Table of Content-Research Tips

1.
Research………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………1
2. Research
Process……………………………………………………………………………………………..1
3. Selecting Title and Identifying the
Problem………………………………………………………..1
4. Research
Proposal…………………………………………………………………………………………….3
5. Contents of Research Paper (Proposal and final research report)
…………………………..4
 Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………..4
I.
Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………
……….4
o Background of the
Study……………………………………………………………………4
o Statement of the
Problem…………………………………………………………………..4
 Research Questions
o Objectives of the
Study………………………………………………………………………5
 General Objective
 Specific Objective
o Significance of the
Study……………………………………………………………………5
o Scope of the
Study…………………………………………………………………………….5
 Delimitation of the Study
 Limitation of the Study
o Research
Methodology………………………………………………………………………6
 Research
Design………………………………………………………………………6

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  Methods…………………………………………………………………………
……….7
 Sampling Procedure Design
 Data collection Tools
 Controls
 Data Presentation and Analysis
 Designing Data Collection Form
 Sampling Procedure
o Organization of the
Study…………………………………………………………………11
o Definitions of used Terminologies (Terms)
…………………………………………11
II. Review of the Related Literature:
………………………………………………………………11
III. Data Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation (Primary and Secondary
Data)13
IV. Summary of Findings, Conclusions and
Recommendations…………………………..14
 Referencing……………………………………………………………………………………
…………14
6. Proposed Format for the final project
paper……………………………………………………….27
7.
Appendices……………………………………………………………………………………………
………..27
8. Final Research Report (Writing)
………………………………………………………………………..28
RESEARCH TIPS

1. Research is systematic inquiry aimed at providing information to solve

problems.

Business Research is intended for supplementing business decisions, while

marketing research links the consumer to the marketer through information___
information used to identify and define marketing opportunities and problems;
generate, refine and evaluate marketing actions; monitor marketing performance;
and improve our understanding of marketing as a process.

2.The research process:

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It may be summarized and programmed/scheduled in view of the following 4
phases:
1. Getting Started:, Identify topic and formulate problem statement, identify
information resources and review literature:
Out put: Preliminary Plan
2. Research Methodology: Identify source, design survey instrument, define
population and sample, data collection
Out put: Survey instrument and data
3. Writing Up: Data analysis and presentation, reporting results, summary and
recommendations, citations
Output: Research Paper
4. Communication: Choose media and present result to concerned stakeholders
Output: Grade
Detailed outline of the research process can also be stated as follows:
Problem formulation >>> Research Design Determination >>> Data Collection
Method >>> Design Data Collection Forms >>> Design Sample and Collect Data
>>> Analyze and Interpret the Data >>> Prepare the Research Report and
Communicate

3. Selecting Title and Identifying the Problem

Title: Brief (about 10 words/ 60 characters, preferably at most 15-25 words),

accurate (clear), descriptive (indicating the nature & purpose of your research),
comprehensive (incorporate key words/concepts). The title should clearly show
the issue, the item and the glance over the delimitation or scope of the study.

Title Styles: Indicative; Hanging; Question. Respective business and marketing

title examples on each style follow:
 The Impact of Change of Ownership on Unity University
 The Change of Ownership in Unity University: Assessing the Impact
 What are the Impacts of the Change of Ownership on Unity University?

 Evaluation of Market Readiness for Mining Engineering Program for Unity

University
 Mining Engineering Program of Unity University: Market Readiness
Evaluation
 How ready is the Market for Mining Engineering Program of Unity University?

Problem Statement: Refers to some difficulty which the society encounters in

the context of either theoretical or practical situation and needs a solution for the

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same. Defining research problem properly and clearly is a crucial part of research
study and must in no case accomplished hurriedly (Kotari, 2004). Note ‘Problem
clearly stated is a problem half solved’.

Suggested Criteria for Selecting Good Research Problem

o Original (new/modified);
o Unambiguous (clear)
o Based on your interest;
o Important (application to knowledge & practice);
o Availability of data (including instrument & procedure);
o Availability of cooperation in the research process;
o Familiarity (experience & knowledge in the area);
o Courage & confidence

Components in Research Problem formulation

o State Prime (general) questions (What do you want to know)
o Specify the rationale (why you want to have the question answered)
o State the research questions/hypothesis (break down the general
question into variety of specific questions from rationale perspective)

Potential sources of a research problem:

o Area of interest;
o Ones own observation
o Daily problem;
o Technological changes;
o Unexplored areas;
o Discussion with experienced;
o Reviewing the relevant literature

4. Research Proposal: it is blueprint for research action. It is plan specifying the

objective of study (problem to be solved or question to be answered or
hypotheses to be tested); the methodology or approach and theoretical
background to solve the problem (to gathering and analyzing data); and the
schedule and budget requirement.

It’s the phase where: What to do? Why to do? What you expect? When to do?
Where to do? How to do?
(Are planned and documented very clearly)

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Analogous to architect’s drawing research proposal is starting point to reach good
research result.
It should be well thought and prepared with sufficient preliminary reading in area
of interest.

Research Proposal Features: clarity (not intended for artistic production);

brevity (only the relevant points included); Organization (well organized/outlined)
Proposal basically may have 3 parts:
 The preliminary (Title/cover page, table of contents, abstract)
 The Body (Chapter 1 and 2 below)
 Additional (Supplemental): Budget & Schedule and Bibliography

Proposal Outline (Suggested)

Title Page
Table of Contents
Abstract
CHAPTER I: The Problem and Its Approach
Introduction
Statement of the Problem
Research Questions
Objectives of the Study
General Objective
Specific Objective
Significance of the Study
Scope of the Study
Delimitation of the Study
Limitation of the Study
Research Methodology
Research Design
Sampling Procedure
Source of Data
Methods of Data Collection
Methods of Data Analysis
Organization of the Study
Definition of Used Terms (Optional)
CHAPTER II: Review of the Related Literature
CHAPTER III: Budget and Time Schedule
Cost Summary (optional)
Time Table
Dissemination (optional)

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5. Components of the proposal and Final Research Report : (Briefly
explained)

Abstract: Shows to a reasonably informed reader why a particular topic is

important to address and how you will do it. State the problem; and (purpose,
expected outcome, beneficiaries, expected impact and method) of the study.

