Mathematical Physics II

Clara Rojas
crojas@yachaytech.edu.ec
IISEM2024
School of Physical Science and Nanotechnology
Yachay TECH University
Analytic Functions
Analytic Functions

Functions of a complex variable

Limits
Theorems on Limits
Limits involving the point at infinity
Continuity
Derivatives
Differentiation Formulas
Cauchy-Riemann Equations
Analytic Functions
Harmonic Functions
References
Analytic Functions

We now consider functions of a complex variable and develop a

theory of differentiation for them. The main goal of the chapter
is to introduce analytic functions, which play a central role in
complex analysis.
Analytic Functions

Functions of a complex variable

Limits
Theorems on Limits
Limits involving the point at infinity
Continuity
Derivatives
Differentiation Formulas
Cauchy-Riemann Equations
Analytic Functions
Harmonic Functions
References
Functions of a complex variable

Let S be a set of complex numbers. A function f defined on S is

a rule that assigns to each z in S a complex number w . The
number w is called the value of f at z and is denoted by f (z);
that is, w = f (z). The set S is called the domain of definition of
f.
Suppose that w = u + iv is the value of a function f at
z = x + iy , so that
u + iv = f (x + iy ). (1)

Each of the real numbers u and v depends on the real variables x

and y , and it follows that f (z) can be expressed in terms of a
pair of real-valuated functions of the real variables x and y :
f (z) = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y ). (2)
Analytic Functions

Functions of a complex variable

Limits
Theorems on Limits
Limits involving the point at infinity
Continuity
Derivatives
Differentiation Formulas
Cauchy-Riemann Equations
Analytic Functions
Harmonic Functions
References
Limits

Let a function f be defined at all points z in some deleted

neighborhood of z0 . The statement that the limit of f (z) as z
approaches z0 is a number w0 , or that

lim f (z) = w0 , (3)

z→z0

means that the point w = f (z) can be made arbritrarily close to

w0 if we choose the point z close enought to z0 but distinct from
it.
Satatement (6) means that for each positive number ε, there is a
positive δ such that:

|f (z) − w0 | < ε whenever 0 < |z − z0 | < δ. (4)

When a limit of a function f (z) exists as a point z0 , it is unique.
To do this, we suppose that:

lim f (z) = w0 , (5)

z→z0

and
lim f (z) = w1 . (6)
z→z0

Then :

w1 = w0 . (7)
Analytic Functions

Functions of a complex variable

Limits
Theorems on Limits
Limits involving the point at infinity
Continuity
Derivatives
Differentiation Formulas
Cauchy-Riemann Equations
Analytic Functions
Harmonic Functions
References
Theorems on Limits

Theorem 1. Suppose that

f (z) = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y ),

with
z = x + iy ,

and
z0 = z0 + iy0 ,

w0 = u0 + iv0

Then
lim f (z) = w0 . (8)
z→z0
If and only if

lim u(x, y ) = u0 , (9)

(x,y )→(x0 ,y0 )

and,
lim v (x, y ) = v0 . (10)
(x,y )→(x0 ,y0 )

Theorem 2. Suppose that

lim f (z) = w0 , (11)

z→z0

and

lim F (z) = W0 . (12)

z→z0
Then.

lim [f (z) + F (z)] = w0 + W0 , (13)

z→z0

lim [f (z)F (z)] = w0 W0 , (14)

z→z0

and,

f (z) w0
lim = if W0 6= 0. (15)
z→z0 F (z) W0
Analytic Functions

Functions of a complex variable

Limits
Theorems on Limits
Limits involving the point at infinity
Continuity
Derivatives
Differentiation Formulas
Cauchy-Riemann Equations
Analytic Functions
Harmonic Functions
References
Limits involving the point at infinity

Theorem 3.

1
lim f (z) = ∞ if and only if lim = 0, (16)
z→z0 z→z0 f (z)

and

 
1
lim f (z) = w0 if and only if lim f = w0 , (17)
z→z0 z→0 z

Moreover
1
lim f (z) = ∞ if and only if lim = 0. (18)
z→z0 z→0 f (1/z)
Analytic Functions

Functions of a complex variable

Limits
Theorems on Limits
Limits involving the point at infinity
Continuity
Derivatives
Differentiation Formulas
Cauchy-Riemann Equations
Analytic Functions
Harmonic Functions
References
Continuity

A function f is continous at a point z0 if all three of the following

conditions are satisfied:

lim f (z) exists, (19)

z→z0

f (z0 ) exists, (20)

lim f (z) = f (z0 ). (21)

z→z0
Expected properties of continuous functions

Theorem 4. A composition of continuous functions is itself

continuous.
Theorem 5. If a function f (z) is continuous and nonzero at a
point z0 , then f (z) 6= 0 throughout some neighborhood of that
point.
Theorem 6. If a function f is continuous throughout a region R
that is both closed and bounded, there exists a nonnegative real
number M such that

|f (z)| ≤ M for all points z in R, (22)

where equality holds for at least one such z.

