SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

DEPARTMENT OF CURRICULUM AND INSTRUCTIONAL

DEVELOPMENT

GET 6109: SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY

SHADRACK MULE
CONTACTS: muleshadrack@gmail.com

copyright@2014-All rights reserved for MKU

MOUNT KENYA UNIVERSITY;P.O BOX 342-01000 Thika:Email:econtent@mku.ac.ke

GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY

Credit Hours; 3
Pre-requisites: ECT 222, ECT 223 and ECT 312

Purpose
To expose students to effective methods of teaching Chemistry

Expected Learning Outcomes

By the end of the course the learner should be able to:
i) Equip themselves with the historical development in the teaching of
chemistry in teacher education institutions.
ii) Demonstrate an understanding of child-centered approach in the teaching
of chemistry
iii) Prepare schemes of work and lesson plans and assess student’s
performance in chemistry.

Course Content
Historical development in the teaching of chemistry and its reflections in the
Secondary Education Chemistry Curriculum. Values of chemistry in modern life.
Objectives in chemistry teaching. Different Approaches, methods, and techniques of
chemistry teaching: The Schemes of Work, Lesson Plans, Modern approaches to
chemistry teaching, and Micro-teaching. The Kenya Secondary Schools Chemistry
Syllabuses, Resources for teaching chemistry effectively, Selection and use of
resources for chemistry teaching, essentials of chemistry laboratory, evaluation and
Assessment in chemistry.

Course Outline

WEEK 1
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
 Historical Development in the Teaching of Chemistry
 Philosophy and Objectives of Chemistry

WEEK 2
CHAPTER TWO: LEARNING AND INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS IN TEACHING
CHEMISTRY
 Domains of Learning
 Cognitive Levels and suggested Action Plans

WEEK 3
CHAPTER THREE: PLANNING FOR TEACHING CHEMISTRY
 Methods used in chemistry Teaching
 Types of Chemistry Teaching Methods

ii | GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY

WEEK 4
CHAPTER FOUR: CHEMISTRY SCHEME OF WORK AND LESSON PLANS
 Chemistry Scheme of Work
 Chemistry of Lessons Plans

WEEK 5 & 6
CHAPTER FIVE: EVALUATION IN CHEMISTRY EDUCATION
 The Purpose of Testing,
 Development of Test Speciation
 Different Testing Formats

WEEK 7, 8, 9:
CHAPTER SIX: CHEMISTRY LABORATORY DESIGN, ORGANIZATION AND
MANAGEMENT
 Orientation
 Types of Laboratories
 Recommendation Laboratory Layout;
 Laboratory Management
 Laboratory Gas Supply
 Safety in the Chemistry Laboratory
 Laboratory Rules
 Instructions
 First Aid in a Chemistry Laboratory
 Laboratory Accident Report Form
 Laboratory Safety Equipment

Course Assessment
Examination - 70%
Continuous Assessment Test (CATS) - 20%
Assignments - 10%
Total - 100%

iii | GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY

Table of Contents

GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY ............................................................ ii

Credit Hours; 3 ........................................................................................................................ ii
Pre-requisites: ECT 222, ECT 223 and ECT 312 .................................................................. ii
Purpose ..................................................................................................................................... ii
To expose students to effective methods of teaching Chemistry ..................................... ii
Expected Learning Outcomes ............................................................................................... ii
Course Content........................................................................................................................ ii
Course Outline .......................................................................................................................... ii
WEEK 1 ..................................................................................................................................... ii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION..................................................................................... ii
WEEK 2 ..................................................................................................................................... ii
CHAPTER TWO: LEARNING AND INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS IN TEACHING
CHEMISTRY ........................................................................................................................... ii
WEEK 3 ..................................................................................................................................... ii
CHAPTER THREE: PLANNING FOR TEACHING CHEMISTRY ................................ ii
WEEK 4 ....................................................................................................................................iii
CHAPTER FOUR: CHEMISTRY SCHEME OF WORK AND LESSON PLANS .........iii
WEEK 5 & 6 ............................................................................................................................iii
CHAPTER FIVE: EVALUATION IN CHEMISTRY EDUCATION ...............................iii
WEEK 7, 8, 9: ..........................................................................................................................iii
Course Assessment ..................................................................................................................iii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................ 1
1.1 Historical development in the teaching of chemistry and its reflections in the Secondary
Education Chemistry Curriculum ........................................................................................... 1
1.1.1 Chemistry in Modern World ..................................................................................... 1
1.1.2 What is Chemistry Education? .................................................................................. 5
1.2 Nature of Chemistry ......................................................................................................... 6
1.3 Philosophy and Objectives of Chemistry ......................................................................... 7
References for further reading ................................................................................................ 9
CHAPTER TWO: LEARNING AND INSTRUCTIONAL THEORIES IN TEACHING
CHEMISTRY ........................................................................................................................... 10
2.1 Domains of Learning ...................................................................................................... 10
2.2 Cognitive Levels and Suggested Action Verbs .............................................................. 11
References further reading .................................................................................................... 15
CHAPTER THREE: PLANNING FOR TEACHING CHEMISTRY ..................................... 16
3.1 Methods used in Chemistry Teaching ............................................................................ 16
3.2 Types of Chemistry Teaching Methods ..................................................................... 16
3.2.1 Lecture Method................................................................................................... 16
3.2.2 The individual skills of teaching are: ...................................................................... 18
References for further Reading ............................................................................................. 20
CHAPTER FOUR: CHEMISTRY SCHEME OF WORK AND LESSON PLANS ............... 21

iv | GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY

 4.1 Chemistry Scheme of Work .......................................................................................... 21
4.1.1 SAMPLE CHEMISTRY SCHEME OF WORK ..................................................... 22
4.2 Chemistry Lesson Plans.................................................................................................. 23
4.2.1 Considerations of Lesson Planning ......................................................................... 25
4.2.2 A Sample Lesson Plan ........................................................................................ 25
CHAPTER FIVE: EVALUATION IN CHEMISTRY EDUCATION .............................. 27
5.1 THE PURPOSE OF TESTING ...................................................................................... 27
5.2 Development of Test Specification ................................................................................ 29
5.3 Different Testing Formats .............................................................................................. 30
CHAPTER SIX: CHEMISTRY LABORATORY DESIGN, ORGANIZATION AND
MANAGEMENT .................................................................................................................... 36
6.1 Orientation ...................................................................................................................... 36
6.2 Types of Laboratories ..................................................................................................... 36
6.3 Recommended Laboratory Layout ................................................................................. 37
6.4 Laboratory Management ............................................................................................ 38
6.5 Laboratory Gas Supply .............................................................................................. 40
6.6 Safety in the Chemistry Laboratory ............................................................................... 40
6.7 Laboratory Rules ........................................................................................................ 40
6.8 Instructions................................................................................................................. 43
6.9 First Aid in a Chemistry Laboratory .......................................................................... 44
6.10 Laboratory Accident Report Form ......................................................................... 45
6.11 Laboratory Safety Equipment ....................................................................................... 47
References for further Reading ............................................................................................. 47

v | GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY

 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter the learner should be able to: define chemistry education,
state the nature of chemistry, and state the philosophy and objectives of chemistry.

