UNIT-2 COMPUTER NETWORKS NOTES

Internetworking in Computer Network

In internetworking, routers are aware of each other’s addresses as well as addresses outside
of their network. They have two options: they can be statically set to operate on various
networks, or they can learn by utilising the internetworking routing protocol.

What is Internetworking in a Computer Network?

The word “internetworking,” which combines the words “inter” and “networking,” denotes a
connection between completely distinct nodes/segments. This connection is made possible
by intermediary hardware like routers or gateways. Catenet was the initial title for associate
degree internetwork. Private, public, commercial, industrial, and governmental networks
frequently connect to one another. Therefore, a degree of internetwork could be a collection
of several networks that operate as a single large network and are connected by intermediate
networking devices. The trade, goods, and methods used to address the difficulty of creating
and managing internet works are referred to as internetworking.

How Does Internetworking Work?

Every network node or phase is built using a similar protocol or a communication logic, such
as TCP (Transfer Control Protocol) or IP (Internet Protocol), to enable communication. It is
referred to as “internetworking” when a network interacts with another network using
ongoing communication protocols. A packet of information must be delivered across
numerous links, which is a problem that internetworking was created to address.
The distinction between expanding the network and internetworking is quite slight. A simple
extension of a LAN is the use of a switch or hub to join two local area networks, but connecting
them via a router is an example of internetworking. The OSI-ISO model’s Layer 3 (Network
Layer) enforces internetworking. The internet is the most prominent famous example of
internetworking.

Types of Internetworking
Internetworking primarily consists of three units: Extranet, Internet, and Intranet. Internet
connections may or may not be present on intranets and extranets. The computer network or
the extranet area unit is typically protected from being accessed from the internet if it is not
approved and if there is a link to the internet. Although it should serve as a portal for access
to portions of the associate degree extranet, the internet is not considered to be a part of the
computer network or extranet.
Extranet
It’s a network of the internetwork with a confined scope to one organisation or institution but
with limited links to one or more other networks on occasion; however, this is not always the
case. It is the lowest degree of internet usage and is typically prohibited in extremely private
areas. An extranet may also be referred to as a MAN, WAN, or another type of network, but
it cannot include a single local area network; rather, it must make at least one mention of an
external network.
Internet
Internet is a specific internetworking that connects governmental, academic, public, and
private networks on a global scale. It is based on the ARPANET, which was created by the ARPA
(Advanced Research Projects Agency) of the U.S. Defense Department. It is also the location
of the World Wide Web (WWW) and is referred to as the “Internet” to distinguish it from
other generic internetworking. Internet users and their service providers utilise IP addresses
obtained from address registries that control assignments.
Intranet
This computer network can be a collection of interconnected networks that employ the
Internet Protocol and IP-based software like web browsers as well as FTP tools, all of which
are controlled by a single body entity. This body entity blocks access to the computer network
for the rest of the world and only allows a select few users. This network most frequently
refers to the internal network of a business or other enterprise. To provide users with browse
able data, a large computer network can typically have its own internet server.

Internetwork Addressing
The internetwork addresses set up devices singly or collectively. Depending on the protocol
family and because of the OSI layer, addressing strategies vary. DLL, MAC addresses, and
network-layer addresses are the three types of internetwork address area units that are
typically employed.
DLL Addresses
All the physical network associations of network devices are clearly identified by a data-link
layer address. Area units are frequently used as physical addresses or hardware addresses in
data-link addresses. Data-link addresses can occasionally be found within a flat address space
and are pre-configured with a fixed relationship to a particular device. End systems typically
only have one data-link address since they only have one physical network association. As a
result of having many physical network connections, routers and other internetworking
equipment frequently have various data-link addresses.
MAC Addresses
Data-link layer addresses are included in MAC addresses. MAC addresses create network
entities in LANs that use the data-link layer’s IEEE MAC addresses. For each local area network
interface, a unique MAC address designates a particular area unit. MAC addresses are
expressed as twelve hexadecimal numbers and are forty-eight bits long. The Organisational
Unique Identifier (OUI) is made up of the first 12 hexadecimal digits, which are typically
managed by the IEEE and identify the maker or seller.
The interface serial variety or the other price set by a specific merchant would be represented
by the final half a dozen positional notation digits. When an interface card initialises, MAC
addresses are routinely traced into RAM from ROM, where they are known as burned-in
addresses (abbreviated as BIAs).