Introduction (~10pages):Provides background information of the study (a brief

introduction about the problem area and the subject). It gives a brief overview (for
well informed audience) of what the proposal is all about, its beneficiaries and
how they benefit; and contribution to practice and knowledge of the study (why
this study is needed/ rationale?). It finally briefly describes what is next in the
pages (parts). In addition, it should include a brief gateway to the statement of
the problem by showing the overall purpose of the study. /Two pages/
The student could include a brief introduction about the organization it is working
on but since chapter one is about the problem and its approach it should give
strong emphasis on their critical issues:
1. Why am I doing this research- statement of the problem
2. What do I expect- General and specific objectives
3. How am I doing it- Methodology of the study

Statement of the Problem: It should be clear and useful. It describes the area,
nature (severity and magnitude) of the problem. It shows the gap between the
ideal/desired state/goals considered important and the reality (status quo) by
describing both. It states factors preventing the ideal from being achieved. It
shows consequence of the problem, urgency of situation, emphasizes benefit of
research and projects impact of possible solution. The justification of the problem
(referring to evidence based on idea read/observation or personal experience)
showing the existence of the problem and rationale of setting the research
objectives is explained here. Sum up the section by stating the research
questions/hypothesis summarizing: What you are doing? What specific
issue/question will your work address? What will be learned from the study?

In sum, the statement of the problem should have the following three parts:
1. Originating question- providing an introductory part about the issue and its
purpose. It should also show the reason as to why the issue should be dealt
by the researcher.

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 2. Rationale- the student researcher should give reason or evidence about the
existence of the research problem. They should show that it is a
researchable problem and that the solution is not obvious.
3. Basic questions or research questions- the student researcher should
develop four to six basic questions. The questions should be in w question
form and they should be clear and wide enough to address the basic issues
of the study. /two pages/

Objectives of the Study: Answering the research questions is the objective. It

should be described in relation to the problem & methodology. Purpose of the
research is explained here. Make sure features of good objective (SMART) are
applied. It provides justification of the research. It outlines the academic/scientific,
non-academic/development/societal relevance and personal goal intended to
achieve.

Objectives may include the following: getting familiarity with phenomena; getting
new insight; empirical (adding to knowledge); contributing to theory/debate
methodology, explaining (theory/practice); clarifying new insights (new
interpretations) about problem; contributing to problem solution. Expected
outcome and beneficiaries are also indicated. Objectives could be general (short
statement of scientific goals pursued is written in a declarative format.) and
specific (operational stating specific knowledge and beneficiaries) /<2 pages/

Significance of the Study: It discusses practical and theoretical importance of

the topic; and contributions. It explains why it is important to answer this
question. Implications of the study: in informing policy making; in extending
knowledge; in enriching literature; and in enhancing practice are explained here.
This section convinces readers go on reading the proposal and sponsor it. The
benefit/ importance or significance of the study should be provided. The benefit of
the study to various stakeholders should be identified in this part. The student
researcher should show or argue about the importance of the study to different
beneficiaries of the study. / One page/
Scope of the Study: Scope refers to what is not going to be investigated.
Delimitation of Study: The section sets boundary in terms of subjects, studied
area, variable, time span (to achieve manageability without compromising
representativeness). The researcher should show the focus area of the study and
give reason for narrowing down the study to such scope. It should identify the
focus area and make it manageable with respect to the resource available. /One
page/

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Limitation of the study: Difficulties faced during doing research arising from
methodology, resource availability, books/literature adequacy, cooperation,
interference are openly stated/indicated here or in the conclusion part. The
student researcher could identify possible anticipated limitations before starting
the study. In addition limitations, if there were any, could be included in this part
after completing the study. In the proposal anticipated limitations and predicted
solution can only be stated. Limitation must be stated in terms of how they will
affect/ have affected the boundary/scope of the research.

Research Methodology: Methodology (general); methods (specific) Ensuring its

suitability to the study is critical. Start section with brief introduction.
Describe approach utilized to conduct the study; and methods used to collect and
analyze data. Justify the use of methodology and methods (Why you use the
method? Why other methods were not used?)
Choose research strategies ensuring enough empirical data.
Research Methodology consist of:- /Source of Data, Data collection Tools and
Sampling Technique, and Research Design, Data Presentation and Analysis /2
pages/
two pages/
A. Source of Data- the use of general source of data /Primary or Secondary
data/ and the specific type of data should be mentioned.
B. Data collection tools and Sampling Techniques- This could include the use of
interview, questionnaire, observation, published, unpublished data or any
other data collecting approach. The student researcher should identify the
sampling technique to be used and the exact or estimated sample size for
the research. The student researcher should also justify the use of a given
sampling technique in order to reduce sampling errors.
C. Research Design, Data Presentation and Analysis- the student researcher
should show the selected research design and give reason for selecting one.
In addition he/she should show the methods of data presentation and
analysis.

Research design should fit into the purpose of the study. In choosing research
design consider the following options with different bases and components:
 Objective: Exploratory (gain idea/insight breakdown broad problem into
smaller precise (specifics)….; Descriptive ( explain frequency /covariance);
Casual research (explain cause and effect)
 Purpose: Reporting; descriptive (who/what/when/where/ & how are
explained), it may/may not have potential to make powerful

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 inferences ,diagnostic (frequency and association); explanatory (answers
why); predictive (evaluate specific course of actions), it is meant for
forecasting.
 Research method: Historical, case study; survey; experimental
 Approach: Library based/theoretical research does not involve field work;
involves critical review of literatures, detailed analysis of theories under
study(check soundness/ inconsistencies) while empirical research requires
fieldwork (data collection and analysis).
 Data/approach involved: Qualitative (focus analysis) and quantitative
(application of models)

Methods: It’s concerned with sample design, data gathering, controls, and
statistical tools.
Sampling Procedure/Design: The section defines study area; population;
sample unit; source list (sampling frame); sampling method; sampling procedure;
sample Size; parameter of interest; and confidence /significance level (if
probability sampling method is used).Justify the use of the methods.

Methods of Data Collection: It’s concerned with identifying source,

instruments, data type. Methods could be using existing material (secondary
data); observation, measurement, oral interview, written questionnaire / pilot
survey and so on. 2 or more methods can be used.

