Transmission Media

Antenna Operation
[Reference: Priciples of Electronic Communication Systems, By: Louis E. Frenzel Jr. (Chapter 14)]

In wireless communication systems, an RF signal generated by a transmitter is sent into free space and
eventually picked up by a receiver. The interface between the transmitter and free space and between
free space and the receiver is the antenna.

A radio signal is called an electromagnetic wave

because it is made up of both electric and magnetic
fields. Whenever voltage is applied to the antenna,
an electric field is set up. At the same time, this
voltage causes current to flow in the antenna,
producing a magnetic field. The electric and
magnetic fields are at right angles to each other.
These electric and magnetic fields are emitted from
the antenna and propagate through space over very
long distances at the speed of light.

As stated above, an antenna acts as the interface between a transmitter or receiver and free space. It
either radiates or senses an electromagnetic field. But the question is, what exactly is an antenna, and
what is the relationship between an antenna and a transmission line? Furthermore, how are the electric
and magnetic fields produced?

What is an Antenna?

If a parallel-wire transmission line is left open, the electric and magnetic fields escape from the end of
the line and radiate into space. This radiation, however, is inefficient and unsuitable for reliable
transmission or reception. The radiation from a transmission line can be greatly improved by bending
the transmission line conductors so that they are at a right angle to the transmission line, as shown in
below figure.

The magnetic fields no longer cancel and, in fact, aid one another. The electric field spreads out from
conductor to conductor. The result is an antenna. Optimum radiation occurs if the segment of
transmission wire converted to an antenna is one-quarter wavelength long at the operating frequency.
This makes an antenna that is one-half wavelength long.

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 Fig: Converting a transmission line into an antenna. (a) An open transmission line radiates a little. (b)
Bending the open transmission line at right angles creates an efficient radiation pattern.

The electric and magnetic fields around the transmission

line conductors when an antenna is formed.

Near Field and Far Field

Antennas actually produce two sets of fields, the near field and the far field.

The near field describes the region directly around the antenna here the electric and magnetic fields
are distinct. These fields weaken with the distance from the antenna, approximately by the quadruple
power of the distance. The near field is also referred to as the Fresnel zone.

The far field that is approximately 10 wavelengths from the antenna is the radio wave with the
composite electric and magnetic fields.

Most wireless applications use the far field wave. And any antenna radiation patterns are valid only if
measurements are taken on the far field. The near field is rarely used, but applications such as radio-
frequency identification (RFID) and near field communication (NFC) make use of the near field.

Polarization

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Polarization refers to the orientation of magnetic and electric field with respect to the earth. If an
electric field is parallel to the earth, the electromagnetic wave is said to be horizontally polarized; if the
electrical field is perpendicular to the earth, the wave is vertically polarized. Antennas that are
horizontal to the earth produce horizontal polarization, and antennas that are vertical to the earth
produce vertical polarization.

Some antennas produce circular polarization, in which the electric and magnetic field rotate as they
leave the antenna. There can be right-hand circular polarization (RHCP) and left-hand circular
polarization (LHCP).

For optimal transmission and reception, the transmitting and receiving antennas must both be of the
same polarization. Theoretically, a vertically polarized wave will produce 0 V in a horizontal antenna
and vice versa. But during transmission over long distances, the polarization of waves changes slightly
because of the various propagation effects in free space.

Thus even when the polarization of the transmitting and receiving antennas is not matched, a signal is
usually received. A vertical or horizontal antenna can receive circular polarized signals, but the signal
strength is reduced. When circular polarization is used at both transmitter and receiver, both must use
either left- or right-hand polarization if the signal is to be received.

