic
bee n mor e prom inen t than othe r matrices. Fiber rein forced com posi tes
type s of com posi tes for the simple have
stiff er in the fibro us form than in any reas on that mos t mate rials are stro nge r and
othe r form.
(A) Wh at can be ach ieve d by form
ing a com pos ite matef'ial?
The follo wing pro pert ies can be imp
rove d by form ing a com posi te material:
• Stre ngth (Stress at whic h a mat eria l
fails)
• Sti ffne ss (Resistance of a mat eria l to
defo rma tion )
• Wea r and Corr osio n resistance
• Fati gue life (lon g life due to repeated
load)
• The rma l con duc tivit y and Aco usti cal
insu latio n
• Attr activeness and Wei ght redu ctio
n
(B) Wh at are the role s of the con
stitu ents, of com pos ite material?
(i) Role of Rein forc eme nts: Rein
forc eme nts give high stre ngth , stiffn
ess and othe r impr oved m echanical
the com pos ites. Also thei r con tribu prop ertie s to
tion t o othe r pro perties such as the
co-e fficie nt of thermal expansion, cond
etc. is rem arka ble. uctiv ity
(ii) Role of Mat rice s: Even thou gh
hav ing infe rior prop erties than that of
rein forc ements, its physical presence
• To g ive sha pe to t he com posi te part is must;

• To keep the fibe rs in place

CO MPOSITE MATERIALS

•
•
To transfer stresses to the fibers
To protect the reinforcement from the environment, such 11s chemicnl~ and moisture
INTRODUC TION TO COM PosnlS

-
• To protect the surface of the fibers fr om mechanical degradati on
• To act as shielding from damage due to handling
1.2.1 Factors that Control the Properties of Fibers
but short frbers cannot
(a) Length: n,e fibers can be long or short. Long, continuous fibers are easy to orient and process,
These include high
be controlled fully for proper orientation. Long fibers provide many benefits over short fibers.
However. short fibers
strength, impact resistance, low shrinkage, improved surface finish, and dimensional stability.
provide low cost easy to work with, and have fast cycle time fabricatio n procedures.
(b) Orientatio n: Fibers oriented in one direction give very high stiffness and strength
in that direction. If the fibers are
in the directions of the
oriented in more than one direction, such as in a mat, there will be high stiffness and strength
are required.
fiber orientations. Hence the fibers are usually oriented in directions where high stiffness and strength
(c) Shape: Due to easiness in handling and manufacturing fibers, the most common shape
ot fibers is circular. But fibers
are available in the form of square and rectangle also.
(d) Material: The material of the fiber directly influences the mechanical performance of
a composite. Fibers are generally
• also good functional
expected to have high elastic moduli and strength than the matrix materials. The fibers will
properties like, high thermal resist ance, fatigue resistance and impact resistance.
1.2.2 Matrix Factors
influences many
• Matrix materials have low mechanical properties compared to those of fibers. Yet -the matrix
mechanical properties of the composite. These properties inc!ude

► Transverse modulus
and strength

► Shear modulus and strength

► Compressive strength
► Inter-laminar shear strength
► Thermal expansion
coefficient