Controls: Ensure validity (extent to which instrument measures the intended);

reliability (accuracy and precision of measurement procedures); practicality
(economy, convenience and interpretability).
Sources of error in measurement may be related to respondents, situation,
measurer and instrument (due to complex words, ambiguity, poor printing,
inadequate space for replies, choice omissions, poor sampling)
Use interview and Questionnaire guidelines. In preparing questionnaires, be well
versed about all aspects of the problem studied; consider nature of information
sought and analysis method used; maintain well organized instrument ensuring
accurate and full information; begin with rough draft/ use models; revise
draft/review/reexamine; conduct pilot study; and give clear and simple directions
for respondents.

Methods of Data Presentation and Analysis: Process by which outputs are

generated involves: preparing data, analyzing and interpreting data (descriptive
and inferential statistics). This section explains: how the data is manipulated (to

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get the information to answer research questions); and statistical tools used to
process the data.
Processing of data/preparing for analysis includes organizing and tabulating.
Analysis (descriptive & causal analyses) involves uni-dimensional analysis
consisting of measures of central tendency, dispersion, skewness association; and
inferential analysis involves estimation and testing hypothesis.
Objective of analysis; rationale for choice of the analysis tool, information
concerning software and any technicality used is explained here.

Designing Data Collection Form

1. Specify what information (primary data)will be sought
2. Determine type of questionnaire and method of administration
Two options in data collection are: Communication (questioning respondents and
securing data); Observation (watching situation of interest and recording
facts/behavior)
Communication issues:
Degree of structure (degree of standardization imposed on the questionnaire):
structured (questions and answers permitted are predetermined;
Unstructured (questions are loosely predetermined and respondents are free to
answer in any way they see fit.
Disguise (amount of knowledge about the purpose of the study shared to
respondents). Thus questions could be disguised or undisguised.
Method administration: Personal interview; telephone interview; mail
questionnaire and more.
For observation: consider structure and disguise and on top of that decide the
setting (should it be natural or contrived (specially set environment for making
observation)?); and method of administration (human or mechanical)
3. Determine content of individual questions
 Raise the following points:
 Is the question necessary? Is there redundancy?
 Are several questions needed instead of one?
 Do respondents have the necessary information regarding the issue
questioned?
 Ask filter question to check if the respondent actually remembers the issue
questioned.
 Will the respondents give the information he has?
 Sensitive issues should later be asked; hide the questions in a group of
other innocuous questions, state the behavior in question is not unusual
(give research testimonies);

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  Phrase questions in terms of others (e.g. most people cheat on income
tax….)
 Put questions in category than asking open ended questions. E.g. (what is
your age?)
4. Determine form of response for each question
 Open ended; multiple choice (multichotomous) questions should be with
many alternatives; mutually exclusive; and exhaustive
 Avoid order bias (shuffle)/rotate options
 Use open ended questions for getting data on behavioral frequency.
 Employ scale in fixed type of alternative questions to get answer than
choices; E.g choice involving frequency of use (never, occasionally,
sometimes, often)
 Make dichotomous questions multichotomous where necessary.
5. Determine wording of each question
 Use simple unambiguous words (E.g. instead of using often use once a
week/month or so)
 Avoid leading questions (Question framed to give the respondent a clue as
to how he should answer.
 Avoid implicit alternatives. E.g Would you like to have a job if it is possible?
Or Would you prefer job or housework? The second option is better.
 Avoid implicit assumption and make explicit consequences. E.g are you in
favor of price control? Add the following sentence stating consequence (if it
would produce artificial shortage)
 Avoid generalization and estimates: E.g. instead of asking ‘how many
salespeople did you see last year?’ better to ask ‘….last week?
 Avoid double-barreled (question calling for 2 responses): What is your
evaluation of the price and convenience of the service?
6. Determine Question Sequence
 Use simple and interesting opening questions else respondents will get
bored.
 Use funnel approach (start from the broad and narrow down the scope) and
logical sequencing
 Use branching questions with care
 Order basic information and classification information questions properly.
 Place difficult or sensitive questions later in the questionnaire.
7. Determine the physical characteristics of the questionnaire
 Appearance (e.g. cover letter/introduction) of the instrument affects
acceptance
 Cover letter indicating importance of the research/participation,
confidentiality issues are good.

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  Size and layout (small and one that does not have crowded questions)
 Numbering questions and questionnaires (where necessary)
8. Reexamine steps 1 through 7 and revise if necessary
9. Pretest and revise if necessary
 Conduct pilot test to determine how well the instrument
(questionnaire/observation form) works.

Generally, designing questionnaire is an art not a science.Communication

methods have advantage of versatility (many type of data), speed and cost where
as observation data are more objective and accurate.
Information (primary data) sought could be: Demographic data and socioeconomic
characteristics: age, education, occupation, marital status, sex, income, social
class, psychological (personality, trait, mannerism, attribute) and life style
(activities, interest and opinion); awareness (understanding e.g. feature,
availability, price, manufacture information, where it is made, how it is used, and
for what purpose it is used.
Intention (planned future behavior; motivation, behavior

Sampling Procedure
1. Define Population 2. Identify sampling frame 3. Select a sampling procedure
(technique/plan)/design 4. Determine sample size 5. Select sampling elements 6.
Collect the data from the designated elements
Some of the items above are explained below:
1. Define Population: Decide relevant population (individuals, households, firms,
transactions etc.)Precisely specify elements to be included and excluded; know
the incidence % qualifying for being included in the sample
Set eligibility criteria based on the research purpose
Specify geographic, time period boundary for study E.g. age (only >18), female
only, high school only….
2. Identify sampling frame ( listing of the elements from which the actual sample
will be taken)
E.g if target population is all Bole household then telephone directories may be
used to determine sampling frame
3. Select a sampling procedure (technique/plan)/design
Types of techniques can be broadly classified into:
Probability sampling: each population element has a non-zero element of being
included in the sample
Non-probability sampling: judgment is the basis to select elements
Fixed(apriori) vs. sequential (updated) samples