Antenna Reciprocity

The term antenna reciprocity means that the characteristics and performance of an antenna are the
same whether the antenna is radiating or intercepting an electromagnetic signal. A transmitting
antenna takes a voltage from the transmitter and converts it to an electromagnetic signal. A receiving
antenna has a voltage induced into it by the electromagnetic signal that passes across it. The voltage is
then connected to the receiver. In both cases, the properties of the antenna — gain, directivity,
frequency of operation, etc.— are the same. However, an antenna used for transmitting high power,
such as in a radio or TV broadcast station, must be constructed of materials that can withstand the high
voltages and currents involved. A receiving antenna, no matter what the design, can be made of wire.

In most communication systems, the same antenna is used for both transmitting and receiving, and
these events can occur at different times or can be simultaneous.

The Basic Antenna

An antenna can be a length of wire, a metal rod, or a piece of tubing. Many different sizes and shapes
are used. The length of the conductor is dependent on the frequency of operation. Antennas radiate
most effectively when their length is directly related to the wavelength of the transmitted signal. Most
antennas have a length that is some fraction of a wavelength. One-half and one-quarter wavelengths
are most common.

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Impedance Matching

One of the most critical aspects of any antenna system is to ensure maximum power transfer from the
transmitter to the antenna. An important part of this, of course, is the transmission line itself. When
the characteristic impedance of the transmission line matches the output impedance of the transmitter
and the impedance of the antenna itself, the SWR will be 1:1 and maximum power transfer will take
place.

Common Antenna Types

All the most common types of antennas used in the communication industry are based on a basic dipole,
and most are some modified form of the one-half wavelength dipole discussed in the last section.

 The Dipole Antenna

One of the most widely used antenna types is the half-wave

dipole shown in this figure. This antenna is also formally
known as the Hertz antenna after Heinrich Hertz, who 1st
demonstrated the existence of electromagnetic waves. Also
called a doublet, a dipole antenna is two pieces of wire, rod,
or tubing that are one-quarter wavelength long at the
operating resonant frequency.

Radiation Resistance

The transmission line is connected at the center. The dipole has an impedance of 73 V at its center,
which is the radiation resistance. At the resonant frequency, the antenna appears to be a pure
resistance of 73 V. For maximum power transfer, it is important that the impedance of the transmission
line match the load. A 73-V coaxial cable like RG-59/U is a perfect transmission line for a dipole antenna.
RG-11/U coaxial cable with an impedance of 75 V also provides an excellent match. When the radiation
resistance of the antenna matches the characteristic impedance of the transmission line, the SWR is
minimum and maximum power reaches the antenna.

Radiation Pattern and Directivity

The radiation pattern of any antenna is the shape of the electromagnetic energy radiated from or
received by that antenna. Most antennas have directional characteristics that cause them to radiate or
receive energy in a specific direction. The radiation pattern of a half-wave dipole has the shape of a
doughnut. This horizontal radiation pattern is plotted on a polar coordinate graph in the figure. The
center of the antenna is assumed to be at the center of the graph. The dipole is assumed to be aligned
with the 90° to 270° axis.

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As shown, the maximum amount of energy
is radiated at right angles to the dipole, at 0°
and 180°. For that reason, a dipole is what is
known as a directional antenna. For
optimum transmission and reception, the
antenna should be aligned broadside to the
signal destination or source. For optimal
signal transmission, the transmitting and
receiving antennas must be parallel to each
other.

Radiation pattern of a half-wave dipole

Antenna Gain

Gain was previously defined as the output of an electronic circuit or device divided by the input.
Obviously, passive devices such as antennas cannot have gain in this sense. The power radiated by an
antenna can never be greater than the input power.

However, a directional antenna can radiate more power in a given direction than a non-directional
antenna, and in this “favored” direction, it acts as if it had gain. Antenna gain of this type is expressed
as the ratio of the effective radiated output power Pout to the input power Pin. Effective radiated power
is the actual power that would have to be radiated by a reference antenna (usually a non-directional or
dipole antenna) to produce the same signal strength at the receiver as the actual antenna produces.
Antenna gain is usually expressed in decibels.