► Thermal resistance and

► Fatigue strength
1.2.3 Fiber-Matrix Interface
it is transferred to the
When the load is applied on a composite material, the load is directly carried by the matrix and
the matrix to the fiber
fibers from the matrix through fi ber-matri x interface. So, it is clear that the load-transfer from
and reaction bonding. In
depends on the fiber-matrix interface. This interface may be formed by chemical, mechanical,
most cases, more than one type of bonding occurs.
(i) Chemical Bonding: It is formed between the fiber su~ace and the matrix. Some
fibers bond naturally to the matrix
are compounds
and _others. do not Coupli~g agents are often added to form a chemical bond. Coupling agents
applred to fiber surfaces to rmprove the bond between the fiber and t he matrix.
(ii) Mechanical Bonding: Every material has some natural rough ness on ,·ts surface. 1n composit • e materra· Is, the
to the formation a
roughness on the fiber surface causes interlocking between the fiber and the matrix leading
mechanical bond.
when molecules of t he fiber and the mat nx • d'ff . t the
(Iii) Reaction Bonding: .It .happens . . I use into each other on 1y a
. . .h d"fferenl
Due to this mter-d1ffu .
s1on, a distinct interfacial layer, called t·h e •mt er-p h ase, 1 1
interface.
. . s created wit
of the fiber or the matrix. Even though t his thin interf · I I h . b ding.
properties from that
. . . ac1a ayer e1ps to form a reaction on
thal of
it also develops mrcro cracks rn the frber. These micro cracks reduce the st rength o f t h e fiber and consequent IY
.
the composit e.
 CO MPOS rn Ml \11 RIA
L!,
(1. 5)
( a) Fillc-~
• 1"
''" "1 ''"'1" "'• '1""· '1' hil l'" ,u c 111\1
odutecl lo, , h , I or functiona l pro pe
\"I I ·'"1 P'f('h. ~,, inq
"-' 1educing the cost. for improving thc rti es
P ys,ca
• 1 ,nc,s ·"
(' sc,h ci mn tcn,,ls wh ,ch arc introd
N0 II fill uced on the matrix material
m., y, 1 ers mcren se th e mo for improving a spe c,f,c pro
'
du lus bu t reduce the str eng per ty. .
• Fillers d 0 , th and hence there mu St be I s optimal filler co nte nt.
no t rea ct wi th the m3tmc a way
oth er liquid material , develop ade qu ate . d d ot abs orb wa ter or
•
bo nd wit h the matmc an ° n any
No rm an~. fillers are no t use
d ,n mo st advanced com po
com po sit e ma ter ial s. sit e structures, bec aus e fille
rs bring down the str en gth
of the
• So me of the fillers wh icl I
' are very com mo nly use d
► CI a c,u·
m car bo na te, Silica po wd er,
in polyester resin and epoxy •
resins are giv· n below I
e ·
(Sh ee tm ou ldi ng co mp ou nd
Talc, Clay is used in polyester
res in to
I
s). red uce the cos t nd
a for pro ces sin · · SMC
► Sa,~d ~nd ag gre ga tes are
g ,n I
art1fic,al ma rbl es.
use d in po lye ste r resin for
making polymer concretes and
I
marble chips are use d to ma
ke I
> Tit an ium dio xid e an d car I
bo n blacks are used in Polye
use d for ge l coat. ster resin to give white and I
black colour res pectively wh
en
► Fu sed silica is use d in I
epo xie s to red uc e coefficien I
co nd uc tiv ity wi tho ut aff ect t of thermal expansion and
ing the ele ctrical propertie mica is used to improve the
► Al um ini um trih yd rat
s. the rmal I
pro pe rti es.
e an d Antimony trioxide
are use d in polyester and I
epoxies for im proving fire
retard an t
> Gr ap hit e is use d to red uce
the coefficient of friction an
d proving self-lubricating pro
> Silicon car bid e is use d in the se perty in the se resins.
resins to increa se the we ar
(b) Ad dit ive s: resista nce by using the m as a surfac
e coa t.
• Additives are ad de d to the
po lym er ma trix for aiding
ad de d in small qu an tity the proces sing technique or
(less tha n 5%) an d the add altering som e properties. Th
itives do no t affect the me ey are
qu an tity. chanical properties du e to
their small
• Hy dro qu ino ne is use d
as an inh ibi tor to inhibit the
ev ap ora tio n of styren e fro cure an d prolong the shelf
m the co ati ng surface. This life. Paraffin wax is used to
act s an air inhibitor. Tinorin, pre ven t the
use d as an UV sta bilize r, Be nzo phe nos and Benzotriazoles are
to im pro ve the resistance
resin. Ma gn esi um ox ide , Ca of UV rays. Aerosol powder
lcium Oxide an d Ma gn esium is use d to red uce the viscosity of the
hydroxide are used to increa
1.2.4 Im po rta nc e of Co se the viscosity of the res in.
mposites
• Composi tes can be very str on g an d stiff, ye t very light in we
we igh t are sev era l tim es gre igh t, so ratios of str eng th -
ate r tha n steel or aluminum. to - weight and stiffness - to
-
• Fa tig ue pro pe rtie s are gen era lly be
tte r tha n for co mm on engine
ering m_etals.
• To ug hn ess is oft en gre
ate r too .
• Co mp osites can be de
sig ne d tha t do no t cor rod
e like steel.
. .
• Possible to ach iev e co b' •
m ,na tio ns of pro per tie s no t att ain abl e wit
/ \j.£_cjiss11iiW#ii1egnoMte.M4 t~tz:! h metals, ceram ics, or polym
ers.
, . ified ba sed on the form
!:!Z# ~ ·- •
1

;rm: .;;,to,:~ '

Composite ma ten als can the ir of
con stit uen ts, nu mb er of layers, orientati
length of fib ers etc. The be clas~ h wn bel ow Fig . l .4 sho
ws a list of composite ma on of fibers,
tre e dia gra m s 0 terials under respective
classific atio n.
 COMPOSITE MATERIALS
(1 .6) I NTROD UCTIO N TO COMP osrns
-

Ftberous

Mulll layer

Fig. 1.4
the composites as (1) Fibrous composites, (2) Particulate
• Depending on the size of the reinfo rcement we can classify
composites, (3) Powdered composites and Nano composites.
Fibrous Composites : The reinforcements will be in the
form of fibers in which the length of the fiber will be much
1.
al dimension will be in the order of microns and length
higher than the cross sectional dimensioned. The cross section
.
will be in the order of millimetres, centimetres or in meters
red
Particulate Composites : the size of the reinforceme
nt will be in the order of some millimetres and in powde
2.
composites the size will be in microns.
Nano Composites : one of the dimensions of the reinfor
cemen t will be in nano level.
3.
composites or multi-layer composites depen ding upon
• The fibrous composites can be fu rther classified as, sin gle layer
ss the number of layers qm be changed. Depending
the number of layers . Depending on the requirement of thickne
fiber composites and contin uous fiber composites.
on the length of the fibers the composites can be classified as short
resin system and the composite produ ct can be obtained
by
• In short fiber composites the fibers can be mixed with the
of fibers with random orient ation.
compression moulding process. This will provide composites
composites can be unidirectional (which makes use of
• When continuous fibers are used as reinforcements, the
in two directions and are used) or tri-directional (3-d
unidir ectional mats), can be bi-directional (fibers are woven
layers will control the aniso tropy of the composites.
fabrics are used as reinforcements). The orientation of the
1
layers can be made of single material or from differeo
• When multilayers are used for making composites, the
nt materials then the composites will be called as hybrid
materials. If the composites are made with layers of differe
composites.
Kevlar depending on the usage.
• A hybrid comp osite will contain fibers of glass, carbon and
in the matrix system either in aligned form or in a randol11
• In particulate composites the particles can be dispersed
fashion.
sites of orthot ropic or aniso tropic prop.erties whereas randol11
• Composites with ali~ned distrib~tion ~ill pro~i~e compo
properties.
orient ation will provid e composites with quas1-1sotropic
 I:

~ OM~SITE MATERlALS INTRODUCTION TO COMPOSITES

(1 .7')

Cornpo~llr.
ma terials

Matrices

Polymer matrix Ceramic matrix

composites (PMC) Metal matrix
composites (MMC) composite (CMC)

Thermoset Thermoplastic Rubber

Fig. 1.S : Classification based on matrices

Composites

Large
particle

Fig. 1.6 : Composites

Types of Matrices:
1. Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs)
• Metal matrix composites (MMCs) are a class of materials comprised of a metal fused with another substance. These
two components appear in differing phases that are physically and chemically distinct. The base material is a metal
matrix, while the other substance appears as fibres or particulates to work as reinforcing material.
• Mixtures of ceramics and metals, such as cemented carbides and other cermets .
• Aluminium or magnesium reinforced by strong, high stiffness fibers .
Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs)
• They consist of ceramic fibers embedded in a ceramic matrix. The fibers and the matrix both can consist of any ceramic
material, whereby carbon and carbon fibers can also be regarded as a ceramic material.
• Least common composite matrix aluminium oxide and silicon carbide are materials that can be embedded with fibers
for improved properties, especially in high temperature applications.
3. Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs)
• A polymer matrix composite (PMC) is a composite material composed of a variety of short or continuous fibers bound
together by an organic polymer matrix. PMCs are designed to transfer loads between fibers of a matrix.
• Thermosetting resins are the most widely used polymers in PMCs.
• Epoxy and polyester are commonly mixed with fiber reinforcement
 INTRODUCTION TO COMPosn••
~C~O~M~P~O~SilT~E~M~AT!,!E~Rl~A~LS~_ _ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ __:(~l=.8'.!..
) ____________ ~

Types of Composites:
Composllo
melorlel

Whisker Struclural

Sandwich

Aligned

Fig. 1.7 : Types of composites

Composites are classified based on matrix type and reinforcement type in following types:
On the Basis of Matrix Type:
L Polymer matrix composite
(a) Thermoplastic
(bl Thermosetting
2. Metal Matrix Composite
3. Ceramic Matrix Composite •
On the Basis of Reinforcement Type:
1. Particulate
2. Short fibers or whiskers
3. Continuous fibers
4. Structural
(a) Laminate
(b) Sandwich

Mifl"'tmR1asr;u:1:w - , ;1Vian:1w£J I
• The role of the reinforcement in a composite material is fundamentally one of increasing the mechanical properties of
the system.
• Typical reinforcements are asbestos, boron, carbon, metal glass and ceramic fibers, flock, graphite, jute, sisal and
whiskers, as well as chopped paper, macerated fabrics, and synthetic fibers.
• The primary difference between reinforcement and filler is the reinforcement markedly improves tensile and flexvral
strength, whereas filler usually does not. Also to be effective, reinforcement must form a strong adhesive bond witll
the resin.
The second level of classification refers to the reinforcement form -
•
(l) Fibre Reinforced Composites,
(2) Laminar Composites and
_ _:(3~)~Pa:rt_:_i~c=u:.::la~te__c_o_m..:.p_o_s_it_e_s._____________ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ - ,
COMPOSITE MATERIALS
(1 .9) INTRODUCTION TO COMPOSITES
1. Fibrt' R<'inforc<'d C . -- . ,
F1b , ornposu es (FRCJ can be further divided into those containing discontin uous or contmuous fibres.
"' Re111 fo1ced Con . . .
b d , posites are composed of fibres embedded in matrix material. Such a comp osite is considered to
e a •scont111uous fibre
length 0 f . or short fibre composite if its p roperties vary with fibre length. On the other hand, when the
111e fibre 1s such ti .
composite t h . . iat any further Increase in length does not further increase, the elast,c modulus of the
· e composite 1s co "d d . . · · h
pushed axially ti b . nsi ere to b e continuous fibre reinforced. Fibres are small 1n diameter and w en
· i ey end easily Ith
keep individual fib f a ough they have very good tensile properties. These fibres must be supported to
• res rom bending and buckling.
2. laminar Composites are com ose . . .
category. P d of layers of materials held together by matrix. Sandwich structures fall under this

3. Particulate Composites are composed . . .

flakes or in powder form C of particles distributed or embedded in a matrix body. The particles may be
· oncrete and wood . b
1.4.1 Types of R f part,c1e oards are examples of this category.
e In orcements

••
••••
•• •••
• •
•••
••• (a) (b) (c) (d)
Flg.1.8
Various types of reinforcement in composites:
1. Particles,
2. Short fibers,
3. Continuous fibers.
4. Plates.