Network Layer Addresses

The network addresses can occasionally be seen in both gradable address areas and the more
common virtual or logical address area units. The relationship between the network address
and the tool is logical and flexible; it typically depends either on the properties of the physical
network or on groupings without any physical foundation. For each network-layer protocol
that a finished system supports, a network-layer address is required. For each supported
network-layer protocol, routers and other internetworking devices require a single network-
layer address for every physical network association.

Challenges to Internetworking
There is no guarantee that useful internetwork will be implemented. There are many difficult
fields, especially in the ones of dependability, connection, adaptability, and network
management. However, each and every one of these fields is crucial to the creation of an
efficient and cost-effective internetwork. The challenges to internetworking include:
• The first difficulty arises when we attempt to link several systems in order to allow
communication among various technologies. For instance, completely distinct
websites may employ various media or function at various speeds.
• Reliable service that must be maintained in the internetwork is another crucial
consideration. Organisations as a whole and individual users alike rely on regular,
dependable access to network resources.
• Centralised assistance and internet network troubleshooting should be provided via
network management. For the network to operate smoothly, configuration, security,
performance, and other issues need to be addressed properly.
• The most significant factor, flexibility, is crucial for network expansion as well as new
applications and services.

Tunnelling:
Tunnelling is a protocol for transferring data securely from one network to another. Using a
method known as encapsulation, Tunnelling allows private network communications to be
sent across a public network, such as the Internet. Encapsulation enables data packets to
appear general to a public network when they are private data packets, allowing them to pass
unnoticed.
When data is tunnelled, it is split into smaller parts called packets, as it travels through the
tunnel. The packets are encrypted via the tunnel, and another process known
as encapsulation takes place. For transmission, private network data and protocol details are
encased in public network transmission units. The units have the appearance of public data,
allowing them to be sent via the Internet. Encapsulation enables packets to reach their
intended destination. De-capsulation and decryption take place at the final destination.
Tunnelling is possible thanks to a variety of procedures, including −
• Point-to-Point Tunnelling Protocol (PPTP)
• Layer Two Tunnelling Protocol (L2TP)

• PPTP (Point-to-Point Tunnelling Protocol)

PPTP protects confidential information even when transmitted via public networks. An
Internet service provider can provide authorized users with access to a private network
called a virtual private network. Because it was built in a tunnelled environment, this
is a "virtual" private network.

• Layer Two Tunnelling Protocol (L2TP)

This tunnelling protocol combines PPTP with Layer 2 Forwarding.
Tunnelling is a technique for communicating over a public network while going through
a private network. This is especially beneficial in a corporate situation, and it also
includes security measures like encryption.
The IP packet in this scenario does not have to deal with the WAN, and neither do the
hosts A and B. IP, and WAN packets will be understood by the multiprotocol routers
M1 and M2. As a result, the WAN can be compared to a large tunnel connecting
multiprotocol routers M1 and M2, and the process is known as Tunnelling.
Tunnelling makes use of a layered protocol paradigm like the OSI or TCP/IP protocol
suite. In other words, when data travels from host A to host B, it traverses all levels of
the specified protocol (OSI, TCP/IP, and so on), and data conversion (encapsulation) to
suit different interfaces of the particular layer is referred to as Tunnelling.

INTERNETWORKING ROUTING: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VFxlOra5NDc

Fragmentation Network layer in the Internet:
Fragmentation is an important function of network layer. It is technique in which gateways
break up or divide larger packets into smaller ones called fragments. Each fragment is then
sent as a separate internal packet. Each fragment has its separate header and trailer.
Sometimes, a fragmented datagram can also get fragmented further when it encounters a
network that handles smaller fragments. Thus, a datagram can be fragmented several times
before it reaches final destination. Reverse process of the fragmentation is difficult.
Reassembling of fragments is usually done by the destination host because each fragment has
become an independent datagram.