1.1 Historical development in the teaching of chemistry and its reflections in

the Secondary Education Chemistry Curriculum

1.1.1 Chemistry in Modern World

Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes that material substances undergo. Of all the
scientific disciplines, it is perhaps the most extensively connected to other fields of study.
Geologists who want to locate new mineral or oil deposits use chemical techniques to analyze
and identify rock samples. Oceanographers use chemistry to track ocean currents, determine
the flux of nutrients into the sea, and measure the rate of exchange of nutrients between ocean
layers. Engineers consider the relationships between the structures and the properties of
substances when they specify materials for various uses. Physicists take advantage of the
properties of substances to detect new subatomic particles. Astronomers use chemical
signatures to determine the age and distance of stars and thus answer questions about how
stars form and how old the universe is. The entire subject of environmental science depends
on chemistry to explain the origin and impacts of phenomena such as air pollution, ozone
layer depletion, and global warming. The disciplines that focus on living organisms and their
interactions with the physical world rely heavily on biochemistry, the application of chemistry
to the study of biological processes. A living cell contains a large collection of complex
molecules that carry out thousands of chemical reactions, including those that are necessary
for the cell to reproduce. Biological phenomena such as vision, taste, smell, and movement
result from numerous chemical reactions. Fields such as medicine, pharmacology, nutrition,
and toxicology focus specifically on how the chemical substances that enter our bodies
interact with the chemical components of the body to maintain our health and well-being. For

1 | GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY

example, in the specialized area of sports medicine, a knowledge of chemistry is needed to
understand why muscles get sore after exercise as well as how prolonged exercise produces
the euphoric feeling known as ―runner’s high.‖

Examples of the practical applications of chemistry are everywhere. Engineers need to

understand the chemical properties of the substances when designing biologically compatible
implants for joint replacements or designing roads, bridges, buildings, and nuclear reactors
that do not collapse because of weakened structural materials such as steel and cement.
Archaeology and paleontology rely on chemical techniques to date bones and artifacts and
identify their origins. Although law is not normally considered a field related to chemistry,
forensic scientists use chemical methods to analyze blood, fibers, and other evidence as they
investigate crimes. In particular, DNA matching—comparing biological samples of genetic
material to see whether they could have come from the same person—has been used to solve
many high-profile criminal cases as well as clear innocent people who have been wrongly
accused or convicted. Forensics is a rapidly growing area of applied chemistry. In addition,
the proliferation of chemical and biochemical innovations in industry is producing rapid
growth in the area of patent law. Ultimately, the dispersal of information in all the fields in
which chemistry plays a part requires experts who are able to explain complex chemical
issues to the public through television, print journalism, the Internet, and popular books.

By this point, it shouldn’t surprise you to learn that chemistry was essential in explaining a
pivotal event in the history of Earth: the disappearance of the dinosaurs. Although dinosaurs
ruled Earth for more than 150 million years, fossil evidence suggests that they became extinct
rather abruptly approximately 66 million years ago. Proposed explanations for their extinction
have ranged from an epidemic caused by some deadly microbe or virus to more gradual
phenomena such as massive climate changes. In 1978 Luis Alvarez (a Nobel Prize–winning
physicist), the geologist Walter Alvarez (Luis’s son), and their coworkers discovered a thin
layer of sedimentary rock formed 66 million years ago that contained unusually high
concentrations of iridium, a rather rare metal (part (a) in Figure 1.2 "Evidence for the Asteroid
Impact That May Have Caused the Extinction of the Dinosaurs"). This layer was deposited at
about the time dinosaurs disappeared from the fossil record. Although iridium is very rare in
most rocks, accounting for only 0.0000001% of Earth’s crust, it is much more abundant in

2 | GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY

comets and asteroids. Because corresponding samples of rocks at sites in Italy and Denmark
contained high iridium concentrations, the Alvarezes suggested that the impact of a large
asteroid with Earth led to the extinction of the dinosaurs. When chemists analyzed additional
samples of 66-million-year-old sediments from sites around the world, all were found to
contain high levels of iridium. In addition, small grains of quartz in most of the iridium-
containing layers exhibit microscopic cracks characteristic of high-intensity shock waves (part
(b) in Figure 1.2 "Evidence for the Asteroid Impact That May Have Caused the Extinction of
the Dinosaurs"). These grains apparently originated from terrestrial rocks at the impact site,
which were pulverized on impact and blasted into the upper atmosphere before they settled
out all over the world.

Figure 1.2 Evidence for the Asteroid Impact That May Have Caused the Extinction of the
Dinosaurs

3 | GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY

(a) Luis and Walter Alvarez are standing in front of a rock formation in Italy that shows the
thin white layer of iridium-rich clay deposited at the time the dinosaurs became extinct. The
concentration of iridium is 30 times higher in this layer than in the rocks immediately above

4 | GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY

and below it. There are no significant differences between the clay layer and the surrounding
rocks in the concentrations of any of the 28 other elements examined. (b) Microphotographs
of an unshocked quartz grain (left) and a quartz grain from the iridium-rich layer exhibiting
microscopic cracks resulting from shock (right).

Scientists calculate that a collision of Earth with a stony asteroid about 10 kilometers (6
miles) in diameter, traveling at 25 kilometers per second (about 56,000 miles per hour), would
almost instantaneously release energy equivalent to the explosion of about 100 million
megatons of TNT (trinitrotoluene). This is more energy than that stored in the entire nuclear
arsenal of the world. The energy released by such an impact would set fire to vast areas of
forest, and the smoke from the fires and the dust created by the impact would block the
sunlight for months or years, eventually killing virtually all green plants and most organisms
that depend on them. This could explain why about 70% of all species—not just dinosaurs—
disappeared at the same time. Scientists also calculate that this impact would form a crater at
least 125 kilometers (78 miles) in diameter. Recently, satellite images from a Space Shuttle
mission confirmed that a huge asteroid or comet crashed into Earth’s surface across the
Yucatan’s northern tip in the Gulf of Mexico 65 million years ago, leaving a partially
submerged crater 180 kilometers (112 miles) in diameter (Figure 1.3 "Asteroid Impact").
Thus simple chemical measurements of the abundance of one element in rocks led to a new
and dramatic explanation for the extinction of the dinosaurs. Though still controversial, this
explanation is supported by additional evidence, much of it chemical.

1.1.2 What is Chemistry Education?

Education is to acquire knowledge, skills and values deemed appropriate in the society. Today
education components are:
Intellectual, communicative, social and moral, personal and physical and aesthetic.
Chemistry has gained a secure position in the curricula of schools, colleges and universities as
a teaching subject in general education of life and as a branch of science. Chemistry education
refers to:
i) The study of the teaching and learning chemistry
ii) Learning fundamental chemistry knowledge, concepts, theories and laws.

5 | GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY

 iii) The improvement of learning outcomes through inquiry learning and by changing
teaching methods
iv) Appropriate training of chemistry instructors for classroom teaching, demonstrations
and laboratory activities
v) Undertaking decision making in tackling scientific issues
vi) Applying the uses of chemistry to society and appreciate ethical issues by scientists

There is a constant need to update skills of teachers engaged in teaching chemistry, and so
chemistry education speaks to this need.

1.2 Nature of Chemistry

Chemistry is: a body of knowledge and a way of thinking. The origins of chemistry can be
traced from the Greek philosophers through the alchemists, to Dalton’s Atomic Theories. The
early activities related to chemistry were more focused on solving or satisfying societal needs.
These activities had therefore, various purposes, which included decorative, plumbing and
medicinal. This is still the purpose of chemistry and science in general- to serve society.
These early activities were for long restricted to metals but with time theories evolved
followed by experimentation thus showing progressive nature of chemistry. The evolution can
be traced from metallurgists, through the alchemists who then gave way to the more organized
theories. During this progression, the name chemistry developed from ―chemieia‖ which a
Greek word is meaning ART. This word was later modified to alchemy and then to the
present name chemistry.

We have also traced the development of atomic symbols, from the planetary type through the
Daltons geometrical ones to the present letter type. Chemical equations have also developed
from the word equations to molecular and to ionic equations, the historical development of
chemistry can be a useful guide when teaching some topics of the syllabus. The history
reveals that ideas develop from simple to complex. Like in the case of equations, it developed
from word equations, then to formula equations and lastly ionic forms.

6 | GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY

1.3 Philosophy and Objectives of Chemistry

Teachers should present chemistry subject with enthusiasm, clarity, vigor and confidence.

Chemistry is a science, a field built upon logic, reason, and observation. Students must be
guided, so that they can realize the best way to approach each area of chemistry.

