Dimensions of Ethics

CH-3
What is Business Ethics

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Grounding Principles of Moral System
• Religion –
- Murder is wrong because it offends god
- Hard to apply in a pluralistic society
• Law
- Murder is wrong as it violates the law
- In theory law applies to all equally
- Are some laws are morally wrong – Eg. Death penalty
• Philosophy
- Murder is wrong because it is wrong
- An act is wrong inherently or because of social consequences
Approaches to Ethics/Morality
• 1. Normative or Prescriptive ethics
• 2. Descriptive or Behavioural Ethics or Comparative Ethics
• 3. Metaethics or Analytical Ethics
• 4. Applied Ethics
• Critical reflection that attempts to answer questions as to what is right or wrong, good or
bad, would constitute normative ethics. Such approaches are “normative” or provide
guidance and direction in terms of making moral or ethical choices or living in morally
acceptable ways.
• Descriptive ethics, on the other hand, approaches the study of morality or moral
phenomena by asking different questions. In general, this approach attempts to describe
and explain moral action, moral decision making, and moral phenomena. And is related
to how you incorporate "best practices" into your organization's policies and procedures.
• Metaethics focuses on the issues of universal truths, ethical judgments and the meaning
of ethical terms

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Metaethics/Analytical Ethics/Theoretical Ethic
• Metaethics is the most abstract and least precisely defined philosophical
level of ethics.
• It deals with the types of questions:
• What does it mean when someone says something is “good” or “right”?
• What is moral value, and where does it come from?
• Is morality objective and universal, or is it relative to specific individuals or
cultures?
• Do moral facts exists?
• We may define metaethics as the study of the origin and meaning of
ethical concepts.

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Theories in Metaethics
• The key theories in meta-ethics include
1. Naturalism,
2. Non-naturalism,
3. Emotivism and
4. Prescriptivism.

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Two Issues of Metaethics
A. Metaphysical Issues
1. Objectivism
2. Relativism
B. Psychological Issues in Metaethics
1. Egoism and Altruism
2. Emotion and Reason
3. Male and Female Morality

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A. Meta Physical Issues – 1. Objectivism
• In ethical objectivism moral values and virtues are intrinsic, not
dependent on anything outside of them. In ethical objectivism moral
law is uncreated and eternal and not subject to any will, divine or
human. (One form of ethical objectivism is moral absolutism.) No will
can lessen the consequence of acts against the law. There is no grace
in ethical objectivism.
• Ethical subjectivism, is the opposite of ethical objectivism.
Subjectivism says that the moral values are dependent on a human or
divine will, that they can change from one situation to another.

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A. Meta Physical Issues – 2. Relativism
• Ethical relativism is the theory that holds that morality is relative to
the norms of one's culture. That is, whether an action is right or
wrong depends on the moral norms of the society in which it is
practiced. The same action may be morally right in one society but be
morally wrong in another. For the ethical relativist, there are no
universal moral standards -- standards that can be universally applied
to all peoples at all times.
• Ethical relativism, the doctrine that there are no absolute truths in
ethics and that what is morally right or wrong varies from person to
person or from society to society.

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1. Egoism and Altruism
• Altruistic acts include not only those undertaken in order to do good to
others, but also those undertaken in order to avoid or prevent harm to
them. Suppose, for example, someone drives her car extra cautiously
because she sees that she is in an area where children are playing, and she
wants to insure that she injures no one. It would be appropriate to say that
her caution is altruistically motivated. She is not trying to make those
children better off, but she is being careful not to make them worse off. She
does this because she genuinely cares about them for their sake.
• Ethical egoism proposes that people should act consistently with motives
of self-interest and personal happiness. They argue that they are morally
responsible because they take responsibility for themselves and their
families, obey the law and do not depend on the state.