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Convenience sampling (accidental): inclusion is by accident (if element
happens to be where the study is conducted); more favored for exploratory study
than descriptive and causal
Judgment (purposive): Hand picked because they are expected to serve the
research purpose.
E.g. experts testimony in court ; favored in exploratory study.
Snow ball: judgment sample that relies on researcher’s ability to locate an initial
set of respondents with desired characteristics. These are then used to identify
still others with the desired characteristics. E.g testing product’s desirability for
deaf users, identify key people in deaf community they in turn will lead to others.
Quota: Sample is chosen in such a way that a proportion of sample elements
possessing certain characteristic is approximately same as the proportion of
elements with the same characteristics in the population. E.g. 100 medical
students (40 fresh, 20 interns, 40 graduates) if I take a sample of 10 interviewees
number of interviewed will be 4 fresh, 2 intern and 4 graduates.
In Probability sampling sampling errors can be calculated; adequacy of sample
is assessed; chance of inclusion of elements can be calculated; sample elements
are selected objectively not by whims of researcher.
Simple random sampling: Produce list of parent (target population) with fixed
characteristics or measure (parameter), give number to each element (1-N);
Choose digit corresponding to N; select arbitrarily the starting number and then
move up down in selecting number corresponding to the list.
SRS requires a serial numbered list of population elements. E.g all females in a
city (getting list is a problem) but largest corporations in USA (getting list is
simple)
Stratified: involves 2 stages: parent population is divided into mutually exclusive
and exhaustive subsets; SRS of elements is taken from each subsets. It could be
proportionate/improportionate
Cluster: Includes (Systematic and area) Same as SR except that in stage 2
subsets are selected randomly; if it is one stage all elements in subset are used if
it is two stage, sample of elements selected from subsets randomly.
Systematic RS: a form of cluster sampling in which Kth element in the population
is designated for inclusion in the sample after a random start. Sample fraction (f)=
n/N; sampling interval (N/n) or 1/f

Organization of the Study: explains briefly what each section of the intended
research contains. It properly and briefly outlines each chapter of the research
paper. The undergraduate paper is organized in four chapters and the brief
content descriptions of each chapter should be included in this part. /One page/

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 Definitions of used Terminologies (Terms),(if any)
Important words, jargons and repeatedly used words, in relation to the project,
(operational /working definitions) should be given meaning by mentioning the
source from where.

Review of the Related Literature: It is a structured discussion & a survey of

important articles books and other sources pertaining to your research topic. Do
the following here:
 Discuss the theoretical scope of the framework of ideas that will be used to
back the research
 Demonstrate that you are fully familiar with the ideas you are dealing with
and grasp their methodological implications
 Indicate the open problem, state clearly how your research will contribute to
the existing research

Literature review involves identifying, synthesizing and evaluating existing body

of completed and recorded work of (researchers, scholars and practitioners). It’s
aimed at making thorough summary and critical analysis of relevant available
research and non-research literature on the topic of research. Major activities
involved here are:
 Outline for the literature review
 Use of Harvard style as a standardized referencing system
 Proper development of topics and sub topics
 Logical flow, coherence, unity and structure
 Varied source of data
 Proper paraphrasing
 Insuring the timeliness, relevancy and accuracy of secondary data /25-35 pages/
*different referencing examples are annexed

Role & Purpose: It situates your research in the context of what is already known
about a topic (the body of knowledge) and shows originality; it gives highlight of
the research for reader; it provides understanding of the problem and methods
(allows comparison). It helps to avoid replication; It identifies gaps in current
knowledge, (where to focus now and for future); it helps to formulate research
questions and to define scope. It helps to explain methodology deficiencies and
reasons for inconsistencies in theories. It provides context within which to
interpret, report findings. It helps to identify new study area and suggest new
study directions.

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It provides theoretical basis for your work (showing others achievement and sets
the stage for new research.

Consider the following when you review literature:

 Define topics (volume, variety, scope to be reviewed)
 Consider only information relevant to problem (not exhaustive) and
contributing to final report (final report should match review content)
 Identify source like Periodicals (Journals, magazines); Conference paper;
Edited proceeding (reviewed by a scientific editor); textbook/ books;
technical report; Web access to printed coruces (printed elg online version
of printed journals; Web pages.
 Review don’t reproduce it
 Present your own discussion; paraphrase (taking someone else’s work and
putting it into ones own words); use limited short direct quotes, and long
direct quotes (as last resorts), quoting is copying taking someone else’s
words or sentences
 Use proper citation/referencing style indicating source of quoted/ borrowed
idea.
 Use the Harvard System of Referencing in the text and bibliography
 Avoid plagiarism using idea or word of another as ones own without
crediting the source
 Summarized literature should be well organized /planned in terms of
structure, unity and coherence.
 Begin discussing literature and secondary data from comprehensive/broader
perspective and move on to specific studies.

Timetable and Budget: Tentative schedule for all aspect/stages of the research
process based on time table of the institution is planned here. If applying to
funding bodies is sought resources required and expenses associated are sort out
in this section.
Dissemination: The section explains what is done with the research result and
how it is going to be communicated. For instance for students (Results will be
produced in an undergraduate dissertation and will be made available in the
library).

Data Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation (Primary and Secondary

Data):
 Put the data collected in some systematic organization
 Analyze and interpret the data collected using different data analysis tools

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The Section begins with presenting and analyzing general characteristics of
respondents followed by doing the same to data collected to answer research
questions/test hypothesis. Its focus is on explaining and describing rather than
concluding. It provides a good understanding of the problem and findings.
Data Presentation and Analysis involves:
 Analysis based on primary data
 Analysis based on secondary data
o Put the data collected in some systematic organization
o Analyze and interpret the data collected using different data analysis
tool
Specifically it includes the following:
 Background of the organization
 Restating Methodology
 Data presentation
 Use of tables, graphs, charts and statement summery
 Critical analysis of data and proper interpretation
 Cross analysis /10-15 pages/

Summary of Findings, Conclusions and Recommendations

Summary refers to brief statement of the essential findings. Use sectional
summaries if there are many specific findings. Findings are explanations of facts,
based on them conclusions are made. Conclusions are inferences (generalizations,
estimations, predictions and etc.) drawn from the findings (from perspective of
contribution to knowledge and practice) with in the framework of study. Section
winds up by recommending solutions (feasible/realistic) and subsequent research
areas/directions (in the science/knowledge, in the organization and
industry/sector).

Items included here are:

 Summary of the major findings
 In a ball point arrangement
 Showing major findings using percentage
 Conclusion
What can be drawn from the study?
 Recommendation
Possible solutions in detail /7-10 pages/

Bibliography/References
Standardized format
Alphabetically

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Use Harvard Style arranged alphabetically

REFERENCING
What is plagiarism and how can you avoid it?
Plagiarism is the intentional use of someone else’s ideas, words or concepts in
your assignment work. It is considered serious misconduct at University and
should be avoided at all times.