There are at least FOUR different philosophical perspectives that describe how the work in
chemistry education can be carried out:
i) Practitioners Perspective: wherein the individuals who are reasonable teaching
chemistry are the ones who ultimately define chemistry education by their actions.
ii) Typical Area in Chemistry: the areas in chemistry can be organic, inorganic,
biochemistry, environmental etc. this lacks any professional perspective on the
teaching and learning enterprise, particularly discoveries made about effective
teaching and how students learn.
iii) Chemical Education Research: tends to take theories and methods developed in pre-
school science education research and applies them to understanding comparable
problems in post-secondary setting.
iv) Chemistry Education Research: utilizes both quantitative and qualitative data
collection methods. Quantitative methods typically involve collecting data that can
then be analyzed using various statistical methods.

Objectives of Chemistry in the secondary school curriculum

The aims of teaching chemistry can be considered as global but are often domesticated by
individual countries to suit their priorities.

Chemistry knowledge is useful in many areas of our lives, a few important areas are:
1. Chemistry plays an important role in the food production and preservation:
 A range of fertilizers have been produced using chemistry knowledge
 Pesticides and preservation products such as benzoic acid are all produced
from chemistry

7 | GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY

 2. Chemical has contributed to better health through production of medicine and
chemicals which kill microorganisms in the environment.
3. Everyone desires to have better social living conditions. Chemistry helps to enhance
social life in production of plastics and synthetic clothes, production of tapes,
cosmetics, hair oils, conditioners etc..
4. Chemistry plays an important role in large scale industries like in production of
cosmetics, soap, shampoo and detergents, in sugar, clothing, petroleum, beer and
wine, cement industries etc..

Emergency of 8-4-4 Chemistry syllabus

In 1984 education system was implemented in Kenya with an aim of making education more
relevant to the needs of the society. The 8-4-4 physical science syllabus was developed
containing physics and chemistry. Only three periods per week were allocated to this course
while the content had been increased. There was a need to increase the number of time
alongside the science syllabus.
The aim of the 8-4-4 chemistry course is to make the subject more applicable to life in the
society. Student projects have been heavily emphasized in order to instill creativity in the
learners and give them an investigative approach to the learning of chemistry.

Aims of Teaching Chemistry

a) To acquire a systematic body of chemical knowledge and develop and understanding
of the concepts, principles, laws, theories and applications of chemistry
b) To develop a scientific attitude
c) To develop a range of skills important for scientific investigations in everyday life
d) To stimulate curiosity, interest and enjoyment of chemistry through methods of
inquiry and care for the environment
e) To develop an understanding of the consequences of chemistry on humans and their
environment

8 | GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY

 The Kenyan Chemistry Syllabus (1988) gives the following aims of teaching Chemistry.
These are paraphrased as follows:
1. Help a learner to acquire chemical knowledge that helps to understand the order of the
physical environment
2. Make the learner be aware of chemistry knowledge and its applications to every day
life
3. Enable a learner to attain problem solving skills
4. Prepare the learner for further studies/training in chemistry related areas.

Review Questions
i) Define a the following term:
- Chemistry Education
ii) Summarize in your own words the historical development of chemistry education
iii) Discuss the FOUR different philosophical perspective learnt in this module by
giving specific examples

References for further reading

i. Devine, T. (1987). Teaching study skills : a guide for teachers . 2nd ed. Newton, MA:
Allyn and Bacon, Inc.
ii. Hartman, H., & Glasgow, N. (2002). Tips for the science teacher: research based
strategies to help students learn . Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, Inc.

9 | GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY

CHAPTER TWO: LEARNING AND INSTRUCTIONAL THEORIES IN
TEACHING CHEMISTRY

Learning Objectives:

By the end of this chapter, the learner should be able to:

i) Discuss four domains of learning
ii) Apply the discussed four domain of learning to specific examples

2.1 Domains of Learning

In the field of education instruction, we are constantly reminded that education has to do with
the development of a whole person: mind, feelings or emotions, body and soul.

There are four domains of learning: cognitive, the affective, the psychomotor and the social
domains.
 The cognitive domain has to do with the thinking and deals with recall or recognition
of knowledge and the development of intellectual abilities and skills
 The affective domain has to do with the interest, attitudes and appreciation.
 The psychomotor domain refers to the manipulative or physical activity
 The social domain deals with the values, ethics and relationships.

The cognitive domain as devised by Benjamin Bloom and others is the most widely used
taxonomy. Blooms taxonomy as it is commonly known, has classified objectives of the
cognitive domain into six major levels: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis,
synthesis and evaluation.

Example 1

By the end of the lesson the learner will be able to:

10 | GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY

 1. Weigh NaOH pellets to the nearest milligram
2. List the names of apparatus used for filtration process in the laboratory
3. Distinguish between an acid and an alkali using a litmus paper
4. Explain the role of a catalyst in a chemical reaction
5. Relate the effects of sulfur dioxide to the environment
6. Stimulate interest in chemistry by preparing and mixing various colors

We can use the list of objectives (1-6) to match with the four domains
Domain Objectives Item number
Cognitive 2, 3, 4
Psychomotor 1, 3
Affective 6
Social 5

2.2 Cognitive Levels and Suggested Action Verbs

Levels Appropriate Action Verbs

If you want your students to: Know Use one or more of these verbs: state, define,
(Knowledge) list, name, write, recall, repeat, arrange,
match, reproduce, recite, outline, memorize,
order, relate etc
Understand (comprehend) Identify, justify, select, indicate, recognize,
report, restate, review, sort, translate,
illustrate, represent, formulate, explain,
contrast, classify, interpret, paraphrase,
summarize, describe, discuss, express, etc
Apply (application) Predict, demonstrate, instruct, compute,
calculate, perform, prepare, practice, apply,
demonstrate, choose, schedule, sketch,
employ, illustrate, interpret, use, etc

11 | GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY

Synthesize (synthesis) Combine, summarize, restate, argue, discuss,
organize, derive, assemble, compose,
construct, formulate, plan, prepare, set up,
write, synthesize, design, etc
Evaluate (evaluation) Appraise, argue, attack, choose, compare,
estimate, evaluate, predict, rate, score, value,
judge, determine, support, defend, criticize,
select etc

Assignment Question 1
Q1 A teacher writes the following objectives in a double lesson laboratory chemistry
practical lesson. The topic of the lesson is “acids and bases”

By the end of this practical, the learner should be able to:

i) Test for acids and basic substances using universal indicator
ii) Write a word equation for a neutralization reaction
iii) Determine at least four characteristics of an acid and a base
iv) Set up apparatus for testing carbon dioxide in the reaction between an acid and a
carbonate
Questions
1. Identify the intended behavior
2. Identify the action verb in the above four objectives
3. Determine the domain of each of the four objectives
4. Determine the condition in objective (i)
5. Identify the performance level in objective (iii)

Instructional Objectives
In practical terms, objectives are in two categories: general and instructional objectives.
General objectives are long term and more specific than the aims.

12 | GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY

Instructional objectives refer to mainly to two domains of knowledge, very likely the
cognitive and the psychomotor domains.

Instructional objectives are central in our planning to teach. Each subject has its own aims and
objectives which the student are expected to achieve after going through the course of
instruction. Aims are long term objectives. They are achieved by teaching the subject for a
long period, say a term, a year or more than a year.

Long term objectives generate certain instructional objectives. Instructional objectives are
statements which describe the kind of modification that we want to bring in the learner as a
result of the learning process, they are written in a certain standard format indicating
behavioral terms, situation or condition and acceptance level.

i) Behavioral Terms
The statement of the objective indicates what the learner should be able to do or perform
by the end of the instructional period that is the intended behavior and should be
observable.