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2. Emotion and Reason
• “Empathy” denotes the emotional capacity to imaginatively project oneself into
another person’s situation and feel what they feel. It is because you feel bad
when you imagine the pain of a victim that you are led to condemn the person
who harmed her. We feel anger toward those who violate a moral norm, even if
we do not empathize with the victim, even when the crime is victimless.
• The paradigm of reasoning is conscious and deliberate - You calculate your
portion of the dinner bill by applying the principles of arithmetic; you lie awake at
night deliberating about how to pitch the proposal in the board meeting; you
stare at the gizmo and run through all the possibilities of what might be causing it
to malfunction. In such cases, you’re consciously aware of your reasoning and of
at least some of the steps and principles applied.
• While emotions can guide, and even corrupt, one’s reasoning, sometimes the
tables are turned: reasoning can directly alter emotional responses.

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3. Male and Female Morality
• Men tend to organize social relationships in a hierarchical order and
subscribe to a morality of rights.
• Females value interpersonal connectedness, care, sensitivity, and
responsibility to people.

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An analogy to your personal wellbeing is this:
• What is the best way to achieve a healthy life?
• One is through good nutrition, another is through exercise, and a
third is through a spiritual discipline, and yet another stresses public
health measures.
• Each is vital but inadequate by itself. It is bringing these—and other—
approaches together that you can live to the fullest.
• Similarly, in ethics, no school answers all the problems raised by social
living. In most cases, all three schools need to be considered in order
to reach the best ethical decision.

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Three Approaches to Normative Ethics
• Normative Ethics is concerned with the appropriate standards for right and wrong
behavior.
• Evans and Macmillan, define normative ethics as “theories of ethics that are concerned
with the norms, standards or criteria that define principles of ethical behaviour.”
• Consequentialism: An action is morally right if the consequences of that action are more
favorable than unfavorable.
A. Consequentialist Theory
B. Nonconsequentialist Theory
Duty (Deontological) theories emphasize one’s moral duties and obligations. They focus on
the act itself, as either intrinsically good or bad, regardless of its consequences.
C. Virtue / Character Ethics focuses on a person’s moral character. Virtue ethicists say we
ought to develop virtuous characteristics – such as generosity, courage, and compassion –
and exhibit virtuous behavior. This is different from other normative theories that propose
more precise principles and rules for conduct.

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Consequentialist Ethics: Is It Good?
• Key Questions Informing Ethical Decisions:
- What impact is my behavior having on the world?
- Am I doing more good or harm by my behavior?
- Is my behavior making the world a better place?

• Some Main Goals

- Actions aim at bringing about the greatest good for the greatest
number of people.
- Benevolence is a primary value.

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Consequentialist Ethics:
• Philosophers

• David Hume (1711-1776)

• Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)

• John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)

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Deontological Ethics: Is It Right?
• Key Questions Informing Ethical Decisions:
- What are my ethical principles telling me I should do?
- What does reason require of me regarding my treatment of others?
- What duties do I owe?
- How do I decide between conflicting duties?
• Some Main Principles
- Arriving at ethical principles through reason.
- Reasons must be consistent and coherent.
- Having a duty to others based on ethical principles.
- Respecting the autonomy of others is a primary value

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Deontological Ethics: Is It Right?
• Philosophers

• John Locke (1632-1704)

• Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

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Virtue/Character Ethics: How to Live Your Life
• Key Questions Informing Ethical Decisions:
- What kind of person do I want to be?
- What virtues bring me closer to this goal; which vices prevent me from
achieving it? Is my behavior consistent with being a moral person?

• Some Main Principles

- Aspiring to a set of virtues.
- Avoiding a set of vices.
- Integrity is a primary value.
- Finding the right balance within and between values.
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Virtue Ethics:
• Philosophers

• Aristotle (384-322 BCE)

• Alasdair MacIntyre (1929)

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• Consequentialist theories determine whether something is right or
wrong by looking at its consequences. The ethical thing to do is that
which has the best consequences (i.e., results in the most benefit,
happiness, good, etc.) among the alternatives.