The need of Fragmentation at Network Layer:

Fragmentation at the Network Layer is a process of dividing a large data packet into smaller
pieces, known as fragments, to improve the efficiency of data transmission over a network.
The need for fragmentation at the network layer arises from several factors:
1.Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU): Different networks have different Maximum
Transmission Unit (MTU) sizes, which determine the maximum size of a data packet that can
be transmitted over that network. If the size of a data packet exceeds the MTU, it needs to be
fragmented into smaller fragments that can be transmitted over the network.
2.Network Performance: Large data packets can consume a significant amount of network
resources and can cause congestion in the network. Fragmentation helps to reduce the impact
of large data packets on network performance by breaking them down into smaller fragments
that can be transmitted more efficiently.
3.Bandwidth Utilization: Large data packets may consume a significant amount of network
bandwidth, causing other network traffic to be slowed down. Fragmentation helps to reduce
the impact of large data packets on network bandwidth utilization by breaking them down
into smaller fragments that can be transmitted more efficiently.

Fragmentation at the network layer is necessary in order to ensure efficient

and reliable transmission of data over communication networks.
1.Large Packet Size: In some cases, the size of the packet to be transmitted may be too large
for the underlying communication network to handle. Fragmentation at the network layer
allows the large packet to be divided into smaller fragments that can be transmitted over the
network.
2.Path MTU: The Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU) of a network defines the largest packet
size that can be transmitted over the network. Fragmentation at the network layer allows the
packet to be divided into smaller fragments that can be transmitted over networks with
different MTU values.
3.Reliable Transmission: Fragmentation at the network layer increases the reliability of data
transmission, as smaller fragments are less likely to be lost or corrupted during transmission.

What is IPv4?
IP stands for Internet Protocol version v4 stands for Version Four (IPv4), is the most widely
used system for identifying devices on a network. It uses a set of four numbers, separated by
periods (like 192.168.0.1), to give each device a unique address. This address helps data find
its way from one device to another over the internet.
Parts of IPv4
IPv4 addresses consist of three parts:
• Network Part: The network part indicates the distinctive variety that’s appointed to
the network. The network part conjointly identifies the category of the network that’s
assigned.
• Host Part: The host part uniquely identifies the machine on your network. This part of
the IPv4 address is assigned to every host.
For each host on the network, the network part is the same, however, the host half
must vary.
• Subnet Number: This is the nonobligatory part of IPv4. Local networks that have
massive numbers of hosts are divided into subnets and subnet numbers are appointed
to that.
Characteristics of IPv4
• IPv4 could be a 32-bit IP Address.
• IPv4 could be a numeric address, and its bits are separated by a dot.
• The number of header fields is twelve and the length of the header field is twenty.
• It has Unicast, broadcast, and multicast-style addresses.
• IPv4 supports VLSM (Virtual Length Subnet Mask).
• IPv4 uses the Post Address Resolution Protocol to map to the MAC address.
• RIP may be a routing protocol supported by the routed daemon.
• Networks ought to be designed either manually or with DHCP.
• Packet fragmentation permits from routers and causes host.
There are two notations in which the IP address is written, dotted decimal and hexadecimal
notation.
Dotted Decimal Notation
Some points to be noted about dotted decimal notation:
• The value of any segment (byte) is between 0 and 255 (both included).
• No zeroes are preceding the value in any segment (054 is wrong, 54 is correct).
Dotted Decimal Notation
Hexadecimal Notation

Introduction of Classful IP Addressing

An IP address is an address that has information about how to reach a specific host, especially
outside the LAN. An IP address is a 32-bit unique address having an address space of 232.
Classful IP addressing is a way of organizing and managing IP addresses, which are used to
identify devices on a network. Think of IP addresses like street addresses for houses; each
device on a network needs its unique address to communicate with other devices.
Classful Addressing
The 32-bit IP address is divided into five sub-classes. These are given below:
• Class A
• Class B
• Class C
• Class D
• Class E
Each of these classes has a valid range of IP addresses. Classes D and E are reserved for
multicast and experimental purposes respectively. The order of bits in the first octet
determines the classes of the IP address.
The class of IP address is used to determine the bits used for network ID and host ID and the
number of total networks and hosts possible in that particular class. Each ISP or network
administrator assigns an IP address to each device that is connected to its network.