The objective should be stated in terms of terminal behavior and should be stated in
measurable terms

Examples of verbs that show measurable behavior: define, describe, state, list, summarize,
explain, solve, outline, differentiate, compile, design, compare, etc

An example of an objective that is stated in terms of terminal pupils behavior in

measurable terms: ― by the end of the lesson, the pupils should be able to write balanced
chemical equation.‖

ii) Condition
The condition under which the behavior is supposed to occur are indicated. (MB-such
conditions may sometimes be assumed). Example. By the end of the lesson, the pupils

13 | GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY

 should be able to write balanced chemical equations given the oxidation number of the
elements involved.

iii) Acceptance Level

The level of performance which is considered acceptable is indicated. Statement indicated
which standards of performance can be considered adequate (in certain classroom
situations this criterion can also be assume). Example: by the end of the lesson, pupils
should be able to writ eight balanced chemical equations out of ten given the oxidation
numbers of elements involved.

Normally, an instructional objective which is written in the learners behavioral terms is

good enough.

Beginning teachers in particular are advised to write and be guided by objectives. Explicit
or clear objectives can greatly assist a teacher in his/her planning and teaching in the
following way:
1. They establish clear directions for a lesson by serving as a stimulus to think clearly
about the content.
2. They compel the teacher to plan in terms of a learner, by concentrating attention on
capabilities the learner is to develop
3. They often by implication suggest appropriate learners activities, method and
resources which will likely lead to the achievement of the content
4. They provide a basis for determining how successful the learning (and thus the
strategy employed by the teacher) has been.

Review Questions
i) State Four domains of learning
ii) Discuss with relevant examples the cognitive domain of learning

14 | GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY

 iii) Discuss the various levels of objectives

References further reading

i. Ruddell, M. (2004). Teaching content reading and writing in chemistry. 4th ed.
Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
ii. Tama, M., & McClain, A. (1998). Guiding reading and writing in the content areas of
chemistry. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company.
iii. Thier, M., & Davis, B. (2002). The new science literacy . Portsmouth, NH:
Heinemann.

15 | GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY

CHAPTER THREE: PLANNING FOR TEACHING CHEMISTRY
Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, the learner should be able to:

i) List the different types of chemistry teaching methods

ii) Discuss the different methods used in teaching chemistry
iii) Discuss the different types of individual skills
iv) Using SMART model, show how good instructional objectives can be
achieved.

3.1 Methods used in Chemistry Teaching

Every topic in chemistry has particular instructional objectives to be achieved and these
objectives define the type of teaching method that the teacher uses

The teaching method will also depend on the following

 The level of the students
 The educational/training level of the teacher
 The environment of the school, e.g the facilities available and
 The type of content to be covered.

The success of the teaching method employed is measured by the attainment of the objectives
by the students.

3.2 Types of Chemistry Teaching Methods

3.2.1 Lecture Method

In the lecture method, the teacher is the only active participant and the students are passive
listeners

16 | GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY

The teacher can deliver a lot of information to the pupils in a short time but the longer the
lecture period, the less the students are able to retain. This is shown by the following data.
When students are lectured to and then tested on their retention:

Time (minutes) % score (Av)

15 41
30 25
45 22

The longer the lecture the more the mental fatigue leading to loss of concentration. The
lecture method would be appropriate in the following circumstance:
a) When starting a new and difficult topic
b) When explaining certain difficult and theoretical points which cannot be shown
practically
c) When summarizing and recapitulating certain generalizations and principles at the end
of the lesson
d) When explaining some relevant background material of a topic

i) Questioning Method
The questioning technique is a useful method in chemistry teaching because it can be used
on its own, or as part of another method.

It should always accompany the lecture method which will then result to a class
discussion. Questions have various aims, a few of which are listed below:
 Questions help to get a feedback for the teacher as well as pupils
 Helps to understand the level of students, that is their present level of learning
 It also promotes interest, change in activity will help to sustain interest and the use
of questions is a deviation from routine, and
 To test comprehension, e.g to find out how far the pupils understood the content

ii) Teacher Demonstrations

17 | GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY

 In a demonstration experiment, one person performs the experiment for the large group.
These are performed when:-
 There is shortage of apparatus
 Safety is a priority
 Particular attention is needed in certain parts of the experiment which might be
overlooked when the pupils do it alone
Many schools have a shortage of equipment and chemicals hence; teaching has to be based
on demonstrations and not on class experiments. The danger in overdoing demonstrations is
that the students may become passive with time.

iii) Discovery Method

This is where the teacher becomes the facilitator or guide. This method is called heuristic or
discovery method; such methods include laboratory practical, projects work, problem solving
etc. this method helps learner towards effective understanding.

iv) Micro-teaching
It is a technique where the teacher, reviews a video of the lesson, in order to conduct a ―post-
mortem‖

It involves the skills of teachers: it puts the teacher under a microscope, where the observer or
teacher gives/gets a constructive feedback

This method helps the teacher to learn about ones shortfalls, and therefore enhance their
teaching techniques

It helps to sharpen and develop specific teaching skills and eliminate errors

It increases confidence of the teacher

3.2.2 The individual skills of teaching are:

 Lesson planning
18 | GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY
  Presentation
 Stimulus presentation
 Proper use of apparatus
 Questioning
 Silence and nonverbal cues (body languages)
 Closure

a) Preparation of Teaching Chemistry Lessons

Chemistry is a wonderful field of study that touches every other science. The scope of the
field is wide and deep, hence the guidance of a teacher.

The business of teaching will always ask question ―where are we going?‖
In other words what should our students gain or achieve as a result of learning chemistry?
When teaching, you are required to breakdown each objective in to smaller objectives which
are easily achievable. This are referred to as instructional or specific objectives.

Good instructional objectives used the SMART MODEL, which has the following
characteristics
 Specific: tells exactly what you want to happen
 Measurable: observable - can be measured or observed at the end of the lesson
 Achievable: can it be done?
 Realistic: must be realistic given available resources.
 Time Bound: provided the duration of time taken to achieve the desired change i.e 40
minutes.

Example 2

Suppose you are to teach a topic on ―characteristic of oxygen gas‖

Possible objectives can be listed below:

19 | GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY

―By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to test for the presence of oxygen using a
splint‖
1. It is specific because it is focusing on oxygen testing
2. It is measurable of observable for the learner can see the effect of the glowing splint
on oxygen gas
3. It is achievable because it can be done
4. It is realistic for there are available resources for the preparation and generation of
oxygen in the chemistry laboratory
5. It is time bound or short term as it can be done within 80 minutes.

Review Questions
1. Discuss the different types of chemistry teaching methods
2. List the different methods used in teaching chemistry
3. What is SMART Model? And how can it be used in teaching chemistry?

References for further Reading

i. Ruddell, M. (2004). Teaching content reading and writing in chemistry. 4th ed.
Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
ii. Tama, M., & McClain, A. (1998). Guiding reading and writing in the content areas of
chemistry. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company.
iii. Thier, M., & Davis, B. (2002). The new science literacy . Portsmouth, NH:
Heinemann.

20 | GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY

CHAPTER FOUR: CHEMISTRY SCHEME OF WORK AND LESSON
PLANS
Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, the learner should be able to:

i) Prepare schemes of work in chemistry

ii) Prepare lesson plans in chemistry

4.1 Chemistry Scheme of Work

A scheme of work is the pattern the teacher follows when he teaches. It is a detailed time plan
for the subject matter which is to be covered. Schemes of work may be written to cover a few
weeks, term or a whole year.