Reinforcement"

Dfrectfonally
solidified
eutectics

Solid Hollow

Fig. 1.9
1.4.2 Fibers
• A fiber is characterized by its very high length-to-diameter ratio .
• The strength-to-density and the stiffness-to-density ratios are generally used as indicators of the effectiveness of the
fiber.
COMPOSITE MATERIALS

•
- --
(1 .10)

Fibers are the principal constituents 111 o lobe, re111lo1ced comro~ltc milt<'nal.
_ _ _ INTRODUC TION T~ COMPOSITES
-
or the load acting on the
• They occupy the largest vohnnc fraction 111 a composi te larninillc ,ind share the major portion
composite structure.
of liber ,s very important,
• Proper selection of the type of fiber, volume fraction of fiber, l ength of fiber, and orientatio n
since these parameters influence the following characteristics of a composite laminate:
► Density
► Tensile strength and modulus
► Compressive strength and modulus

► Fatigue strength
► Fatigue failure mechanisms
► Electrical and thermal cond uctivities
► Cost
stics:
The use of fibers as high-perfo rmance engineering materials is based on th ree important characteri
higher fraction of the
• A small diameter with respect to its grain size or other microstructural unit. This allows a
theoretical strength to be attained than is possible in a bulk form.
to be transferred via
~ A high aspect ratio (length/diameter, 1/d), which allows a very large fraction of the applied load
the matrix to the stiff and strong fiber.
a low modulus or stiffness and a
• A very high degree of flexibility, which is really a characteristic of a material that has
s with these fibers.
small diameter. This flexibility permits the use of a variety of techniques for making composite
(A) Classification of Fibers:
Fibers can be classified based on l11~i, (i) production, (ii) size and (iii) strength.
(i) Based on Producti on
(a) Natural Fibers
man-mad e fibers. But,
• These fibers are naturally available. As such they have inferior quality than the synthetic or
natural fibers are bio-degra dable and there by eco-friendly. The list of natural fibers is
> Banana
> Coir
► Jute

► Palm
► Pineapple
(b) Syntheti c/ Man -made fibers
fibers. But, synthetic
• These fibers are manufact ured synthetically. So, they show superior qualities than the natural
e fibers includes
fibers are not bio-degra dable and so a threat to the environm ent pollution. The list of man-mad
,... Boron

► Carbon

► Ceramic
► Glass
► Graphite
► Kevlar

►
Silica
 COMPOSITE MATlRIA lS
(1. 11)
INTRODUCTION TO COMPOSITE$
(II) Basl!d on Site!:
• Ftb l't'S ·'"' d i\ •dr d 1111, tt 11
' N' c.11rql,11rs ba<t'd on thr u s1zr They 111e
► F1l.1m,m ti;
► W ir~s. and
► Rods
(iii) Based o n Strengt h:
• Fibers are grouped into th
(a) High, ree based on their strength wi se performance. They are

(b) Medium and

(c) low perform ance fibers. For example,

(a) H igh Perform ance
► Boron fiber
> Carbon fiber
> Kevlar fiber
(b) Medium Perform ance
► Glass fiber
(c} low Perform ance
► N atural fibers
(8) What quality of fibers required for compos ite material ?
Certain requirem ents are to be satisfied b fib · d
. Y er m or er to be used as reinforce ment material in composi t es. They are
• Fibers should be extreme ly thin
• Fibers should be one dimensi onal (length > cross section)
• Fiber should h ave high modulus and high strength
• Utilizati on of fibers should be very effective
• Fiber shoul d contribu te sustaina bility to the improve d mechanical propertie
s of cQrnposite
(C) Charact erizatio n of Fibers:
Fibers should pos·sess some characte ristics so that they ca n be used with
matrix to form composite materials t o give a
better product .
• Fiber should be flexible.
• lateral dimensi on of fibers is in millimet re or micron level.
• Fiber must be several times stronger than the matrix to share the high fraction
of total load.
• Fiber should have higher elastic propertie s than the matrix.
• Fiber should have high aspect ratio (length/ cross-se ctional area).
(D) Types of Fibers.:
Even though there are a variety of fibers in the market. some of the fibers
widely used in the aerospace industry will be
discussed here.
(I) Glass Fibers:
Glass fibers are the most common fibers of all reinforci ng fibers for polymeri
c matrix composi tes (PM C}. The F'ig U O
shows one of the forms of glass fiber.
 (1 . 12) IN TRODUCTION TO COMPOSITES
COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Flg.1.10
The Principal Advantages of Glass Fibers are

• Low cost
• High tensile strength
• High chemical resistance
• Excellent insulating properties
The, Disadvantages are
• Low tensile modulus
• High density (among the commercial fibers)
• Sensitivity to abrasion during handling (which frequently decreases its tensile strength)
• Low fatigue resistance
• High hardness (which causes excessive wear on moulding dies and cutting tools)
(ii) Kevlar Fibers;
Kevlar fibers are highly crystalline aromatic polyamide fibers. They have the lowest density and the highest tensile
strength-to-weight ratio. Kevlar-49 is the trade name.