Classful Addressing
Class A
IP addresses belonging to class A are assigned to the networks that contain a large number of
hosts.
• The network ID is 8 bits long.
• The host ID is 24 bits long.
The higher-order bit of the first octet in class A is always set to 0. The remaining 7 bits in the
first octet are used to determine network ID. The 24 bits of host ID are used to determine the
host in any network. The default subnet mask for Class A is 255.x.x.x. Therefore, class A has a
total of:
• 2^24 – 2 = 16,777,214 host ID
IP addresses belonging to class A ranges from 0.0.0.0 – 127.255.255.255.
Class B
IP address belonging to class B is assigned to networks that range from medium-sized to large-
sized networks.
• The network ID is 16 bits long.
• The host ID is 16 bits long.
The higher-order bits of the first octet of IP addresses of class B are always set to 10. The
remaining 14 bits are used to determine the network ID. The 16 bits of host ID are used to
determine the host in any network. The default subnet mask for class B is 255.255.x.x. Class B
has a total of:
• 2^14 = 16384 network address
• 2^16 – 2 = 65534 host address
IP addresses belonging to class B ranges from 128.0.0.0 – 191.255.255.255.

Class C
IP addresses belonging to class C are assigned to small-sized networks.
• The network ID is 24 bits long.
• The host ID is 8 bits long.
The higher-order bits of the first octet of IP addresses of class C is always set to 110. The
remaining 21 bits are used to determine the network ID. The 8 bits of host ID are used to
determine the host in any network. The default subnet mask for class C is 255.255.255.x. Class
C has a total of:
• 2^21 = 2097152 network address
• 2^8 – 2 = 254 host address
IP addresses belonging to class C range from 192.0.0.0 – 223.255.255.255.
Class D
IP address belonging to class D is reserved for multi-casting. The higher-order bits of the first
octet of IP addresses belonging to class D is always set to 1110. The remaining bits are for the
address that interested hosts recognize.
Class D does not possess any subnet mask. IP addresses belonging to class D range from
224.0.0.0 – 239.255.255.255.

Class E
IP addresses belonging to class E are reserved for experimental and research purposes. IP
addresses of class E range from 240.0.0.0 – 255.255.255.255. This class doesn’t have any
subnet mask. The higher-order bits of the first octet of class E are always set to 1111.

Rules for Assigning Host ID

Host IDs are used to identify a host within a network. The host ID is assigned based on the
following rules:
• Within any network, the host ID must be unique to that network.
• A host ID in which all bits are set to 0 cannot be assigned because this host ID is used
to represent the network ID of the IP address.
• Host ID in which all bits are set to 1 cannot be assigned because this host ID is reserved
as a broadcast address to send packets to all the hosts present on that particular
network.
Rules for Assigning Network ID
Hosts that are located on the same physical network are identified by the network ID, as all
host on the same physical network is assigned the same network ID. The network ID is
assigned based on the following rules:
 • The network ID cannot start with 127 because 127 belongs to the class A address and
is reserved for internal loopback functions.
• All bits of network ID set to 1 are reserved for use as an IP broadcast address and
therefore, cannot be used.
• All bits of network ID set to 0 are used to denote a specific host on the local network
and are not routed and therefore, aren’t used.

What is Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR)?

CIDR or Class Inter-Domain Routing was introduced in 1993 to replace classful
addressing. Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) is a method for efficiently
allocating IP addresses and routing Internet Protocol (IP) packets. Unlike classful
addressing, which divides IP addresses into fixed classes (A, B, C, etc.), CIDR allows
for variable-length subnet masks (VLSM). This means that networks can be divided
into smaller, more flexible subnets according to their specific needs, rather than
being constrained by predefined class boundaries.

CIDR Notation
In CIDR subnet masks are denoted by /X. For example a subnet of 255.255.255.0
would be denoted by /24. To work a subnet mask in CIDR, we have to first convert
each octet into its respective binary value.

Difference Between Classful Addressing and Classless Addressing

Parameter Classful Addressing Classless Addressing

Classless addressing came to

In Classful addressing IP addresses replace the classful
Basics are allocated according to the addressing and to handle the
classes- A to E. issue of rapid exhaustion of
IP addresses.

Practical It is less practical. It is more practical.

There is no such restriction

Network ID and The changes in the Network ID and
of class in classless
Host ID Host ID depend on the class.
addressing.
Parameter Classful Addressing Classless Addressing

It does not support the Variable It supports the Variable

VLSM
Length Subnet Mask (VLSM). Length Subnet Mask (VLSM).

Classful addressing requires more It requires less bandwidth.

bandwidth. As a result, it becomes Thus, fast and less expensive
Bandwidth
slower and more expensive as as compared to classful
compared to classless addressing. addressing.

It does not support Classless Inter- It supports Classless Inter-

CIDR
Domain Routing (CIDR). Domain Routing (CIDR).