Some of the rules to be followed when writing a chemistry scheme of work

i) The syllabus must be examined closely. The experienced teacher knows roughly the
period required for each topic. The new teacher will more or less guess how to
compose the scheme of work. The teacher should make an effort to cover the
syllabus in a logical order. The arrangement of the topic in the syllabus or in the
text books is not always the best. Teachers in other departments should be
contacted for integrated teaching, e.g planning of electrolysis in chemistry requires
the knowledge of what has been taught about electrolysis in physics
ii) After looking at the syllabus, the textbook situation must be considered. A comparison
between the textbook and syllabus gives answers to the following questions:
a) How well does the textbook cover the syllabus?
b) Should parts of the book be excluded because they are outdated?
c) What can replace these parts?
d) Is it necessary to use extra and more advanced books? If so which ones?
iii) Suitable experiments should be found for each theoretical section of the syllabus

21 | GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY

 iv) When the teacher has selected the material, the timing of each section should be
determined so that everything fits in time available per term and year.
v) The next thing to do is the detailed planning of the period by period. Quizzes and test
should be included in the detailed scheme (see the scheme below)

4.1.1 SAMPLE CHEMISTRY SCHEME OF WORK

TEACHER:……………………………………………………………………
SCHOOL:………………………………………………………………………
CLASS:…………………………………………………………………………
SUBJECT:………………………………………………………………………
YEAR:………………………………………………………………………….
TERM:………………………………………………………………………….
PERIODS/WEEK:……………………………………………………………..
LESSON DURATION:……………………………………………………......

Instructional Objectives:
By the end of the lesson the learner should be able to:
a) Define a conductor, non-conductor, electrolyte, non-electrolyte, cathode and anode
b) Identify solutions and melts as electrolytes or non-electrolytes
c) State the relationship between electrolyte, non-electrolyte and the particles they
contain
d) Name and explain the products of electrolysis of simple binary electrolytes.

References
Bajah and Godman (2010). Chemistry, a new certificate approach. London: Longman
Group Ltd
Kenya Institute of Education (1987): Physical Science Chemistry (pupils bks), Nairobi:
Kenya Literature Bureau.

Week Lesson Major Topic/ Method Learning/Teaching

No. SubTopic/Objective Learning/Teaching Resources

22 | GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY

 Activity)
1 Lesson Electrical Class experimental Chart showing
1&2 Conductivity Students follow the circuit diagrams
Conductivity of some procedure to test Cells, wires, copper
substances conductivity of the given foil, carbon rod,
Students should be substance. They write sulfur, iron, nickel,
able to categorize their observations, the sodium chloride,
conductors and non- teacher through questions sugar
conductors. leads a discussion to arrive
at the conclusion

Class Experiment Wires, cells,

Students conduct crocodile clips, lead
3 Conduction or molten experiment as per the bromide, sulfur,
substances, students to procedure. They write naphthalene
differentiate between their observations
conductors in the
molten state and non- Discussion leading to
conductors conclusions
2 4&5 Electrical energy in Class Experiment Dry cells
chemical change. Students perform Sodium bromide
Electrolysis. Migration experiments as per Solution, KMnO4
of ions. instructions. Teacher Filter paper.
Students should be demonstration on the
able to explain the migration of ions in a
theory of electrolysis. solution of potassium
permanganate.

Discussion on the theory

of ion migration. Students
write the main points

6 Quiz Question Paper

4.2 Chemistry Lesson Plans

A lesson plan is a detailed plan of the activity that will take place during the lesson, the
teacher bases his plan on:-
 The amount of subject matter to be covered
 The standard of the particular class to be taught. It is not common to use the same
lesson plan in two different classes even if they are of the same stream because the

23 | GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY

 ability of students can vary from one class to another making the teacher to use
different approaches to the same topic.

Administrative Details
Objectives of the Lesson
5 minutes Introduction
30 minutes Main stages or body of the lesson
5 minutes Conclusion
After the lesson Lesson Evaluation
The teacher should note the following
i) In many cases, lesson plans work out but a teacher must not be surprised if he
cannot always strictly keep to his plan
ii) When the teacher writes the plan, he assumes that the students already have
certain knowledge but it may be eventually turn out that the students cannot
follow, hence the teacher has to change his plan
iii) There is no strict pattern that the teacher has to follow when writing lesson plans
but the general pattern can be more or less the same
iv) An ordinary class period has a lesson plan which includes the following: topic,
objectives, and introduction, demonstration (materials, chemicals, procedure,
discussion, conclusion and assignment).
v) The class experiment has slightly varied plan, i.e topic, objective, introduction,
experiment, discussion, conclusion and assignment.

Importance of Lesson Plan Preparation in Chemistry

i) It enables the teacher to cover wider field of content in limited time. The planning of a
chemistry lesson requires title selection and organization of chemistry subject
matter for presentation in the class. The lesson plan is thus a device that helps to
economize time and to teach in a systematic way.
ii) The chemistry plan enables the teacher to aim at the objectives which are appropriate
and suitable for the class. It guides her in the attainment of these objectives.

24 | GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY

 iii) The questions and assignments to be given in the lesson are thought about in advance
hence they end up being relevant and thought provoking. Such questions link the
chemistry content that is learned to everyday life of the students.
iv) The lesson plan requires the teacher to plan activities in advance that will take place
during the lesson. She selects the teaching methods and strategies that she will use
in the lesson.
v) The teaching materials such as charts, models, films, chemicals, etc are selected and
prepared in advance, this helps in making the teaching more systematic.
vi) Copies of lesson plans are a record for future reference.

4.2.1 Considerations of Lesson Planning

During lesson planning the following factors should be considered for effective teaching:
a) The psychological development and the intellectual maturity of students for whom the
lesson plan is being written
b) The needs, interests and abilities of the students, the content which has been covered
previously by the students should be considered
c) The content to be covered and the objectives of the lesson. Different types of content
require different approaches during teaching.
d) The chemistry teacher should be well prepared in terms of: chemistry subject matter,
teaching methods, knowledge of the psychology of learning. The chemistry teacher
should realize the importance of the various steps of a lesson plan. She should use a
variety of teaching methods during the lesson.
e) Teaching material and textbooks to be used during the lesson e.g use of laboratories
should be planned for in advance
f) The time allocated for the lesson.

4.2.2 A Sample Lesson Plan

Subject: Chemistry
Teachers Name: …………………………………………………………………………….
Date:……………………………… Class:………………………..Lesson No…………….

25 | GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY

Major Topic: Electrical Conductance
Lesson Topic: Conductance of Molten Substances
Lesson Objectives:
By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to perform an experiment to determine the
substances which conduct electricity when molten.

Step and Time Content Method of Teaching/learning Remarks

Teaching and resources
Students
activities
Introduction Review of previous Questioning –
5 minutes lesson leading to an overview of
the days lesson previous lesson
students
answer
questions
Development The conductivity of Class Handout
of students molten NaBr, experiment. containing
learning sulfur, and Students instructions and
20 minutes naphthalene by follow the diagram of
attempting to pass provided apparatus, tubes,
an electric current procedure to sodium bromide,
through them perform the sulfur,
experiments. naphthalene, D.C
They attempt supply bulb holder,
to pass an nichrome
electric current electrodes
through them.
5 minutes Discussion/Analysis Questioning Chalkboard
what happens to the techniques. Illustrations
conductivity when Students
substances melt? answer
questions and
write questions
and main
points
5 minutes Conclusion: The conclusion
Some substances is arrived at
conduct electric through
current in molten questioning
state but not in solid
state. Some do not
at all. These are

26 | GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY

 called non-
conductors
5 minutes Assignment:
Students to find out
other substances
which conduct in
the molten state.

CHAPTER FIVE: EVALUATION IN CHEMISTRY EDUCATION

Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, the learner should be able to:

i) State the purpose of testing in chemistry education

ii) Discuss the different types of evaluation in chemistry education
iii) Explain the development of test specification
iv) Explain the different testing formats
v) State the importance of marking scheme in evaluation

5.1 THE PURPOSE OF TESTING

Classroom tests can be used for a variety of instructional purposes. The following tests are
useful for four areas of evaluation:
i. Placement Tests
Useful for class one placement or for a transfer case.
a) Whether the pupil posses prerequisite skills needed to succeed in a unit or course
b) To what extent the students have achieved the objectives of the planned instruction.
In (a) we are concerned with the readiness to begin the instruction while in (b) we are
concerned with the appropriateness of our planned instruction for the group and with the
proper placement of each student in the instructional sequence.
ii. Formative/Progressive Tests

27 | GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY

These tests are given periodically during instruction to monitor students learning progress and
to provide ongoing feedback to both learner and the teacher.