Fig. 1.11
The Major Benefits of Kevlar Fiber are
• Lowest density
• Highest tensile strength-to-weight ratio (Aerospace applications and Ballistic applications)
• Resistance to impact damage
• Negative coefficient of thermal expansion (Used in low thermal expansion composite panels)
The Disadvantages of Kevlar Fiber$ are
• Low compressive strengths

• Difficulty in cutting or machining

A
 ,·- - --·
tNTRODUCTlON TO COMPOSTTES
C0111POS ITt MATERIALS ( 1. 13)

~..... , t.11 t1b<'t

rt' 11,t'",,, ,..d \"-'"'lh'\1 t,.. , ,11f• ,,,C'li to,
• Bull,'t p, ,,,~, 1,--ic1.,,1,
• s ,.._,nl(',iK. ll

(iii) Carbon Fi~rs:

• Carbon fibers have carbon content of 95% and contain a blend of amorphous carbon
and graphite carbon. Their hig_h
tenSrle modulu s is due to the presence of graphite form in which carbon atoms
are arranged in a cryStallograph1C
structure o f parallel layers.

Fig. LU
Some Advanta ges of Carbon Fibers are
• High stiffness (Due to less elongati on).
• Less specific gravity.
• Can withstan d at high tempera ture .
• Negative coefficie nt of thermal expansion.
• Used for aerospa ce and radar applicati ons.
Disadvantages
• But ca rbon fibers have low strain-to -failure,
• Low impact resistance,
• High electrical conduct ivity and high cost
(iv) Extended Chain Polyeth ylene Fibers
They are called by their trade name 'Spectra'. These fibers are produced
by gel spinning a high-mo lecular-w eight
polyethy lene. Gel spinning yields a highly oriented fibrous structure with exceptio
nally high crystallinity (9S%-99%) relative
to melt spinning used for convent ional polyethylen e fibers.

The Major Advanta ges are

• Highest strength -to-weig ht ratio
• Low moi sture absorption
• High abrasion r esistance
• High impact resistance even at low tempera ture
Their Drawbacks are
• Poor adhesio n with resin m atrices
• Low melting point. which leads to high level of creep above 100°(
Their Applica tions Include
• Marine compos ites (Boat hulls and water skis)
• Ballistic com posites (Armours, helmets)
COMPOSITE MATEIUALS 1.14) INTRODUCTION TO COMPOSlll$
----- ----~( :..;!---- ------ --
(v) Boron Fibers:
.
(1..• of boron onto a hea ted substrate (either a tungste ~
Soron fibers are manufactured by Chemical Vapour Deposition ,.,.,D)
·
wire or a carbon monofilament). The most prominent feature of boron fib · h · I high tensile modulus, whi(,
I ers 1s t e1r extreme Y • ''
·
1s in the range of 379-414 GPa. Coupled with their relatively large d.1ameter,· b oron fibI ers 0
ffer excellent resistance to
buckling.
Even though it is very costly, it has certain advantages over other fibers which include:
• High tensile modulus
• High compressive strength
• Relatively large diameter
Soron fibers are used mostly in aerospace industry and also used in
• Turbine blade
• Transmission shafts
(vi) Ceramic Fibers:
Silicon Carbide (SiQ and Aluminium Oxide (Al,0 ) fibers are examples of ceramic fibers. They are very notable for thei1
3
high-tempera ture applications in metal and ceramic matrix composites.
The Major Advantages are
• Suitable for reinforcing metal matrices
• Low thermal ex ansion

The role of the matrix in composite materials is:

• To keep the fibers in place.
• To transfer stresses between the fibers.
• To provide a barrier against an adverse environment such as chemicals and moisture.
• To protect the surface of the fibers from mechanical degradation e.g. by abrasion.
• To provide lateral support against the possibility if fiber buckling under compressive loading.
Requirements of Matrix:

In order to serve as a good matrix for a composite material, matrix under consideration should be
• Thermally compatible (Both fiber and matrix should have same co-efficient of thermal expansion)
• Chemically compatible (Matrix shouldn't react with fiber)
• Physical compatible
Matrix can be Broadly Classified as:
(a) Thermoset
• Epoxy
• Poly ester and Vinyl ester
(b) Thermoplastic

• Nylon
• Polyether Ether Ketone (PEEK)

• Polyphenylene Sulphide (PPS)

• Polyetherimide (PEI)

• Polyamide-Imide (PAI)

• Poly Sulfone (PSUL)