Updates Regular or periodic updates Triggered Updates

Troubleshooting and problem

Troubleshooting detection are easy than classless
It is not as easy compared to
and Problem addressing because of the division
classful addressing.
detection of network, host and subnet parts
in the address.

• Network
• Host
Division of Address • Host
• Subnet
• Subnet

Introduction to Subnetting
Subnetting is a combination of two words i.e. Sub and Netting. Here Sub word means
Substitute and netting word means Network. The Substitute Network created for a function
to happen is known as Subnetting.
Subnetting is a technique for creating logical sub-networks from a single physical network
(subnets). A company can grow its network via subnetting without asking for a new network
number from its ISP. Subnetting hides network complexity while assisting in the reduction of
network traffic. Here, a network which is unique has to provide its services to many Local Area
Networks i.e. (LAN). So, for this reason Subnetting is extensively used.
Purpose of Subnetting in Computer Networks
o Efficiency of the Network
By removing the need for extra routers, subnetting makes network traffic simpler. This makes
sure the data being transmitted can get to its destination as fast as possible, eliminating or
avoiding any potential diversions that may slow it down.
o Provides Network Security
By isolating or removing vulnerable network regions and making it harder for intruders to
move through a company's network, subnetting helps the network managers in reducing
network-wide risks.
o Internet Protocol (IP) Addressing Relocation
Each class has a finite amount of possible host allocations; for instance, networks with more
than 254 devices require a Class B allocation. Assume that you are a network administrator.
Now, you have a task of allocating 150 hosts among three physical networks in three distinct
cities for a Class B or C network. If so, we must either ask for additional address blocks for
each network or split the single big network into small parts named subnets so that we could
utilize a single address block across a number of physical networks.
We will learn about this concept deeper in the upcoming topics.
o Reduction of Network Traffic
Placing all of the computers on the same subnet can assist minimize network traffic if a
significant amount of an organization's traffic is intended to be shared routinely among a
number of devices. Without a subnet, all computers and servers on the network would be
able to see data packets from every other machine.
o Network Speed Improvement
The main network is divided into smaller subnets through the process of subnetting, and the
goal of these smaller, linked networks is to split the large network into a collection of smaller,
less-busy networks. Subnets reduce the need for traffic to use unnecessary routes, which
speeds up the network.
o Division of IP Addresses
An IP address is split into its network address and host address via subnetting.
The split address may then be further divided into units using the subnet mask approach, and
those units can be assigned to different network devices.
Here, X refers to the Host ID. This is the only thing which gets changed in the Internet Protocol
Address
SUBNETTING: https://youtu.be/UHRPtNZ_Rz4

Network Layer Protocols

Network Layer is responsible for the transmission of data or communication from one host to
another host connected in a network. Rather than describing how data is transferred, it
implements the technique for efficient transmission. In order to provide efficient
communication protocols are used at the network layer. The data is being grouped into
packets or in the case of extremely large data it is divided into smaller sub packets. Each
protocol used has specific features and advantages.
TCP/IP supports the following protocols:
ARP
o ARP stands for Address Resolution Protocol.
o It is used to associate an IP address with the MAC address.
o Each device on the network is recognized by the MAC address imprinted on the NIC.
Therefore, we can say that devices need the MAC address for communication on a
local area network. MAC address can be changed easily. For example, if the NIC on a
particular machine fails, the MAC address changes but IP address does not change.
ARP is used to find the MAC address of the node when an internet address is known.
How ARP works
If the host wants to know the physical address of another host on its network, then it sends
an ARP query packet that includes the IP address and broadcast it over the network. Every
host on the network receives and processes the ARP packet, but only the intended recipient
recognizes the IP address and sends back the physical address. The host holding the datagram
adds the physical address to the cache memory and to the datagram header, then sends back
to the sender.
RARP
o RARP stands for Reverse Address Resolution Protocol.
o If the host wants to know its IP address, then it broadcast the RARP query packet that
contains its physical address to the entire network. A RARP server on the network
recognizes the RARP packet and responds back with the host IP address.
o The protocol which is used to obtain the IP address from a server is known as Reverse
Address Resolution Protocol.
o The message format of the RARP protocol is similar to the ARP protocol.
o Like ARP frame, RARP frame is sent from one machine to another encapsulated in the
data portion of a frame.
ICMP
o ICMP stands for Internet Control Message Protocol.
o The ICMP is a network layer protocol used by hosts and routers to send the
notifications of IP datagram problems back to the sender.
o ICMP uses echo test/reply to check whether the destination is reachable and
responding.
o ICMP handles both control and error messages, but its main function is to report the
error but not to correct them.
o An IP datagram contains the addresses of both source and destination, but it does not
know the address of the previous router through which it has been passed. Due to this
reason, ICMP can only send the messages to the source, but not to the immediate
routers.
 o ICMP protocol communicates the error messages to the sender. ICMP messages cause
the errors to be returned back to the user processes.
o ICMP messages are transmitted within IP datagram.