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Consequentialism/Teleological Ethics
• Consequentialism is an ethical theory that judges whether or not
something is right by what its consequences are. For instance, most
people would agree that lying is wrong. But if telling a lie would help
save a person’s life, consequentialism says it’s the right thing to do.

• Two examples of consequentialism are utilitarianism and hedonism.

Utilitarianism judges consequences by a “greatest good for the
greatest number” standard. Hedonism, on the other hand, says
something is “good” if the consequence produces pleasure or avoids
pain.

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• For example, how do individuals process and resolve perceived moral
conflicts? What are the most important influences or causes for
individuals behaving ethically or unethically? What is the system of
beliefs that guide individuals or groups in making the moral choices
that are observed?
• Engaging these kinds of questions in a business context, then, can be
thought of as descriptive business ethics, or the application to the
broader organizational context can be referred to as descriptive
organizational ethics.

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The Importance of Context
• "Which is more important, telling the truth or preventing harm?”
• Context can be determined from factors such as time and place, the
nature of the situation, other people's expectations, and the relevant
history.
• To understand the context, let’s assume you are a resident of Nazi
Germany, in 1940. A family of Jews is hiding in your attic. The German
police come searching that particular family of Jews.
• In such a case, preventing harm is clearly more important than telling
the truth

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• The other concern people express is the tendency of
consequentialism to use ‘ends justify the means’ logic. If all we are
concerned with is getting good outcomes, this can seem to justify
harming some people in order to benefit others. Is it ethical to allow
some people to suffer so more people can live well?

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The Meaning of Moral "Justification"
• John ran a medicine business in California, USA. His herbal product used to stop nausea
and vomiting for chemo patients. California regulators had allowed his business entity,
but federal agencies had not approved it. Therefore, selling it on national level was
breaking the law. On the other hand, not selling could consign his clients to suffering.
• So, when federal agents came knocking on his door, he had to make a decision.
• If the means justify the ends − If he follows the rules no matter what the consequences
are, then the agents ask John directly whether he is selling the medicine and the ethical
action would be to admit it.
• If the ends justify the means − If your ethical interest focuses on the consequences of an
act instead of what you actually do, then the ethics change. Therefore, when agents ask
him whether he is selling, he has a reason to lie

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Three subdivisions of consequentialism
• Ethical Egoism: an action is morally right if the consequences of that
action are more favorable than unfavorable only to the
agent performing the action.
• Ethical Altruism: an action is morally right if the consequences of that
action are more favorable than unfavorable to everyone except the
agent.
• Utilitarianism: an action is morally right if the consequences of that
action are more favorable than unfavorable to everyone.
• All three of these theories focus on the consequences of actions for
different groups of people.
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Ethical Egoism:
• Egoism is the theory that one's self is, or should be, the motivation for all
of our actions
• Egoism as an ethical theory parallel to utilitarianism: the utilitarian holds
that one should maximize the good of all beings in the universe; the egoist
holds instead that the good one is ultimately to aim at is only one’s own.
• Ethical egoism is the view that people should in fact act according to their
self interest. Ethical egoists argue that people do not often pursue their self
interest, but that they should in fact do so. Acting in self interest means
that we should do what maximizes our happiness and minimizes our
unhappiness.
• This is a form of hedonism (derived from Greek word “hedon” which
means happiness or pleasure); a doctrine which proposes that one should
maximize one’s happiness and minimize one’s unhappiness.

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Ethical Altruism:
• Altruism, in ethics, a theory of conduct that regards the good of
others as the end of moral action.
• Although we often act selfishly, we also seem to be wired to
cooperate with others.
• Altruism also builds social connections. For example, studies show
that people who are altruistic tend to be happier, to be healthier, and
to live longer.
• So, while altruism leads us to do what’s best for others, it also makes
us feel good in the process.