 COM l'OSI T( Ml\ 1 CRIA lS INTROOUCOO N TO COMPOSITES
(1.15 )
(C) Mrt1 1ll ic
.
. '' " " ""'" "" and ,1, l\lloy~
T11ao,1um Alloy s
. M agne ~•um Alloy s
. Cop per- base d Alloy s
•
Nick el -bas ed Alloy s
(d) Cera mic
• Alum inium oxid e (Al,O )
1
• Silico n carb ide (Siq
• Silic on nitri de (Si 1N 4 )
1. Ther mos et Poly mer M a t rix:
• In a th ermo set poly mer also calle d resin , the mole cul es are chemically
Joined toge ther by cros s-lin ks. Ther efore th
poly mer s cann ot be reus ed once cros ese
s-links are form ed on curin g.
• They are used in cont inuo us or long fiber
-rei nforc ed com posit es main ly beca use
low visco sity. of the ease of p rocessing due t o their
• The draw back s that the r mos et poly mers
suffe r are limit ed storage life at room
the mou ld and low strai n - to-fa i lure. temp eratu re, long fabri catio n time in
• The rmo set poly mer s u sed in com
posi t e materials are epox y, polyester,
poly benz i mida zole (PB0 and poly phen vinylester, Phenolics, poly imid es,
ylqu inoxaline (PPQ).
2. Ep oxy Resi n :
• A com mon start ing mate rial for the
epox y resin is diglycidyl ethe r of bisp
mod ulus, glas s t ran sitio n temp erat henol A (DGEBA). In gene ral, the tens
ure, and ther mal stabi lity as well as il e
incre asin g cros s- link d ensi ty, bu t the chem ical resist ance are impr oved with
st rain- to-fa i lure and fTacture toug hnes
com mon ly used in aero spac e struc tures s are redu ced. Epoxy resin is very
.
So m e of the A dva ntag es o f Epoxy
Resi n are
• Goo d adhe renc e to met al and glass fib
ers
• Curi n g agen ts and modifier s are avai
lab le
• Abse nce of vol atile mat ters duri ng curin
g
• Low shri nkag e duri ng curi ng
• Exce llent resistanc e to ch emic al s and solvents
• The prin cipa l disa dvan tage s are its relatively high cost and long curin g time.
3. Poly este r Resin:
• As in the case of epo xy resins, the
prop erti es of poly este r resins depe nd
stron gly on the cross•link density. The
mod u lus, glas s t rans it ion t emp eratu re,
and ther mal stab ility of cured poly este
r resins are i mpro ved b y increasing the
cros s-lin k dens ity, but the strai n-to -failu
re and impa ct ener gy are redu ced.
Som e of the Adv anta ges of t he Poly
este r Resi n are
• Low cost
• Low spec ific grav ity
• Easy to han dle
• Low visc ous
• Abil ity t o be mad e tran sluc ent
 COMPO SITE MATERIALS 11, l<i)
- - - - -
INTROD UCTION TO COMPOSITE$
----.....:. .

The Disadva ntages are

• High shrinkage and Strengt h and modulu s are lesser th,m epoiy.

4. Vinyl Ester Resin: . ical resistance and tensile

• Vinyl Ester Resins possess good characteristics of epoxy _res1~s.
such as exc_ellent ch;: r the volume tric shrinkage
strength. and of unsaturated polye ster resins, such as low viscosity and
fast cu ring . How • .
of vinyl ester resins is in the range of 5%-10%, which is higher than that
of the parent epoxy resins.
Some of the Advantages are

• Low cost
• Excellent wet-ou t and good adhesion with glass fibers

• High tensile strength

• Excellent chemica l resistance
• Low vi scosity leads to good wettabi lity
• Fast curing (solidification)
5. Thermoplastic Polymers
The molecules in these thermoplastic polymers contain rigid aromatic
• · • .. . I
rings that give them a rel~tively high glass
transition temperature and an excellent dimensional d tures Thermo plastic polymers have
stab1hty at e evate temper a ·
the followin g merits over their counter part thermoset polymers.
They are:
• High impact strength and fracture resistance
• Unlimited storage life at room temperature
• Shorter fabrication time
• Ease of joining and repair by welding. solvent bonding etc.
• Ease of handling
• Can be reprocessed and recycled
• But they suffer from having lower creep resistance and lower therma
l stability.
• The mechanical properties of selected thermoplastic polymers that
are considered suitable for high-performance
composite applications are given below.
(a) Polyether Ether Ketone (PEEK): It has high fracture toughness,
which is 50-1!)0 times higher than that of epoxies.
PEEK has low water absorption.
(b) Polyphenylene Sulphide (PPS): Polyphenylene sulphide (PPS) is consisti
ng of aromat ic rings linked with sulphides. It
has a glass transition temperature of 85°C and a crystalline melting point
of 285°C. It has excelle nt chemica l resistance.
PPS can be moulded, extruded. or machined to high tolerances.
(c) Polysulfone: Polysulfone Polymers are known for their toughne
ss and stability at high temperatures. They have a
glass transition temperatu re of 185°C and a service temperature of
160° C. The melt processing temperature is
between 310° C and 410°C. It has a high tensile strain-t o-failur e (50%-1
00%) and an excell ent hydroly tic stability
under hot-we t conditions (e.g .. in steam)

• The increase in awareness of the damage caused by synthetic materia

ls on the environ ment has led to the
develo pment of eco-friPndly materials.
• As a result, there is an increase in demand for commercial use of the natural
fiber-based compos ites in recent years for
various industr ial sectors.
 - - ..... ,...,, '••ut ''-' ' 0 "'-\UI 111 !:;I t:Xlt'l lQf aU[Q 000Y COmponentS.
11.7 CARBON FIBER COMP-OSfliES
• Carbon fibers are fibers about 5-10 micrometers in diameter and composed mostly of carbon atoms.
• Carbon fibers have several advantages including high stiffness, high tensile strength, low weight, high chemical
resistance, high temperature tolerance and low thermal expansion.
• These properties have made carbon fiber very popular in aerospace, civil engineering, military, and motorsports.
• However, they are relatively expensive compared to glass fibers or plastic fibers .
• Carbon fibers provide highly directional properties much different than the metals most commonly used for these
automotive applications.
Properties of Carbon Fiber Composites:
1. Low Density and Low Mass: Carbon fiber composites have low density and low mass. Carbon fiber composites have
a density of 1.55 g/cm 3 (epoxy resin 30%, carbon fiber 70%), that in the case of aluminum is 2.7g/cm3 and 4.5 g/cm3
for titanium or 7.9 g/cm 3 for steel.
2. High Stiffness: Carbon fiber composites have high rigidity. Carbon fiber composites made from standard fabrics
(twill) will offer stiffness 2 times higher than aluminum and steel.
3. Almost No Thermal Expansion: Carbon fiber composites have a very low coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE}.
4 . Compatibility with X-rays: Carbon fiber composites are widely used in the health care industry as it is a radiolucent
material which does not block X-rays ensures short scan duration and precise results of scanning. Therefore it is used
for the manufacture of X-ray systems (scanner table tops).
S. Moderate Resistance to Temperature: Most carbon fiber composites offer resistance to temperature of 70·I 20•C.
• . · materials.
6. Fiber Orientation: No isotropic material: Unhke metals, carbon fiber composites are anrsotrop,c
Consequently composite properties such as stiffness depend on fiber orientation.
 COMPOSITE MATERIALS (1 .20)