The Format of an ICMP message

o The first field specifies the type of the message.

o The second field specifies the reason for a particular message type.
o The checksum field covers the entire ICMP message.
Error Reporting
ICMP protocol reports the error messages to the sender.
Five types of errors are handled by the ICMP protocol:
o Destination unreachable
o Source Quench
o Time Exceeded
o Parameter problems
o Redirection
 o Destination unreachable: The message of "Destination Unreachable" is sent from
receiver to the sender when destination cannot be reached, or packet is discarded
when the destination is not reachable.
o Source Quench: The purpose of the source quench message is congestion control. The
message sent from the congested router to the source host to reduce the transmission
rate. ICMP will take the IP of the discarded packet and then add the source quench
message to the IP datagram to inform the source host to reduce its transmission rate.
The source host will reduce the transmission rate so that the router will be free from
congestion.
o Time Exceeded: Time Exceeded is also known as "Time-To-Live". It is a parameter that
defines how long a packet should live before it would be discarded.
o Parameter problems: When a router or host discovers any missing value in the IP
datagram, the router discards the datagram, and the "parameter problem" message is
sent back to the source host.
o Redirection: Redirection message is generated when host consists of a small routing
table. When the host consists of a limited number of entries due to which it sends the
datagram to a wrong router. The router that receives a datagram will forward a
datagram to a correct router and also sends the "Redirection message" to the host to
update its routing table.

IGMP
o IGMP stands for Internet Group Message Protocol.
o The IP protocol supports two types of communication:
o Unicasting: It is a communication between one sender and one receiver.
Therefore, we can say that it is one-to-one communication.
o Multicasting: Sometimes the sender wants to send the same message to a
large number of receivers simultaneously. This process is known as multicasting
which has one-to-many communication.
o The IGMP protocol is used by the hosts and router to support multicasting.
o The IGMP protocol is used by the hosts and router to identify the hosts in a LAN that
are the members of a group.
 o IGMP is a part of the IP layer, and IGMP has a fixed-size message.
o The IGMP message is encapsulated within an IP datagram.

Difference Between IPv4 and IPv6

IPv4 IPv6

IPv4 has a 32-bit address length IPv6 has a 128-bit address length

It Supports Manual It supports Auto and renumbering address

and DHCP address configuration configuration

In IPv4 end to end, connection In IPv6 end-to-end, connection integrity is

integrity is Unachievable Achievable

It can generate 4.29×10 9 address The address space of IPv6 is quite large it can
space produce 3.4×10 38 address space

The Security feature is dependent IPSEC is an inbuilt security feature in the IPv6
on the application protocol
IPv4 IPv6

Address representation of IPv4 is in

Address representation of IPv6 is in hexadecimal
decimal

Fragmentation performed by In IPv6 fragmentation is performed only by the

Sender and forwarding routers sender

In IPv4 Packet flow identification is In IPv6 packet flow identification are Available and
not available uses the flow label field in the header

In IPv4 checksum field is available In IPv6 checksum field is not available

It has a broadcast Message In IPv6 multicast and anycast message transmission

Transmission Scheme scheme is available

In IPv4 Encryption and

In IPv6 Encryption and Authentication are provided
Authentication facility not provided

IPv4 has a header of 20-60 bytes. IPv6 has a header of 40 bytes fixed

IPv4 can be converted to IPv6 Not all IPv6 can be converted to IPv4

IPv4 consists of 4 fields which are IPv6 consists of 8 fields, which are separated by a
separated by addresses dot (.) colon (:)

IPv4’s IP addresses are divided into

five different classes. Class A , Class IPv6 does not have any classes of the IP address.
B, Class C, Class D , Class E.