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Utilitarianism
• Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that determines right from wrong
by focusing on outcomes. It is a form of consequentialism.
• Utilitarianism holds that the most ethical choice is the one that will
produce the greatest good for the greatest number. It is the only
moral framework that can be used to justify military force or war. It is
also the most common approach to moral reasoning used in business
because of the way in which it accounts for costs and benefits.
• However, because we cannot predict the future, it’s difficult to know
with certainty whether the consequences of our actions will be good
or bad. This is one of the limitations of utilitarianism.

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Utilitarianism
• Utilitarianism also has trouble accounting for values such as justice
and individual rights. For example, assume a hospital has four people
whose lives depend upon receiving organ transplants: a heart, lungs,
a kidney, and a liver. If a healthy person wanders into the hospital, his
organs could be harvested to save four lives at the expense of one
life. This would arguably produce the greatest good for the greatest
number. But few would consider it an acceptable course of action, let
alone the most ethical one.

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Two types of utilitarianism,
1. Act utilitarianism - In act-utilitarianism, we are required to promote those acts
which will result in the greatest good for the greatest number of people. The
consequences of the act of giving money to charity would be considered right in
act-utilitarianism, because the money increases the happiness of many people,
rather than just yourself.
2. Rule utilitarianism-The principle of utility in rule-utilitarianism is to follow those
rules which will result in the greatest good for the greatest number of people.
Both theories count as utilitarian because both define that which produces the
greatest utility as good and seek for the greatest nett amount of utility, be it either
through actions or indirectly through rules.
The act utilitarian considers only the results or consequences of the single act while
the rule utilitarian considers the consequences that result of following a rule of
conduct .
NOTHING is right or wrong in itself for a utilitarian. NOTHING! It all depends on the
consequences of the act, the results are what matters not the act.
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What can the staff, who saved lives while endangering their
own, teach American companies about ethical behavior?
Social Contract Theory,
• English philosopher Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), argued that
morality was essentially a set of rules that human beings agreed upon
amongst themselves in order to make living with one another
possible.
• If we didn’t have these rules—many of which took the form of laws
enforced by the government—life would be absolutely horrific for
everyone.

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Hedonism
• Hedonism is the belief that pleasure, or the absence of pain, is the most
important principle in determining the morality of a potential course of
action. Pleasure can be things like “,drugs, and rock ’n’ roll,” but it can also
include any intrinsically valuable experience like reading a good book.
• Hedonism is a type of consequentialism, and it has several forms. For
example, normative hedonism is the idea that pleasure should be people’s
primary motivation. On the other hand, motivational hedonism says that
only pleasure and pain cause people to do what they do.
• Regardless of the type of hedonism, critics fault it as a guide for morality
because hedonism ignores all other values, such as freedom or fairness,
when evaluating right and wrong.
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Deontology/Duty Ethics
• Deontology is an ethical theory that uses rules to distinguish right from
wrong. Deontology is often associated with philosopher Immanuel
Kant. Kant believed that ethical actions follow universal moral laws, such as
“Don’t lie. Don’t steal. Don’t cheat.”
• Deontology is simple to apply. It just requires that people follow the rules
and do their duty. This approach tends to fit well with our natural intuition
about what is or isn’t ethical.
• Unlike consequentialism, which judges actions by their results, deontology
doesn’t require weighing the costs and benefits of a situation. This avoids
subjectivity and uncertainty because you only have to follow set rules.
• There are different deontological theories such as categorical imperative,
moral absolutism, divine command theory etc.
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Moral Absolutism
• Moral absolutism asserts that there are certain universal moral
principles by which all peoples’ actions may be judged. It is a form of
deontology.
• The challenge with moral absolutism, however, is that there will
always be strong disagreements about which moral principles are
correct and which are incorrect.
• For example, most people around the world probably accept the idea
that we should treat others as we wish to be treated ourselves. But
beyond that, people from different countries likely hold varying views
about everything from the morality of abortion and capital
punishment to nepotism and bribery.