Committing plagiarism can carry very serious penalties for students, including
expulsion from a university.
The best way to avoid being accused of plagiarism is to acknowledge the
resources upon which you have based your ideas.

What is referencing?
When you write an assignment at university, you are required to refer to the work
of other authors. Each time you do so, it is necessary to identify their work by
making reference to it— both in the text of your assignment and in a list at the
end of your assignment. This practice of acknowledging authors is known as
referencing.

References must be provided whenever you use someone else’s opinions,

theories, data or organization of material. You need to reference information from
books, articles, videos, computers, other print or electronic sources, and personal
communications. A reference is required if you:
 Quote (use someone else’s exact words)
 Copy (use figures, tables or structure)
 Paraphrase (convert someone else’s ideas into your own words)
 Summarize (use a brief account of someone else’s ideas).

Why should you reference?

References enhance your writing and assist your reader by:
 Showing the breadth of your research
 Strengthening your academic argument
 Showing the reader the source of your information
 Allowing the reader to consult your sources independently
 Allowing the reader to verify your data.

Should you reference public domain information?

Public domain information is information that is so widely known that it is
considered everybody would be aware of its source. The general public use public

16
domain information freely. Where authors or sources are so widely known, specific
citation may not be required. For example:
As Shakespeare observed, ‘All the world’s a stage …’

Which referencing system should you use?

There are a number of different referencing systems used in academic writing
such as: author-date systems commonly known as Harvard and APA (American
Psychological Association); footnoting or endnoting systems commonly used in
History and Law and the like.
It is important that one use the referencing system required by lecturers for an
assignment or institution rules, and maintain consistency in using that system.
Harvard (author-date) referencing guide
The following is a set of guidelines for modeling referencing techniques for
paraphrasing and direct quotations in the body paragraphs (in-text referencing),
and in the reference list at the end of a paperwork. This guide specifically explains
the Harvard system of author-date referencing.
Principles of author-date referencing
There are two parts to the author-date system of referencing.
1. Embedded or In-text Referencing (Citation)
The author and the date are referred to in the text or main body of your writing
(called embedded or in-text referencing). The specific order in which the
concerned information should be structured and the way the in-text reference
should be placed ( in such a way that it causes minimal disruption to the flow of
your writing—this usually means at the very end or the very beginning of your
sentences) are the two major issues that should be noted in citing.

When you cite sources of information in the text of your assignment—regardless

of whether you quote, copy, paraphrase or summarize—you should include:
• the author’s surname (family name);
• the year of publication (latest edition);
•
• page numbers when directly quoting or closely paraphrasing an author’s
words/material;
• correct punctuation and spacing.

2. Reference List
All of the resources referred to in the body of the writing are included in the
reference list at the end of the assignment. All information is included in this list:
author, date, title of publication, publisher and where it was published.

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Ways of citing
There are two ways of citing references: author prominent and information
prominent.
1. Author prominent
This way gives prominence to the author by using the author’s surname (family
name) as part of your sentence with the date and the page number in
parentheses (round bracket).
Direct quote example
Cowie (1996, p. 91) argues that ‘socialism rejected the liberal ideals of
individualism and competition’.
Paraphrase example
Cowie (1996) suggests that unlike capitalism, socialism promotes the good of the
whole before the good of the individual.
Verbs that help with author-prominent referencing
State, point out, describe, remark, add, suggest, maintain, assert, affirm, agree,
claim, clarify, disagree, contest, contend, highlight, find, show, imply, theorize,
offer, predict, question, dispute, justify, confirm, reason.
2. Information prominent
The other way of citing references gives prominence to the information, with all
the required referencing details in parentheses at the end of the citation.
Direct quote example
It has been argued that ‘socialism rejected the liberal ideals of individualism and
competition’ (Cowie 1996, p. 91).
Paraphrase example
Unlike capitalism, socialism promotes the good of the whole before the good of
the individual (Cowie 1996).

Ways of Paraphrasing
Paraphrasing means to restate accurately and succinctly in your own words
something you have read. If your work does not refer to specific ideas on
particular pages of a resource but to general themes mentioned throughout the
resource, page numbers need not be shown.

General theme
Studies (Tanner 1999) indicate that the economic structure of Australia today is
far more unpredictable and unstable than it was thirty years ago.
Specific idea
Tanner (1999, p. 22) claims that the introduction of the GST in the Australian
economic structure has not impacted the price of fuels.

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Paraphrase or use quotations?
It is preferable that you paraphrase (put ideas in your own words) as too many
quotations (using the exact words) can lead to a poorly written assignment. A
general rule in academic circles is that no more than 10% of an assignment
should be in the form of direct quotations. No matter whether you use quotations
or paraphrase another’s words, you always need to give references—both in the
text and in the reference list.

Using direct quotations

Quotations should be used sparingly, selected carefully, used in context,
integrated into your text and reproduced exactly (including the words, spelling,
punctuation, capitalization and paragraphing of the original writer). The word [sic]
(meaning so or thus) can be inserted in a quotation when the original text is
incorrect with regard to grammar, spelling or gender. For

example:
According to Bloggs (2006, p. 21), the alarming growth in obesity levels in
Australia can be attributed to ‘cendentary [sic] lifestyles, time saving household
devices and the rapid growth of the fast food industry’. Cedentary was supposed
to be sedentary
A quotation is used if:
• misinterpretation would result from a change to the words
• a major argument needs to be recorded as evidence
• it is important to comment on, refute or analyze the ideas expressed
• it is a particularly elegant or forceful phrase.
•
Short quotations

Short quotations (fewer than 30 words) should:

• be incorporated into your sentence without disrupting the flow of your paragraph
• have single quotation marks
• have the full stop after the citation
• keep the same font size.

Examples
Incorporating a quote as part of your sentence—information prominent

The church is not the only setting where the soul may be nurtured, as ‘[t]he soul
also finds sustenance in more domestic settings, like the family home where

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customs and values have created a spirit handed down over generations’ (Jones
1998, p. 89).

Incorporating a quote as part of your sentence—author prominent

The church is not the only setting where the soul may be nurtured. As Jones
(1998, p. 89) suggests, ‘[t]he soul also finds sustenance in more domestic
settings, like the family home where customs and values have created a spirit
handed down over generations’.

The square brackets around the ‘t’—[t]—are used to indicate that in the original
quotation the
word ‘the’ began with a capital T.