IPv4 supports VLSM( Variable

IPv6 does not support VLSM.
Length subnet mask ).
IPv4 IPv6

Example of IPv6:
Example of IPv4: 66.94.29.13
2001:0000:3238:DFE1:0063:0000:0000:FEFB

Routing for Mobile Hosts

Millions of people use computers while on go, from the truly mobile situations with a wireless
device in moving cars, to nomadic situations in which laptop computers are used in a series of
a different location. We use the term mobile hosts to mean either category, as distinct from
stationary hosts that never move. The mobile hosts introduce a new complication to route
packets to the mobile hosts, the network first has to find it.
Description of Diagram :
The message is shown with a dashed line in the figure indicate that it is a control message, not
a data message. The sender sends a data packet to the mobile host using its permanent
address. This packet is routed by the network to the host home location because the home
addresses belong there. It encapsulates the packet with a new header and sends this bundle
to the care-of address. This mechanism is called tunneling. It is very important on the internet,
so we will look at it in more detail later.
Diagram :

• When the encapsulated packet arrives at the care-of address, the mobile host unwraps
it and retrieves the packet from the sender.
 • The overall route is called triangle routing because it way is circuitous if the remote
location is far from the home location.
• As part of the step, 4 senders learns the current care-of address.
• Subsequent packets can be routed directly to the mobile host by tunneling them to
the care-of address (step 5) bypassing the home location.
• If connectivity lost for any reason as the mobile moves, the home address can always
be used to reach the mobile.

Mobile Internet Protocol (or Mobile IP)

Mobile IP is a communication protocol (created by extending Internet Protocol, IP) that allows
users to move from one network to another with the same IP address. It ensures that the
communication will continue without the user’s sessions or connections being dropped.
Imagine having a phone number that stays the same no matter where you go. Mobile IP works
similarly, ensuring that even if your device changes its network connection, it can still
communicate without interruption.
This is particularly useful for mobile devices like smartphones, laptops, and tablets, which
frequently switch between different networks, such as Wi-Fi and cellular. Mobile IP helps keep
internet connections stable and reliable, making it easier to stay connected while on the
move.
Basic Terminologies Related to Mobile IP
• A Mobile Node (MN): It is the hand-held communication device that the user carries
e.g. Cell phone.
• A Home Network: It is a network to which the mobile node originally belongs as per
its assigned IP address (home address).
• Home Agent (HA): It is a router in-home network to which the mobile node was
originally connected
• Home Address: It is the permanent IP address assigned to the mobile node (within its
home network).
• Foreign Network: It is the current network to which the mobile node is visiting (away
from its home network).
• A Foreign Agent (FA): It is a router in a foreign network to which the mobile node is
currently connected. The packets from the home agent are sent to the foreign agent
which delivers them to the mobile node.
• The Correspondent Node (CN): It is a device on the internet communicating to the
mobile node.
 • Care-of Address (COA): It is the temporary address used by a mobile node while it is
moving away from its home network.
• Foreign Agent COA: The COA could be located at the FA, i.e., the COA is an IP address
of the FA. The FA is the tunnel end-point and forwards packets to the MN. Many MN
using the FA can share this COA as a common COA.
• Co-Located COA: The COA is co-located if the MN temporarily acquires an additional
IP address that acts as a COA. This address is now topologically correct, and the tunnel
endpoint is at the MN. Co-located addresses can be acquired using services such
as DHCP.

Mobile IP Topology
How Does Mobile IP Work?
The correspondent node sends the data to the mobile node. Data packets contain the
correspondent node’s address (Source) and home address (Destination). Packets reach the
home agent. But now mobile node is not in the home network, it has moved into the foreign
network. The foreign agent sends the care-of-address to the home agent to which all the
packets should be sent. Now, a tunnel will be established between the home agent and the
foreign agent by the process of tunneling.
Tunneling establishes a virtual pipe for the packets available between a tunnel entry and an
endpoint. It is the process of sending a packet via a tunnel and it is achieved by a mechanism
called encapsulation.
Now, the home agent encapsulates the data packets into new packets in which the source
address is the home address and the destination is the care-of-address and sends it through
the tunnel to the foreign agent. Foreign agent, on another side of the tunnel, receives the data
packets, decapsulates them, and sends them to the mobile node. The mobile node in response
to the data packets received sends a reply in response to the foreign agent. The foreign agent
directly sends the reply to the correspondent node.