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Applied Ethics
• Applied ethics consists of the analysis of specific moral issues that
arise in public or private life. Whereas normative ethics attempts to
develop general standards for morality, applied ethics is concerned
with specific moral controversies. Abortion, stem cell research,
environmental concerns, and the appropriate treatment of animals
are all applied ethics issues.
• Bioethics, business ethics, legal ethics, environmental ethics, and
media ethics are all applied ethics fields.

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Normative Principles in Applied Ethics
• Personal benefit: acknowledge the extent to which an action
produces beneficial consequences for the individual in question.
• Social benefit: acknowledge the extent to which an action produces
beneficial consequences for society.
• Principle of benevolence: help those in need.
• Principle of paternalism: assist others in pursuing their best interests
when they cannot do so themselves.
• Principle of harm: do not harm others.

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Normative Principles in Applied Ethics……..
• Principle of honesty: do not deceive others.
• Principle of lawfulness: do not violate the law.
• Principle of autonomy: acknowledge a person’s freedom over his/her
actions or physical body.
• Principle of justice: acknowledge a person’s right to due process, fair
compensation for harm done, and fair distribution of benefits.
• Rights: acknowledge a person’s rights to life, information, privacy, free
expression, and safety.

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Practical Study of Apple Inc
Ethical Issue between Apple and FBI
The ethical issue taken by Apple Inc.
The ethical issue taken by Apple Inc.
Issues in Applied Ethics
• The field of business ethics examines moral controversies relating to
the social responsibilities of capitalist business practices, the moral
status of corporate entities, deceptive advertising, insider trading,
basic employee rights, job discrimination, affirmative action, drug
testing, and whistle blowing.
• Issues in environmental ethics often overlaps with business and
medical issues. These include the rights of animals, the morality of
animal experimentation, preserving endangered species, pollution
control, management of environmental resources, whether eco-
systems are entitled to direct moral consideration, and our obligation
to future generations.

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Issues in Applied Ethics………..
• Controversial issues include monogamy versus polygamy,
extramarital affairs. Issues of social morality which examine capital
punishment, nuclear war, gun control, the recreational use of drugs,
welfare rights, and racism.
• This sub discipline of ethics deals with many major issues of the
contemporary scene, including human rights, social equality, and the
moral implications of scientific research, for example in the area of
genetic engineering.( bioethics, legal ethics, business ethics, animal
rights, environmentalism.)

49
Lawrence Kohlberg-Model(Cognitive Moral
Development – CMD)
• Kohlberg postulated that there were three levels of moral maturity.
• At the earliest and least mature level, children typically define right
and wrong in terms of what authority figures tell them is right and
wrong, or in terms of what results in reward or punishment.
• The second level is typical of adolescents who tend to base right and
wrong on loyalties to their family and friends.
• The third and most mature level is achieved when a person comes to
rely on universal and abstract ethical principles, such as the principles
of justice or equality, that impartially take into account the interests
of all persons.
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Stages of Moral Development
• How do people develop morality?
• Do parental or societal influences play a greater role in moral
development?
• Do all kids develop morality in similar ways?
• American psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg developed one of the best-
known theories exploring some of these basic questions.
• His work modified and expanded upon Jean Piaget's previous work but was
more centered on explaining how children develop moral reasoning.
• Kohlberg extended Piaget's theory, proposing that moral development is a
continual process that occurs throughout the lifespan. Kohlberg's theory
outlines six stages of moral development within three different levels.
How Kohlberg Developed His Theory
• Kohlberg based his theory on a series of moral dilemmas presented to his study subjects.
Participants were also interviewed to determine the reasoning behind their judgments in
each scenario.
• One example was "Heinz Steals the Drug." In this scenario, a woman has cancer and her
doctors believe only one drug might save her. This drug had been discovered by a local
pharmacist and he was able to make it for $200 per dose and sell it for $2,000 per dose.
The woman's husband, Heinz, could only raise $1,000 to buy the drug.
• He tried to negotiate with the pharmacist for a lower price or to be extended credit to
pay for it over time. But the pharmacist refused to sell it for any less or to accept partial
payments. Rebuffed, Heinz instead broke into the pharmacy and stole the drug to save
his wife. Kohlberg asked, "Should the husband have done that?"
• Kohlberg was not interested so much in the answer to whether Heinz was wrong or right
but in the reasoning for each participant's decision. He then classified their reasoning
into the stages of his theory of moral development.
Stages of Moral Development
• Kohlberg's theory is broken down into three primary levels. At each
level of moral development, there are two stages. Similar to how
Piaget believed that not all people reach the highest levels of
cognitive development, Kohlberg believed not everyone progresses to
the highest stages of moral development.
Kohlberg identified three levels of development
with six stages, two stages per level, as follows:
• Level 1—Pre conventional (concrete individualistic perspective):
stages 1 to 2
• Level 2—Conventional (member-of-society perspective):stages 3 to 4
• Level 3—Post conventional (prior-to-society perspective):stages 5 to 6