Advantages of Carbon Fiber Composites

• Ca,bon fibe, co111µosItes have low weight '10 ~0% lighlr 1 1ha11 ~l11rn111um and stlflnpss improved 1\-S ,,mes compareii
to steel and aluminum of the same wei ght This mate,ial is widf'ly used for production or racing r ar body parts (Fl),
ultra-light bicycles. fishing rods, automated machine parts, drones or military producls
• Carbon fiber co111µosites save vehicle energy consumption.
• •
Low weight ·
of carbon fiber composites ·
contributes ·
to energy savings as 1·19hter ve hides consume less fuel . · It ·is
· · · · d
I veI1ocle weight reduced by 10% results ,n fuel consumption re uc 10
assumed tlat t· n by 6-8'¼°· Therefore electric dri.,en
vehicles such as BMW i3 or i8 have a carbon fiber chassis that increases driving range.
• Carbon fiber composites offer unique properties including very low thermal expansion. Therefore th anks to almast
zero thermal expansion, carbon fiber composites are used in optics - for production of 30 scanners and for military
purposes e.g. manufacture of high-precision satelll te disks.
• Another advantage of carbon fiber composites relates to compatibility with X-ray radiation. Carbon fiber composit~
do not block X-rays and therefore they are widely used for production of X-ray scanning systems.
• Because of its unique and original aesthetic appearance, carbon fiber composites are used in the automotive i~dustry
and for design purposes. Actually it is a material associated with premium class products, as it is used by rac,ng car
manufacturers, as well as suppliers of surfing boards, kayaks, crash helmets, loudspeakers, coffee machines and many
other premium class products.
Disadvantages of Carbon Fiber Composites
• The biggest disadvantage of carbon fiber composites reiates to its production costs.
• Carbon fiber composites are mostly manufactured by manual placement of a few layers of carbon fabric. The whole
process takes ti me and generates some costs.
• Additional materials used are costly, such as carbon fabrics, resin, and pre-pregs.
• Carbon fiber composites treatment followed by 3 or 5-axis CNC carbon fiber machining and usually it is coyered with a
few topcoat layers, which results in high production costs.
• Consequently the final product costs a few times more than one made from aluminum, for example.
• Another disadvantage relates to some limitations at the design phase.
• Although carbon fiber offers many advantages regarding its properties note that carbon composite offe~
poor/modest resistance to impacts - that makes it ·fragile compared to steel or aluminum material. Therefore details or
parts exposed to impacts are made from carbon-glass fiber composites, carbon-aramide composites, and carbon
composites including aluminum honeycomb or a combination of these.

• Carbon fiber is a material that conducts electric current, although less than metals.

• Other disadvantages relate to repair of carbon fiber composites e.g. a broken bicycle frame. These parts are beyond
repair often or repair is difficult and costly.

• Unlike metal parts, carbon fiber composites are combustible which means that they may ignite and catch fire wheo
exposed to naked flames for a period of time.

• Corrosion Resistance: Perhaps the most highly valued property of composites in industrial applications is their abilit)'
to stand up to severe weat~er and_ wide temperature ranges. While steel rusts easily and is often coated with zinc.
composites are naturally ant1-corros1ve.