The gain of an antenna is usually expressed in reference to either the dipole or an isotropic radiator. An
isotropic radiator is a theoretical point source of electromagnetic energy. The E and H fields radiate out
in all directions from the point source, and at any given distance from the point source, the fields form
a sphere. To visualize this, think of a lightbulb at the center of a large world globe and the light that
illuminates the inside of the sphere as the electromagnetic energy.

Most formulas for antenna gain are expressed in terms of gain in decibels over a dipole (dBd). If the
antenna gain is said to be 4.5 dB, this means gain as compared to a dipole. To compute the gain of an
antenna with respect to an isotropic radiator (dBi), add 2.15 dB to the gain over the dipole (dBi = dBd +
2.15).

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Folded Dipoles

A popular variation of the half-wave dipole is the folded dipole, shown in below figure. Like the standard
dipole, it is one-half wavelength long. However, it consists of two parallel conductors connected at the
ends with one side open at the center for connection to the transmission line. The impedance of this
popular antenna is 300 ohm. The radiation pattern and gain of a folded dipole are the same as those of
a standard dipole. However, folded dipoles usually offer greater bandwidth. The radiation resistance
impedance can be changed by varying the size of the conductors and the spacing.

Fig: Folded dipole

Directivity

Directivity refers to the ability of an antenna to send or receive signals over a narrow horizontal
directional range. In other words, the physical orientation of the antenna gives it a highly directional
response or directivity curve. A directional antenna eliminates interference from other signals being
received from all directions other than the direction of the desired signal. A highly directional antenna
acts as a type of filter to provide selectivity based on the direction of the signal. The receiving antenna
is pointed directly at the station to be received, thereby effectively rejecting signals from transmitters
in all other directions.

Directional antennas provide greater efficiency of power transmission. With omnidirectional antennas,
the transmitted power radiates out in all directions. Only a small portion of the power is received by
the desired station; the rest is, in effect, wasted. When the antenna is made directional, the transmitter
power can be focused into a narrow beam directed toward the station of interest.

Parasitic Arrays
A parasitic array consists of a basic antenna connected to a transmission line plus one or more additional
conductors that are not connected to the transmission line. These extra conductors are referred to as
parasitic elements, and the antenna itself is referred to as the driven element.

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Typically, the driven element is a half-wave
dipole or some variation. The parasitic elements
are slightly longer than and slightly less than one-
half wavelength long. These parasitic elements
are placed in parallel with and near the driven
elements.

An antenna made up of a driven element and one

or more parasitic elements is generally referred
to as a Yagi antenna.
Fig: A Yagi Antenna

The reflector, a parasitic element that is typically about 5 percent longer than the half-wave dipole-
driven element. When the signal radiated from the dipole reaches the reflector, it induces a voltage
into the reflector and the reflector produces some radiation of its own. Because of the spacing, the
reflector’s radiation is mostly in phase with the radiation of the driven element. As a result, the reflected
signal is added to the dipole signal, creating a stronger, more highly focused beam in the direction of
the driven element.

Another kind of parasitic element is a director. A director is approximately 5 percent shorter than the
half-wave dipole driven element and is mounted in front of the driven element.

The signal from the driven element causes a voltage to be induced into the director. The signal radiated
by the director then adds in phase to that from the driven element. The result is increased focusing of
the signal, a narrower beam width, and a higher antenna gain in the direction of the director.

SAQ
1. What part of a radio wave determines its polarization?
2. with respect to the earth’s surface?
3. State the theoretical radiation resistance or drive impedance of a dipole.
4. Define antenna gain. What gives an antenna gain?
5. What is an isotropic radiator?
6. Will a vertically polarized radio wave be received by a horizontally polarized antenna?
7. Name the three basic elements in a Yagi antenna.
8. Define the term front-to-back ratio as it applies to a Yagi.
9. An antenna has a dBd gain of 6. What is its gain with respect to an isotropic radiator?