Long quotations

Long quotations (more than 30 words) should:

Long quotation should also be emphasized (especially if it runs to 30/50 words
or more) by indenting it and using quotation marks. This clearly identifies the
quotation as the work of someone else. Separate the quotation from the lead-in
statement with one blank line. The lead-in statement ends with a colon (:).
Separate the quotation from the text that follows it with one blank line. When
using an information prominent long quotation, the full stop will be included after
the last sentence of the quotation before the citation as shown below.
Example
The church is not the only setting where the soul may be nurtured as:

‘[t]he soul also finds sustenance in more domestic settings, like the family
home, where customs
and values have created a spirit handed down over generations. According
to Thomas Moore, the
soul finds sacredness in the ordinary, and may benefit most when its
spiritual life is performed in
the context of mundane daily life’. (Jones 1998, p. 89)

Words omitted from quotations

To omit words from quotations, use an ellipsis (…). The quotation must still keep
the same sense.
Example

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Barton (1994, p. 7) describes literacy as a ‘set of practices which people use in
literacy events
… and that literacy practices are situated in social relations’.

Students may adopt a more dominant understanding of literacy because of the

emphasis they
place on literacy as a means of achieving ‘… equality of opportunity and the
possibilities of
liberty and democracy’ (Rockhill 1994, p. 4).

Double quotations
For a double quotation—that is, a quotation within a quotation—use double
quotation marks
inside single quotation marks:

‘The first words of Melville’s Moby Dick are “Call me Ishmael” and these words are
full of
significance’ was the first statement in Smith’s memorable speech (Johns 1995, p.
43).

The square brackets in quotations

Sometimes in quotations it is necessary to insert a word that explains the
meaning of another
word in that quotation. Place the explanation in square brackets.
Example
‘The curriculum of the national schools in the 1870s included reading, writing,
arithmetic, drill
[physical exercises] and music’ (Cowie et al. 1996, p. 21).

Page Numbers in Quoting and Paraphrasing

Page numbers should be used when you directly quote material (word for word)
from the original publication. This includes tables or figures. Page numbers should
also be provided for indirect quotes and paraphrasing where the summarized
material appears in specific pages, chapters or sections.

The following examples illustrate the use of page numbers

• One page referred to Wells 1992, p. 4

• Pages that are not in sequence Smith 1996, pp. 1, 4 & 6
• Pages that are in sequence Jones & Mackay 1998, pp. 25–26

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 • Pages from a web site Kelly & McWhirter 1997, p. 1 of 2

Acronyms and initialization

Acronyms are initial letters pronounced as a word. Examples are TAFE, QANTAS,
and so on. These must appear both in-text and in the reference list. If a work
contains numerous references to a particular resource with a long title, for
example, Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, the initial may be
used, RSPCA.
Other examples are NSW, CQU and USA.
The first citation in-text must include both the full title and the acronym or initial,
and thereafter the acronym and initialism will suffice. Write these without full
stops.
Example
The Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) has a policy on
removing injured animals. The RSPCA is permitted to enter a property at any time
following a report of complaint (RSPCA 1999).
In the reference list, both the long title and the acronym or initialism must be
included, for example:
Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) 1999, Policy
statement on
removal of animals at risk, Author, Brisbane.

Latin Term Meaning

• et alia or et al. These terms mean and others and is used for four or more
authors to shorten the in-text citation. The entry in the reference list
must show all the authors. The term et al. is not italicized.
• [sic] The term means ‘thus’ or ‘this is how it was written’. This is used
when there is a spelling or grammatical error or when sexist language is
used in the original source quoted. This term [sic] appears immediately
after the original error. It is not italicized and appears in square brackets.
• c. This term denotes circa and means approximately. This is used when
the approximate date is all that is known. It is not italicized and ends with
a full stop.

Difference between a reference list and a bibliography

The reference list only identifies sources referred to (cited) in the text of a
paperwork. A bibliography is presented in the same format as a reference list. It

22
presents the same items as a reference list but it also includes all other sources
are read or consulted but are not cited.

In-text Citation: Examples and Rules

Cases In-text Citation Examples
One author • Cormack (1994, pp.32-33) states that 'when writing for a
professional readership, writers invariably make
reference to already published works'. (author
Author prominent prominent/direct referencing) (A.P)
(direct) • In general, when writing for a professional publication, it
referencing is good practice to make reference to other relevant
published work. This view has been supported in the
Information work of Cormack (1994).
Prominent • Making reference to published work appears to be
(indirect) characteristic of writing for a professional audience
referencing (Cormack, 1994). Information
More than one • Jones (1946) and Smith (1948) have both shown …
author • Further research in the late forties (Jones, 1946; Smith,
1948) led to major developments …
Two, three or four • White and Brown (2004) in their recent research paper
authors (same found …
work) • Earlier research (White and Brown, 1966) demonstrated
that the presence of certain chemicals would lead to …
More than four Use only the first author followed by ‘et al.’ meaning and
authors others:
• Green, et al. (1995) found that the majority …
or indirectly:
• Recent research (Green, et al., 1995) has found that the
majority of …
Several works by cited in chronological order (i.e. earliest first):
one author in • as suggested by Bloggs (1992, 1994) who found that …
different years or indirectly:
• research in the nineties (Bloggs 1992, 1994) found that
…
Several works by add lower case letter directly, with no space, after the year
one author in the for each item:
same year • Earlier research by Dunn (1993a) found that…but later
research suggested again by Dunn (1993b) that …
If several works published in the same year are referred to
on a single occasion, or an author has made the same point
in several publications, they can all be referred to by using
lower case letters (as above):
• Bloggs (1993a, b) has stated on more than one occasion
that …
Chapter authors Cite using the name of the contributory author (of chapter)

23
in edited works not the editor of the whole work. But in final ref. list
mention chapter author & editor.
In his work on health information, Smith (1975) states …
Corporate authors If the work is by a recognized organization and has no
personal author then it is usually cited under the body that
commissioned the work. E.g.
Department of the Environment or Royal College of Nursing.
use standard abbreviations for these bodies, e.g. RCN, in
your
text, providing that the full name is given at the first citing
with the abbreviation in brackets:
1st citation:
… research in 2006 undertaken by the Royal College of
Nursing (RCN)
has shown that …
2nd citation:
More recently the RCN (2007) has issued guidelines …