Formative testing provides reinforcement of successful learning and reveals learning

weaknesses in need of correction

iii. Diagnostic Tests

Is given after formative test, to find out the source of learning error as need may arise, the
focus is on the individual student learning difficulties.

iv. Final Examination (end of term test)

Is also referred to as a summative test, it is given at the end of the course or unit of
instruction. The results are used primarily for assigning grades or for certifying students
mastery of instructional objectives.

The listed tests helps the teacher to answer the following questions:
i) Mental ability tests and or past record of achievement answer:
a) How realistic are the teaching plans for the particular group of students?
b) How should the students be grouped for more effective learning?
ii) Readiness tests, pre-tests on needed skills help answer?
To what extent are the learners ready for the next learning?
iii) Mastery tests and observation will answer:
To what extent are students attaining the minimum essentials of the course?
iv) Diagnostic tests, observation and pupil conferences help answer:
What types of learning difficulties are the students experiencing?
v) Achievement tests, and diagnostic tests help answer:
a) Which students are underachievers?
b) Which pupil should be referred for counseling or special classes?
vi) Review of all evaluation data helps to answer the question:
What grade should be assigned to each student?

28 | GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY

 In summary, we test the following reasons:
 To identify class problems and difficulties so that they can be revised
 To evaluate teaching methods, techniques and curriculum
 For future planning especially when revising the syllabi for career guidance,
especially in the final classes
 To determine the student level of knowledge at the beginning of instruction i.e
their entering behavior
 And test results are used to place (select) students into careers and jobs

Students are tested for skills and abilities, according to the categories in the cognitive domain
of the taxonomy of educational objectives (Blooms classification of educational objectives)
 Knowledge
 Comprehension (understanding)
 Application (ability to applying of laws)
 Higher abilities and skills.

5.2 Development of Test Specification

A two – way chart called a table of specifications is used to measure instructional objectives.

This chart relates the instructional objectives to the course content and specifies the relative
emphasis to be given to each type of learning outcome.

Example
In the Kenya National Examination Council, follow the chart table below:

The chart table is based on cognitive domain in the Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational
objectives. After the table has been prepared, the questions are written individually and then
compiled into a paper.

29 | GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY

Table 5.1: An Example of 40 short answers test specifications

Content Topics Classification Atmosphere Water Acid salts Total

of substances and and and
combustion water bases
Objective
Knowledge 4 4 3 2 1 14
Comprehension 2 3 3 1 2 11
Application 2 3 2 2 2 10
Higher abilities 1 1 1 1 1 5
Total 9 10 9 6 6 40

5.3 Different Testing Formats

Often used question types are:
 Objective questions
 Structured questions
 Short answer questions
 Essay type questions

I. Objective Questions

These are marked objectively as the examiner is not influenced by his subjective
judgment.

Objective questions are either:

 True/false
 Match choice type
 Multiple completion type
 Assertion-reason questions

NB: Guess work cannot be ruled out completely

30 | GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY

 II. Structured Questions
A structured question is divided into many parts and each part requires a short answer
which is independent of other parts. Usually the parts of the question will have a common
step which consists of either will have a common step which consists of either (i) data or
(ii) diagram.

Structured questions are difficult to set but are easy to mark as the responses consist of
short answers. Since answers are definite, subjectivity in marking is minimized.

Candidates are usually provided with spaces in which to write their answers in the
question paper. Many concepts can be tested in these questions since the questions have
many parts.

Examples of a chemistry structured question.

Use the flow chart below to answer the questions that follow:
Brine (saturated sodium chloride)

Ammonia
P Q

Ammonia NAHCO3
& NH4Cl

CaCl2 Heat NH4Cl R

Substance Y
Water
Water
Slaker (T) Heat

Limestone

S Substance X
(CaCO3)

31 | GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY

 Na2CO3
a) (i) Name the substance labeled X and Y
X……………………………………… Y …………………………………………..
(ii) Name two substances being recycled in the process represented by the flow chart.

(iii) Name the processes that take place in

S: __________________________________________________

(iv) Give one use of Calcium Chloride (CaCl2)

_____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________

(v) Write the equations for the reaction taking place in

Q: ___________________________________________________
T: ___________________________________________________

b) Explain how sodium carbonate can be used to soften hard water.

(use ionic equations where necessary)

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________

c) Give one other commercial use of sodium carbonate, besides softening of hard water.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________

32 | GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY

 d) X grammes of sodium carbonate reacted completely with 30 cm3 of dilute HCl to
produce 672 cm3 of carbon dioxide gas at STP (1 mole of gas occupies 22.4 liters at
STP; C = 12.0, O = 16.0, N = 23.0)
i) Write the equation for the reaction
_______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
ii) Calculate the concentration of the acid in moles per liter.
_______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

iii) Calculate the value of X

_______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________

III Short Answer Questions

These are short questions based on the structured type. They have specific answers so they
can be marked objectively.
IV Essay Questions
The essay questions are commonly viewed as a single item. The items may be classified
depending on the amount of freedom of responses allowed to the student.

In summary, essay questions examine the qualities of self-expression, use of scientific words,
ability to organize ones work and maturity of language.

Example

Give reasons for the view that air is mainly a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen and not of
gaseous compounds of the form N4O.

Describe how oxygen and nitrogen are obtained in a large scale for commercial use.

33 | GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY

V Practical Examinations
The following qualities are tested in practical examinations:
 Skills in making observations and recording of these observations e.g. color changes,
evolution of heat etc
 Ability to interpret practical experiences i.e experimental results
 Ability to plan and carry out experiments
 The possession of appropriate manipulative skills, and
 Attitudes towards practical work. The teacher usually does this during the practical
work. He uses an attitude scale and rates the students according to their method of
presenting results, how they ask questions and how they interpret results.

In chemistry, practical examinations may be set on qualitative or quantitative analysis or any

other areas of the subject.

In 8-4-4 education system, the chemistry examinations consist of:

 A theory paper containing short answer questions
 Structured questions
 Essay questions
 A practical paper

VI Marking Scheme

Marking scheme should have the following features:

 Answers
 Points against the answers
- Maximum points should be chosen for each section and the number should as far
as possible be a round figure
- Make for provisions for points which may come up which require marks
- Mark one questions in all papers at a time (for structured and essay questions)
- Use two numbers in recording i.e 08/20 not 8/20.

34 | GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY

Record of Marks
It is normal practice to report a student performance in an examination (or at the end of a
school term) to the student himself and to his parents with the teachers comments. Since this
information is very important to students and to parents, it is necessary to keep a record of the
students scores in tests.

Table 5.4: Student Record of Marks

School: _______________________________________ Class: _______________________
Subject: _______________________________________Test No:_____________________

Question No 1 2 3 4 5 Total Total % Position in Class

Name of Student

Teachers Comments:
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________

Review Questions
i) Describe five qualities of a well constructed chemistry test
ii) Explain five weaknesses shown by the Kenya National Examination Council
iii) Prepare a table of specifications for a test containing twenty short answer items
based on the topics: acids, bases, indicators, air and combustion.
iv) Discuss any three advantages of structured questions as compared to essay type
of questions in chemistry

35 | GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY

 CHAPTER SIX: CHEMISTRY LABORATORY DESIGN, ORGANIZATION AND
MANAGEMENT
Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, the learner should be able to:

i) Draw a sketch of a chemistry laboratory

ii) Discuss the different injuries which can occur in a laboratory
iii) State some of the critical safety rules to be observed in a chemistry laboratory

The chemistry laboratory is a room where it is possible to conduct experiments and a

chemistry teacher cannot be able to do without this resource and the following are design
considerations:

6.1 Orientation

 The direction of the sun’s movement should be considered so as to avoid direct

sunlight from getting into the laboratory. The reasons for this are that:
 Direct sunlight catalyses decomposition of some chemicals like KMnO4, AgNO3.
 Sun shining on non-luminous Bunsen burner flames in chemistry laboratories can be
particularly dangerous
 Sitting of windows adjacent to chalkboards or overhead projector screens should also
be avoided.