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Levels of Moral Age Stages Included in This
Development Level
Preconventional Morality 0 to 9 Stage 1: Obedience and
punishment
Stage 2: Individualism and
exchange
Conventional Morality Early adolescence to Stage 3: Developing good
adulthood interpersonal relationships
Stage 4: Maintaining social
order
Postconventional Morality Some adults; rare Stage 5: Social contract
and individual rights stage
6: Universal principles
Level 1. Preconventional Morality
• Preconventional morality is the earliest period of moral development.
It lasts until around the age of 9. At this age, children's decisions are
primarily shaped by the expectations of adults and the consequences
of breaking the rules. There are two stages within this level:
• Stage 1 (Obedience and Punishment):
• The earliest stages of moral development, obedience and punishment
are especially common in young children, but adults are also capable
of expressing this type of reasoning. According to Kohlberg, people at
this stage see rules as fixed and absolute.
• Obeying the rules is important because it is a way to avoid
punishment.
Level 1. Preconventional Morality…….
• Stage 2 (Individualism and Exchange):
• At the individualism and exchange stage of moral development,
children account for individual points of view and judge actions based
on how they serve individual needs. In the Heinz dilemma, children
argued that the best course of action was the choice that best served
Heinz’s needs. Reciprocity is possible at this point in moral
development, but only if it serves one's own interests.
Level 2. Conventional Morality
• The next period of moral development is marked by the acceptance of
social rules regarding what is good and moral. During this time, adolescents
and adults internalize the moral standards they have learned from their
role models and from society.
• This period also focuses on the acceptance of authority and conforming to
the norms of the group. There are two stages at this level of morality:
• Stage 3 (Developing Good Interpersonal Relationships):
• Often referred to as the "good boy-good girl" orientation, this stage of the
interpersonal relationship of moral development is focused on living up to
social expectations and roles.There is an emphasis on conformity, being
"nice," and consideration of how choices influence relationships.
Level 2. Conventional Morality……..
• Stage 4 (Maintaining Social Order):
• This stage is focused on ensuring that social order is maintained. At
this stage of moral development, people begin to consider society as
a whole when making judgments. The focus is on maintaining law and
order by following the rules, doing one’s duty, and respecting
authority.
Level 3. Postconventional Morality
• At this level of moral development, people develop an understanding
of abstract principles of morality. The two stages at this level are:

• Stage 5 (Social Contract and Individual Rights):