In-text Citation: Examples and Rules

Cases In-text Citation Examples
Use ‘Anonymous’ or ‘Anon.’ the title of the work (written in
italics) and date of publication. Every effort should be made
No author
to establish the authorship
• Marketing strategy (Anon., 1999)
Use the abbreviation n.d. to denote this; every effort
should be made to establish the year of publication
• Smith (n.d.) has written and demonstrated …
No date
or indirectly:
• Earlier research (Smith, n.d.) demonstrated that …

Quotations If you want to quote from a published work in your essay

then the
sentence(s) must be included within quotation marks, and
may be introduced by such phrases as: the author states
that “……..” or the author writes that “……..”and give
the number of the page where the quotation was found.
• On the topic of professional writing and referencing
Cormack (1994, p.32) states: 'When writing for a
professional readership, writers invariably make
reference to already published works'.
Long quotation should also be emphasized (especially if
it runs to 30/50 words or more) by indenting it and using
quotation marks. This clearly identifies the quotation as
the work of someone else:

24
 Use page numbers when you directly quote material (word
for word) from the original publication. This includes tables
or figures. Page numbers should also be provided for
indirect quotes and paraphrasing where the summarized
material appears in specific pages, chapters or sections.
The following examples illustrate the use of page numbers
Page Numbers in • One page referred to Wells 1992, p. 4
Quoting and • Pages that are not in sequence Smith 1996, pp. 1,
Paraphrasing 4&6
• Pages that are in sequence Jones & Mackay 1998,
pp. 25–26
• Pages from a web site Kelly & McWhirter 1997, p. 1
of 2

A summary of another author’s work in the source one

read, which one would like to make reference to in own
document is secondary referencing.
A direct reference:
• Research recently carried out in the Greater
Manchester area by Brown (1966 cited in Bassett,
1986, p.142) found that …
Secondary
In this example, Brown is the work which you wish to refer
sources (second-
to, but have not read directly for yourself. Bassett is the
hand references)
secondary source, where you found the summary of
Brown’s work.
Or indirectly:
• (Brown, 1966 cited in Bassett, 1986, p.142)
The reference list at the end of your document should only
contain works
that you have read

25
 In-text Citation: Examples and Rules
Cases In-text Citation Examples
When reproducing selected data from a table; a reference
within the text to a table taken from e.g. a book, should
include the author and page
• (Smith, 2005, p.33)
If the source of the data is not the author’s own, but
obtained from another source, it becomes a secondary
reference and needs to be cited as such:
Tables and • (United Nations, 1975 cited in Smith, 2005, p.33)
Diagrams If the table is reproduced in its entirety, place the citation
as a footnote.
In the following example, a table is reproduced from page
267, of a book written by Robert Amazon entitled
‘Management in the media’
• National Statistics Office 1985 cited in Amazon, 2005,
p.267
Identify the authorship of the website. Corporate author,
an organization or a company (a guide to this can be found
by looking at the URL or web address). Date of
publication, (reference to this might be found at the
Websites bottom of a web page relating to copyright, or from a date
headline). E.g. Information from BBC website
• Recent research on meningitis (BBC, 2009) has shown
…
• As Wikipedia (2013, p.3 of 7) explains…
End of Document Reference List: Examples, Forms
Cases End of Document Reference list (Examples)
The required elements for a book reference are:
Author, Initials/First name., Year. Title of book. Edition.
(only include this if not the first edition) Place of publication
(this must be a town or city, not a country): Publisher.
where 1st edition
• Baron, D. P., 2008. Business and the organization.
Books Chester: Pearson.
• Redman, P., 2006. Good essay writing: a social sciences
guide. 3rd ed. London: Open University in assoc. with
Sage.
*Author: (Surname); Title (in italics and use title page not
book cover), Capitalization of first word and proper nouns
only
Books with two, Authors are included in the order they appear in the

26
 document. Use an and to link the last two multiple authors.
three or four • Barker, R. Kirk, J. and Munday, R.J., 1988. Narrative analysis.
authors 3rd ed.
Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Use the first author only with surname and initials followed
by et al.
Books with more
• Grace, B. et al., 1988. A history of the world. Princeton,
than four authors
NJ: Princeton
University Press.
For books which are edited give the editor(s) surname(s)
and initials, followed by ed. or eds.
Author, Initials. ed., Year. Title of book. Edition. Place:
Publisher.
Books which are • Keene, E. ed., 1988. Natural language. Cambridge:
edited University of
Cambridge Press.
• Silverman, D.F. and Propp, K.K. eds., 1990. The active
interview. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Form: Chapter author(s) surname(s) and initials. Year of

chapter. Title of chapter. (followed by) In: Book editor(s)
initials and surnames with ed. or eds. after the last name.
Year of book. Title of book. Place of publication: Publisher.
Chapter number or first and last page numbers
Chapters of • Smith, J., 1975. A source of information. In: W. Jones, ed.
edited books 2000. One hundred and one ways to find information about
health. Oxford: Oxford
University Press. Ch.2.
• Samson, C., 1970. Problems of information studies in
history. In: S. Stone, ed. 1980. Humanities information
research. Sheffield: CRUS, pp.44-68.
Several works by one author and published in the same
year should be differentiated by adding a lower case letter
after the date.
• Soros, G., 1966a. The road to serfdom. Chicago: University
of Chicago
Multiple works
Press.
(same author)
• Soros, G., 1966b. Beyond the road to serfdom. Chicago:
University of Chicago Press.
This also applies if there are several authors with the same
surname. As an alternative their initials can be included in
the citation. Works by the same author should be displayed
in chronological order (earliest first)
End of Document Reference List: Examples, Forms
Cases End of Document Reference list (Examples)

27
 Form: Author, Year. Title of book. Translated from (language) by
(name of translator) Place of publication: Publisher.
• Canetti, E., 2001. The voices of Marrakesh: a record of a visit.
Translated from German by J.A.Underwood. San Francisco: Arion.
For major works of historic significance, the date of the original
Books
work may be included along with the date of the translation:
(translated
• Kant, I., 1785. Fundamental principles of the metaphysic of
)
morals.
Translated by T.K. Abbott., 1988. New York: Prometheus Books.