WEST LABORATORY EAST

6.2 Types of Laboratories

Schools usually have two types of laboratories: general and senior laboratories. General
laboratories could be used for physics, chemistry or biology. This type of laboratory is

36 | GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY

suitable for combined sciences like physical sciences – three classes can be held inside
simultaneously. Block laboratories are more common in schools. In all laboratories:
 Provision of electricity and gas should be made
 Fume cupboard is necessary for reparation of poisonous chemicals like bromine
water and for preparation of volatile solution, like ammonia.
 The floor should be made of either rough concrete or plastic pads (rubber)
 Tables should have proper air circulation in order to have a healthy working
atmosphere and also as a precaution against fire. A ceiling is therefore unnecessary.
 Firefighting equipment, such as a blanket (heavy wool) a sand bucket and a fire
extinguisher should be available.

6.3 Recommended Laboratory Layout

C C

PR WR FC

Advantages

37 | GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY

  Table are fixed
 Fume cupboard is near front making it easier for teachers to use it
 Students face the front
 Allows for less movement of students during practical sessions

6.4 Laboratory Management

 Storage of Chemicals
Chemicals are stored in inorganic and organic sections
A record of the chemicals should be kept in the chemicals file in the store
Chemicals should be stored according to their particular properties in order to avoid
uncontrollable reactions between incompatible materials in the event of breakages or
leakages.
Larger containers are best stored at low level to reduce lifting and also reduce the risk of
falling and breaking.
 Flammable chemicals
Many organic compounds such as propanone, tetra-chloromethane and carbon disulfide
are flammable. They should be stored in special cupboards which have a rubber seal.
 Corrosive Chemicals
Corrosive chemicals such as acids should be put in a separate area away from other
materials. Bottle carriers should be used for transporting these materials (never carry the
bottles by the neck)
 Very reactive chemicals
Teacher should note the following points when using the following reactive chemicals
- Group one elements such as Na, K, should be stored under oil (paraffin). Use small
amounts in reactions
- Phosphorus – white phosphorus should never be allowed to dry. It is kept under
water. Use small amounts in reactions
- Strong oxidizing agents should not be kept near a strong reducing agent
- Bromine is very dangerous – it should be stored in a special place and students
should never be allowed to work with it.
 Poisonous Chemicals

38 | GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY

 There are those highly toxic materials, which should be kept in locked cupboards (labeled
POISON in RED)

The chemicals should be issued to authorized persons only against signed requisitions.
Some of the poisons are: mercury and its salts, arsenic compounds and cynanides.
 Radioactive materials
It is not a good practice to keep radioactive substances in the store but if there is any
reason for having them in the store, a lockable metal safe suitably labeled should be used.
 Carcinogenic compounds
All laboratory users should be made aware of cancer causing compounds so that
appropriate precautions are taken when these are being used. The following is a list of
substances with carcinogenic activity

IUPAC NAME COMMON NAME

All alkyl or aryl nitrosoamines All alkyl or aryl nitrosoamines
4-aminonaphthalen 4- aminonaphthalen
1-aminomaphthalen-2-ol 1-aminomaphthalen-2-ol
Anthracen-2-amine Anthracen-2-amine
Asbestos fibre Asbestos fibre
Auramine Auramine
4,4-biphenyldiamine Benzidine
Buta-1,2-diene dioxide Butadiene dioxide
Coal-tar resifues Coal-tar resifues
1-chhloronaphthaline 1-chhloronaphthaline
3,3’-dichloro-4,4’-biphenydiamine 3,3’-dichloro-4,4’-biphenydiamine
Diethyl dioxide Dioxane
8-hydroxyqulinoline 8-hydroxyqulinoline
Naphthaline-2-amine 2-Naaphthylamine
Nickel metal dust Nickel metal dust
4-nitrobiphenyl 4-nitrobiphenyl

39 | GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY

 1,2,3,4,5-pentachlorophenol Pentachlorophenol
Tetracarbonyl nickel (0) Nickel carbonyl
Thioethanamide Thioethanamide
Benzeme benzeme

6.5 Laboratory Gas Supply

Gas cylinders should be stored in a gas chamber outside the laboratory. The cylinders should
be kept in a vertical position and secured in a way that they cannot fall over.

Doors of the gas house (chamber) should be made of wire mesh or perforated wooden doors
to allow free circulation of air. This prevents gas buildup during possible leaks and thus
prevents the potential hazards.

Gas system in the laboratory should have a main tap.

6.6 Safety in the Chemistry Laboratory

 Some accidents may be caused by broken glassware

 Burns can be either physical or chemical. Physical burns are caused by fire or hot
objects whereas chemical burns are caused by chemicals such as acids, bromine and
white phosphorus.
 Poisoning is very common. The recommended storage and handling of poisons should
be followed. Eye injuries may be caused by corrosive and volatile chemicals.
 Discipline is key in laboratory as every laboratory user has a responsibility for his/her
own safety and of other users.

6.7 Laboratory Rules

A strict code of safety rules should be displayed and brought to the attention of the students.
Suggested chemistry laboratory rules are given below:

40 | GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY

Remember these rules are there to be kept and not to be violated. Ensure you write them down
on your notebook, read them through over and over and by the end of this section, there are
some questions to be tackled. Now let us look at some of the most crucial rules you need to
know.

i. NEVER run while in the laboratory because you may harm or injure yourself
and other lab users such as your fellow students.
ii. ALWAYS consult your teacher before trying any experiments to avoid
accidents
iii. LABEL all the chemicals you are using to avoid confusion.
iv. ALWAYS use a clean spatula for scooping a substance from the container to
minimize contamination.
v. ALWAYS hold test-tubes or boiling tubes using a test-tube holder when
heating to avoid being burnt.
vi. When heating a substance, NEVER let the open end of the tube face yourself
or anybody else because the liquid may spurt out and cause injury.
vii. NEVER look directly into flasks and test-tubes where reactions are taking
place, because the chemicals may spurt into your eyes and cause injury.
viii. NEVER smell gases directly. Instead waft the gaseous fumes near your nose
with your hand.
ix. ALWAYS use fume hood/open space if the experiment produces poisonous
gases and vapors.
x. DON’T TAKE FOOD TO THE LAB: Anything in the laboratory is a chemical, the
food you bring in the laboratory in terms of sweets, cake, biscuits, chewing gum etc all
become CHEMICALS! Thus DON’T EAT ANYTHING IN THE LAB!
xi. DON’T PIPETTE BY MOUTH: You say, ―But it is only water‖. Even if it is water
how clean do you think that glassware really is? Using disposable pipettes? I know
most people who rinse them and put them back! Learn to use the pipette bulb or
automated pipette. Don’t pipette by mouth at home either. Gasoline and kerosene
should be obvious but people get hospitalized or die every year, right? The lesson is
that even seemingly harmless substances in the lab may be dangerous!