• The ideas of a social contract and individual rights cause people in the
next stage to begin to account for the differing values, opinions, and
beliefs of other people.6 Rules of law are important for maintaining a
society, but members of the society should agree upon these
standards.
Level 3. Postconventional Morality……
• Stage 6 (Universal Principles):
• Kohlberg’s final level of moral reasoning is based on universal ethical
principles and abstract reasoning. At this stage, people follow these
internalized principles of justice, even if they conflict with laws and
rules.
Criticisms for Kohlberg's Theory of Moral
Development
• While the theory has been highly influential, aspects of the theory
have been critiqued for a number of reasons:
• Moral reasoning does not equal moral behavior: Kohlberg's theory is
concerned with moral thinking, but there is a big difference between
knowing what we ought to do versus our actual actions. Moral
reasoning, therefore, may not lead to moral behavior.
• Overemphasizes justice: Critics have pointed out that Kohlberg's
theory of moral development overemphasizes the concept of justice
when making moral choices. Factors such as compassion, caring, and
other interpersonal feelings may play an important part in moral
reasoning.
Criticisms for Kohlberg's Theory of Moral
Development
• Cultural bias: Individualist cultures emphasize personal rights, while
collectivist cultures stress the importance of society and community.
Eastern, collectivist cultures may have different moral outlooks that
Kohlberg's theory does not take into account.
• Age bias: Most of his subjects were children under the age of 16 who
obviously had no experience with marriage. The Heinz dilemma may
have been too abstract for these children to understand, and a
scenario more applicable to their everyday concerns might have led
to different results.
Criticisms for Kohlberg's Theory of Moral
Development
• Gender bias: Kohlberg's critics, including Carol Gilligan, have
suggested that Kohlberg's theory was gender-biased since all of the
subjects in his sample were male. Kohlberg believed that women
tended to remain at the third level of moral development because
they place a stronger emphasis on things such as social relationships
and the welfare of others.
Gilligan Model
• Gilligan argued that women’s moral judgments necessarily include
feelings of compassion and empathy for others, as well as concern for
commitments that arise out of relationships. Women engage in “care
reasoning,” not “justice reasoning,” and thus consider their own and
other’s responsibilities to be grounded in social context and
interpersonal commitments.
• Levels of Thinking:
• Carol Gilligan states that the post-conventional level of moral thinking
can be dealt based on the two types of thinking. Gilligan’s theory is
based on the two main ideas, the care-based morality (usually found
in women) and the justice-based morality (usually found in men).

66
Care-based Morality
• Care-based morality is the kind of thinking found in women and is based on the
following principles.
• More emphasis is given to inter-connected relationships and universality.

• Acting justly focuses on avoidance of violence.

• Women with this are usually interested in helping others.

• More common in girls because of their connections to their mothers.

• Because girls remain connected to their mothers, they are less inclined to worry
about issues of fairness.
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Justice-based Morality
• Justice-based morality is the kind of thinking found in men and is
based on the following principles:
• They view the world as being composed of autonomous individuals
who interact with one another.
• Acting justly means avoiding inequality.
• Individuals with this are usually interested in protecting individuality.
• Thought to be more common among boys because of their need to
differentiate between themselves and their mothers.
• Because they are separated from their mothers, boys become more
concerned with the concept of inequality.

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Gilligan identified two moral voices that arise
from two distinct developmental pathways.
• According to Gilligan, the male voice emphasizes independence
(“separation”) and responsibility for oneself, whereas the female voice
emphasizes interdependence (“connection”) and responsibility to others.
• Males are encouraged to be active agents, females to be passive recipients.
• When faced with moral problems, males seek solutions that are just and
fair; females seek solutions that are caring and benevolent.
• For males, moral wrongness is linked to the violation of rights and justice;
for females, moral wrongness is linked to a failure to communicate and to
respond.
• For males, moral interactions take place primarily at the political and legal
level, in the realm of abstract laws and social contracts; for females, moral
interactions take place primarily at the level of personal relationships, in
the family and the social network of the community in which they live.

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Gilligan Model
• See short Video- File in BECG_Pictures_Videos

70
Ethics of Care
• Also known as feminist ethics, ethics of care is primarily concerned
with caring for others. This has evolved from the need to care for
those who cannot care for themselves, such as infants.
• Eg: An officer who is called to a grocery store to arrest a mentally ill
street person who is stealing food may, instead of arresting the
suspect, find an alternative route, such as connecting the suspect
with a social service agency, or arranging for a social worker to help
the person find a home.

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