• Inherent Durability: There are ca~e h~tories of fiberglass ductwork being in service in chemical manufacturing plants
for over twenty-five years - operating ,n harsh chemical environments twenty-four hours a day, seven days a week.
 COM POSITE MATERIALS
(l .2ll) INTRODUCTION TO COMPOS
- - -:-- - ITES
- -
• lig htw eig ht: Com po" te< c,111 - . han mo st me tals. In the cas
. del iver more stre ngt h per uni e of stee l this
compa11son 1s d raM1c s111c e a t o f wei ght t
cub ic foo t of cast steel w eigh . t . be up to 70
pe1 cen t hgh t e1 th;m ste el. ts approx1ma e1Y 490 pou nd s Com pos ites can
·
• •
H,g h Str eng th: Co mp osit es can
be designed to pro vid e a vas
fl exura I, •imp act and t range of me ch amc
• I ope rtle s inc lud ing ten
a pr sile,
com pre ssiv e stre ngt hs. FRP com pos ites are • • b t
design er/f abr ica tor t o design
a lam ina te wit h orie nte d rein
not 1so trop1c, u am·sot rop ic wh ich allo.ws the
forc em .
as the fina l app lica tion req uire ent to pro vide stre ngt hs in specific ar,e
s. as or dire ctio n
• Part Co nso lida tion: A sing le
com posite par t can replace
mainte nan ce. a num ber of steel parts, red ucin
g cost, assem bly tim e a nd
Four Reason s Wh y Co mp osi tes
Are Replacing Traditional Ma
1 · Co mp osi terials
tes hav e a Hig h Str eng th -to-
We igh t Ratio: Car bon fibe r wei
mu ch as alu min um , and is mu ghs abo ut 25% as mu ch as ste
ch stro nge r and stif fer tha n bot el and 70% as
2· h ma
t erials per wei ght .
Co mp osi tes are Du rab le: Com
pos ites never rust. regard less
wh en bon ded to me tal par of their env iron me nt (tho ugh the y are pro ne to cor
ts). Com pos ites have less frac ros ion
The ir hig h dim ens ion al sta bili ture tou ghn ess tha n me tals but mo re tha n mo st pol
ty allo ws the m to maintai n th ym ers.
a pop ula r mat eria l for out doo eir shape, whe the r hot or cold
r structures like win d turb ine , we t or dry. Thi s makes the m
bla des.
3. Co mp osi tes Op en up Ne w
Des ign Op tion s: Com posites offe
trad itio nal ma teri als. Com pos r design opt ion s tha t wou ld
ites allo w for par t consol idation be har d to achieve wit h
me tal par ts. The sur fac e te>< ; a single com pos ite par t can
ture can be alte red to mim ic any replace a full assembly of
4. Co mp osi tes are now easier finis h, from sm oot h to tex ture .
to pro duc e.
Ad van tag es and Disadv ant age
s of Co mp osi tes
. Tab le 1.1.
' Benefits
(i) Drawbacks
High impact d31J1age resistance ,
(i) Composites are more brittle than
wrought metals, making them
much easier damaged .
(ii) Resistant to fatigue and corrosio
n degradation. (iij Matrix is susceplible to environmen
tal degradation.
(iii) High strength-to-weight ratio.
(iil) Transverse properties may
[IV) The fibre pattern can be tailored to efficienUy
sustain the applied
be weak.
I
loads. This directional tailoring cap
abilities allow products to meet
(iv) Costs of raw materials and fabricati
on are expensive. l
lhe design requirements. I
Ad van tag es of Co mp osi te Ma
ter ials I
• Hig h stre ngt h to we igh t rati
o. I
• Hig h stif fne ss to we igh t rati
o. I
• Air con diti on, cor ros ion and
che mic als resistance .
I
• Lig htw eig ht I
• Hig h wo rkab ility I
• Easy for ma bili ty
I
• Low tran spo rt cos t due to ligh I
tweigh t
• Hig h fati gue and imp act stre
ngt h
• Low hea t con duc tivi ty
• Electrical ins ul atio n and co nd
uctivit y
 (1 .22) INTRODUCTION TO COMPOSITES
COMPOSITE MATERIALS

• Weig ht reduction ,s th e song lc g1ea1est ;idvantag e o l composite mate rial usage.

• Also. composite ma te, lals don't corrode as easily as other types o l structures.
• Composite designs also last longer than Aluminium, which means fewer maintenance and repair coS ts. Because
composite materials don ·t break easily, that makes it hard to tell if the interior structure has been damaged at all.
Disadvantages of Composite Materials
• High manufacturing costs
• Brittle, not ductile failure
• Materials require refrigerated transport and storage and have limited shelf lives .
• Composites must be completely cleaned of all contamination before repair.
• Composites must be dried before repair because all resin matrices and some fibers absorb moisture .
• Repair at the original cure temperature requires cooling and pressure.
• Additionally, repairs can be much more difficult when a composite surface is damaged, which ultimately becomes
costly.
11.9 H¥BRID M4ifER!AllS ANll> [ HEIR ll>I~FER~NCE WJiTH C::OMPO~SIT~ MATERIALS
(A) Hybrid Composites
• Hybrid materials are composites consisting of two constituents at the nanometer or molecular level. Commonly one of
these compounds is in organic and the other one organic in nature. Thus, they differ from traditional composites
where the constituents are at the macroscopic {micrometer to millimetre) level. Mixing at the microscopic scale leads
to a more homogeneous material that either show characteristics in between the two original phases or even new
properties.
Applications of Hybrid Composites
• Scratch-resistant coatings with hydrophobic or anti-fogging properties.
• Nanocomposite based devices for electronic and optoelectronic applications including light-emitting diodes,
photodiodes, solar cells, gas sensors and field effect transistors.
• Fire retardant materials for construction industry.
• Nanocomposite based dental filling materials.
• Composite electrolyte materials for applications such as solid-state lithium batteries or supercapacitors..
• Corrosion protection

A • +eluitiNM#i§@imr
The application of composite materials can be broadly classified into
• Aerospace applications
• Road and Rail transport applications
• Offsho.re accord water vehicles
• Bui/ding and other civil structures
• Chemical Industries

• Electrical, Electronics and communication applications

• Mechanical systems and machine elements

• Consumer durable products and sports applications

• Biomedical applications

• High performance composites being costlier• is used! m osti y .in d efence appr f . ei1
high priority and not the cost. ica •ons where the performance is giv