41 | GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY

 xii. DO NOT TASTE OR SNIFF CHEMICALS: For many chemicals, if you can
smell them then you are exposing yourself to a dose that can harm you! If the safe
information says that a chemical should be used inside a fume hood, then don’t use it
anywhere else. This isn’t cooking class – don’t taste your experiments!
xiii. READ CHEMICAL SAFETY DATA SHEET: A Material Safety Data Sheet
(MSDS) should be available for every chemical in the lab. Read these and follow the
recommendations for safe use and disposal of the material.
xiv. DRESS APPROPRIATELY: For chemistry laboratory, not fashion or the weather.
No sandals, no clothes you love more than life, no contact lenses, and long pants are
preferable to shorts or short skirts. Tie long hair back. Wear safety goggles and lab
coat. Even if you aren’t clumsy, someone else in the lab probably is. If you take even a
few chemistry courses you will probably see people set themselves on fire, spill acid
on themselves, others splash themselves/or others in the eyes. Don’t be the bad
example to others, remembered for all time for something stupid!
xv. IDENTIFY THE SAFETY EQUIPMENT: And know how to use it! Given that
you will definitely need them, know the locations of the fire blanket, extinguishers,
eyewash, and shower. Ask for demonstration! If the eyewash hasn’t been used in a
while the discoloration of the water is usually sufficient to inspire the use of safety
glasses.
xvi. DON’T CASUALLY DISPOSE OF CHEMICALS DOWN THE DRAIN: Some
chemicals can be washed down the drain, while others require a different method of
disposal. If a chemical can go in the sink, be sure to wash it away rather than risk an
unexpected reaction between chemical ―leftovers‖ later.
xvii. DON’T PLAY MAD SCIENTIST: Don’t haphazardly mix chemicals! Pay attention
to the order in which chemicals are to be added to each other and do not deviate from
the instructions. Even chemicals that mix to produce seemingly safe products should
be handled carefully. For example, hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide will give
you salt water, but the reaction could break your glassware or splash the reactants onto
you if you aren’t careful.
xviii. In case of an ACCIDENT do not scramble for the same exit, because it may hinder
easy escape.

42 | GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY

 xix. ALWAYS put off flames that are not in use in order to avoid accidents and minimize
fuel wastage.
xx. If a chemical gets on your skin, RINSE it immediately with a lot of water.
xxi. ALWAYS dispose off the chemicals already used SAFELY to avoid explosions and
contaminations.
xxii. ALWAYS work on clean bench. After completing your experiment, clean all the
pieces of apparatus you have used and return them to their correct storage places.
xxiii. TAKE DATA DURING LAB: Not after lab, on the assumption that it will be neater.
Put data directly in your lab book rather than transcribing from another source (e.g
notebook or lab partner). There are lots of reasons for this, but the practical one is that
it is much harder for the data to get lost in your lab book. For some experiments, it
may be helpful to take data before lab. No I am not telling you to dry-lab or cheat, but
being able to project likely data will help you catch bad lab procedure before you are
three hours or so into a project. Know what to expect. You should always read the
experiment in advance.

6.8 Instructions

Students must be given adequate instructions when performing experiments. They must be
specifically warned of precautions to be taken, for example, when fitting glass tubes through
corks or when heating flammable liquids.

 Labels
All containers must have correct and legible labels
 Floors
Polished service must be used. Spilled water makes the floor slippery and should be
removed immediately.
 Ventilation
A good laboratory should be well ventilated. There should be a furniture, cupboard. Use
of curtains should be avoided but if they must be used they should be securely held away
from burners.

43 | GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY

  Fire
The laboratory should have fire fighting equipments
 Waste disposal in the laboratory
Solids
i) Sodium can be destroyed by adding small amount of methylated spirit
ii) Potassium can be destroyed by adding a small amount of butyl alcohol
iii) Phosphorus can be destroyed by adding small amount of copper sulphate
iv) Inactive and insoluble solids should be put in waste boxes.

Liquids
Organic liquids should not be put in sinks. They should be put in waste disposal bottles
and later burned in open air or they should be recycled. Solutions thrown into sinks should
be washed with a lot of water.

Gases
Use the fume chamber. It gives the best solution for disposal of gases.

Glass
a) Broken glass fragments should be swept up at once in a special wasted labeled
―GLASS ONLY‖
b) Students MUST be instructed in the correct methods of cutting and handling glass
tubing particularly fitting tubes through corks and bungs

6.9 First Aid in a Chemistry Laboratory

1. In all cases of serious injury, like injuries to the eye, or of poisoning, the patient
should be taken to a doctor immediately after applying first aid.
2. All science teachers should know what to do in the event of an accident. First aid
instructions should be displayed in case a teacher has doubt.
3. Before applying First Aid, wash your hands in water which contains a little antiseptic
such as ―dettol‖ and dry on a piece of sterile gauze

44 | GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY

 4. Written report should be made on every accident, however trivial as soon as the
necessary first aid has been given
5. All chemistry laboratories must have first aid kits as required by law.

6.10 Laboratory Accident Report Form

The vast majority of educational institutions have their own standard accident report form.
A sample is illustrated below. This form must be filled in case of an accident.

A SAMPLE OF ACCIDENT REPORT FORM

1. NAME OF SCHOOL:_____________________________________________
2. NAME OF STUDENT(S) INVOLVED:
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
3. AGE: ___________________________________________
4. DAMAGE OR INJURY TO THE STUDENT:
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________
5. TIME AND PLACE OF ACCIDENT:
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
6. NUMBER OF STUDENTS IN THE LABORATORY AT TIME OF ACCIDENT:
__________________________________________________________________
7. CAUSE OF ACCIDENT (state clear whether it was due to equipment failure, faulty
procedure or carelessness)
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

8. WAS MEDICAL ADVICE SOUGHT OR OBTAINED, IF SO WHAT TIME AND

FROM WHO?

45 | GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY

 _____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

9. WERE THE PARENTS NOTIFIED OF THE ACCIDENT, IF SO WHEN AND BY

WHO?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________

10. NAME AND SIGNATURE OF TEACHER IN CHARGE OF THE CLASS AT THE

TIME:
NAME: ________________________________________________
SIGNATURE: ___________________________________________
DATE: _________________________________________________

Shock
Any serious accident will produce shock. The patient may feel cold and faint. Lose colors and
breathe irregularly. In such cases:
 Take immediate steps to deal with injuries and reassure the patient
 Let the patient lie down in a place with fresh air
 Loosen any tight clothing
 Keep warm with blankets, coats etc and
 Avoid giving any liquid as there may be internal injuries

Wounds
Small cuts or scratches should be washed with clean water or dettol diluted 1 part in 10 of
water. Then apply antiseptic cream on a sterile gauze dressing secured by bandage

Deep cuts with considering bleeding

If foreign matter remains in the wound send the patient to the hospital

46 | GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY

If there is no possibility of a foreign matter remaining on the wound:
 Apply a thin pad of sterile gauze
 Bandage tightly in place
 Treat for shock
 Support the injured part in a raised position
 Take the patient to the hospital.

6.11 Laboratory Safety Equipment

Lab fire equipments (e.g should be available in the laboratory to prevent fire accidents due to
flammable chemicals and gases. Fire may be caused by the presence of flammable gases,
chemical reaction explosions or from faulty equipment in the lab. There are many causes of
fire in the lab. Some may include the use of flammable liquids and gases, flammable materials
and ignition sources such as electric shock, high temperature surfaces and the existence of
lighter inside. A fire accident may happen for the chemical reaction of two substances in a
trap, or more, which also can cause an explosion. The availability and use of fire
extinguishers in the lab should not be underrated. The presence and use of fire resistant coats,
extinguishers, fire blanket etc) alongside emergency showers, which are intended to provide
first aid when someone ignite should be availed to students.

Review Questions
i) State several laboratory safety rules
ii) Describe and sketch a chemistry laboratory
iii) Explain the different injuries in a chemistry laboratory

References for further Reading

i) Ruddell, M. (2004). Teaching content reading and writing in chemistry. 4th ed.
Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
ii) Tama, M., & McClain, A. (1998). Guiding reading and writing in the content areas of
chemistry. Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company.
iii) Thier, M., & Davis, B. (2002). The new science literacy . Portsmouth, NH:
Heinemann.

47 | GET 6109 : SUBJECT METHODS: CHEMISTRY