For e-books accessed through a password protected database from

the
University Library the required elements for a reference are:
Form: Author, Year, Title of book. [type of medium] Place of
publication: Publisher. Followed by “Available at:” include e-book
source/database, web address or URL [Accessed date].
• Fishman, R., 2005. The rise and fall of suburbia. [e-book]
Chester: Castle Press. Available at: Anglia Ruskin University
Library website <http://libweb.anglia.ac.uk> [Accessed 5 June
2005].
For an e-book freely available over the internet; the required
elements for a reference are:
E-books Form: Authorship, Year, Title of book. [type of medium] Place of
publication (if known): Publisher. Followed by “Available at:”
include web address or URL for the e-book [Accessed date].
For a pdf version of a Government publication or similar which is
freely
available: Form: Authorship, Year, Title of book. [type of medium]
Place of publication: Publisher. Followed by “Available at:” include
web address or URL for the actual pdf, [Accessed date].
• Department of Health, 2008. Health inequalities: progress and
next steps. [pdf] London: Department of Health. Available at:
<http://www.dh.gov.uk/en/Publicationsandstatistics/Publications/
Publications PolicyAndGuidance/DH_085307> [Accessed 9 June
2008].
Journal For journal articles the required elements for a reference are:
articles Form: Author, Initials., Year. Title of article. Full Title of
Journal(not in italics), Volume number (Issue / Part number),
Page numbers.
• Boughton, J.M., 2002. The Bretton Woods proposal: a brief look.
Political Science Quarterly, 42 (6), p.564.
• Perry, C., 2001. What health care assistants know about clean
hands.
Nursing Times, 25 May, 97(22), pp.63-64.

28
 Form: Author, Initials., Year. Title of article. Full Title of Journal,
[type of medium] Volume number (Issue/Part number), Page
Journal
numbers if available. Available at:include web site address/URL
articles
[Accessed date].
from an
•Boughton, J.M., 2002. The Bretton Woods proposal: an in depth
electronic
look. Political Science Quarterly, [e-journal or Online] 42 (6),
source
Available at: Blackwell Science Synergy
http://www.pol.upenn/articles [Accessed 12 June 2005].

End of Document Reference List: Examples, Forms

Cases End of Document Reference list (Examples)

Form: Author or corporate author, Year. Title of document.
[type of medium] Place: Producer/Publisher. Available at:
Publications include website address/URL . [Accessed date]
available from •Scottish Intercolegiate Guidelines, 2001. Hypertension in
websites the elderly. [internet] Edinburgh: SIGN. Available at:
http://www.sign .ac.uk/pdfsign49.pdf [Accessed 17 March
2005]
Form: Authorship, Year. Full title of conference paper. In:
followed by editor or name of organization, Full title of
conference. Location, Date, Place of publication: Publisher.
• Brown, J., 2005. Evaluating surveys of transparent
governance. In:
Conference Paper UNDESA (United Nations Department of Economic and
Social Affairs), 6th Global forum on reinventing
government: towards participatory and transparent
governance. Seoul, Republic of Korea 24-27 May
2005. New York: United Nations.

Form: Lecturer/Author, initial. Year. ‘Title of item’, Module

Course material Code Module title. Higher Education Institution,
lecture notes – unpublished.
print version • Williams, B., 2008. Guide to project management,
BD45001S
Management. Anglia Ruskin University, unpublished.

29
Note: The Harvard style lays down standards for the order and content of
information in the reference. Some variations of layout are acceptable provided
that they are used consistently.
• All items should be listed alphabetically by author or authorship, regardless
of the format, ie. whether books, websites or journal articles etc.
• Where there are several works from one author or source they should by
listed together but in
date order, with the earliest work listed first.

Proposed Format for the final project paper

Chapter One
1. Introduction
1.1. Background of the Study
1.2. Statement of the Problem
1.3. Research Questions (optional)
1.4. Objectives of the Study
1.4.1. General Objective
1.4.2. Specific Objective
1.5. Significance of the Study
1.6. Scope of the Study
1.6.1. Delimitation of the Study
1.6.2. Limitation of the Study
1.7. Research Methodology
1.7.1. Research Design
1.7.2. Sampling Procedure/Design
1.7.3. Sources of data
1.7.4. Data collection tools
1.7.5. Methods of data presentation and analysis
1.8. Organization of the Study
Chapter Two
2. Literature Review

30
Coherence of ideas and summarization of facts
Citation of sources using Harvard Style
Chapter Three
3. Data Presentation and Analysis
 Analysis based on primary data
 Analysis based on secondary data
o Put the data collected in some systematic organization
o Analyze and interpret the data collected using different data analysis
tools
Chapter Four
4. Summary of findings, Conclusions and Recommendations
 List the major findings from chapter 3
 Draw your conclusions and recommendations based on the findings of the
study
References
Appendix

Appendices: it contains material too complex, too detailed, too specialized, or

not absolutely necessary for the text. It will contain items like: copy of
questionnaire, interview guide, observation form used to collect data; detailed
calculations related to sample size and design; detailed tables from which
summary tables in the body are derived; and others.

Final Research Report: The Research paper has 3 parts: Preliminaries; Body
and Supplementary sections
Preliminaries: Contain the following items (in the stated order): Title page (outer
cover); blank sheet; Title page (inner cover); Student declaration; Advisor
declaration; Acknowledgements; Table of Contents; List of Acronyms; List of
Tables; List of Figures; List of Appendices; Operational Definitions (if any,
optional); Abstract. Pages numbers are roman numerals (following table of
content).
Body: Consist of Chapter 1-Chapter 4 stated below
Supplementary Section: Includes reference/bibliography and appendices.

Considerations in Research Report Writing

 Achieve goal of Communicating effectively with readers meeting the criteria
of: completeness (all information), accuracy (correct information and logical
report), clarity (un ambiguous and precise use of words and phrases) and
conciseness (be selective/ describe idea completely and clearly in the
fewest words possible).

31
 Follow standard format (for organization)
 Consider the following components of style:
o Use headings and sub headings (to provide easy reading and
understanding)
o Objectivity: Avoid subjectivity (emotional language, exaggeration).
Present complete (all) and unbiased writing.
o Presentation of Statistical Data: Figures and tables should be placed
close to related fact they describe, they should be labeled, referred to
in the text and numbered consistently throughout the report.
o Choice of Tense: Use tense consistently (be it past/present)
o Use of Connecting Sentences: Maintain smooth logical flow of ideas in
report (from topic to topic) using linking sentences.

32