Analytic Functions

Functions of a complex variable

Limits
Theorems on Limits
Limits involving the point at infinity
Continuity
Derivatives
Differentiation Formulas
Cauchy-Riemann Equations
Analytic Functions
Harmonic Functions
References
Derivatives

Let f be a function whose domain of definition contains a

neighborhood |z − z0 | < ε of a point z0 . The derivative of f at
z0 is the limit
f (z) − f (z0 )
f 0 (z0 ) = lim , (23)
z→z0 z − z0
and the function f is said to be differentiable at z0 when f 0 (z0 )
exists.
By expressing the variable z in definition (23) in terms of the new
complex variable
∆z = z − z0 for z 6= z0 ,

we can write that definition as:

f (z0 + ∆z) − f (z0 )
f 0 (z0 ) = lim . (24)
∆z→0 ∆z
Analytic Functions

Functions of a complex variable

Limits
Theorems on Limits
Limits involving the point at infinity
Continuity
Derivatives
Differentiation Formulas
Cauchy-Riemann Equations
Analytic Functions
Harmonic Functions
References
Differentiation Formulas

The derivative of a function f at a point z is denoted by either

d
f (z) or f 0 (z),
dz
depending on which notation is more convenient.
Let c be a complex constant, and let f be a function whose
derivatives exists at a point z. So,
d
c = 0, (25)
dz
d
z = 1, (26)
dz
d
[cf (z)] = cf 0 (z). (27)
dz
If the derivatives of two functions f and g exist at a point z, then

d
[f (z) + g (z)] = f 0 (z) + g 0 (z), (28)
dz
d
[f (z)g (z)] = f (z)g 0 (z) + f 0 (z)g (z), (29)
dz 
g (z)f 0 (z) − f (z)g 0 (z)

d f (z)
= when g (z) 6= 0.
dz g (z) [g (z)]2
(30)
Analytic Functions

Functions of a complex variable

Limits
Theorems on Limits
Limits involving the point at infinity
Continuity
Derivatives
Differentiation Formulas
Cauchy-Riemann Equations
Analytic Functions
Harmonic Functions
References
Cauchy-Riemann Equations

Theorem 7. Suppose that

f (z) = u(x, y ) + iv (x, y ),

and that f 0 (z) exists at a point z0 = x0 + iy0 . Then the

first-order partial derivatives of u and v must exist at (x0 , y0 ),
and they mus satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann equations
ux = vy , (31)
uy = −vx , (32)

there. Also f 0 (z0 ) can be written

f 0 (z0 ) = ux + ivx , (33)

where these partial derivatives are to be evaluated at (x0 , y0 ).

Theorem 9. Let the function

f (z) = u(r , θ) + iv (r , θ),

be defined throughout some ε neighborhood of a nonzero point

z0 = r0 e iθ0 and suppose that

(a) The first-order partial derivatives of the functions u

and v with respect to r and θ exist everywhere in the
neighborhood.

(b) Those partial derivatives are continuous at (r0 , θ0 )

and satisfy the polar form
 rur = vθ , (34)
uθ = −rvr , (35)

of the Cauchy-Riemann equation at (r0 , θ0 ).

Then f 0 (z0 ) exists, its value being

f 0 (z0 ) = (ur + ivr ) e −iθ , (36)

where the right-hand side is to be evaluated at (r0 , θ0 ).

Analytic Functions

Functions of a complex variable

Limits
Theorems on Limits
Limits involving the point at infinity
Continuity
Derivatives
Differentiation Formulas
Cauchy-Riemann Equations
Analytic Functions
Harmonic Functions
References
Analytic Functions

A function f of the complex variable z is analytic at point z0 if it

has a derivative at each point in some neighborhood of z0 . It
follows that if f is analytic at a point z0 , it must be analytic at
each point in some neighborhood of z0 .
Examples:
1
(a) f (z) = is analytic at each nonzero point.
z
(b) f (z) = |z|2 is not analytic at any point since its
derivative exits only at z = 0 and not throughout any
neighborhood.
Analytic Functions

Functions of a complex variable

Limits
Theorems on Limits
Limits involving the point at infinity
Continuity
Derivatives
Differentiation Formulas
Cauchy-Riemann Equations
Analytic Functions
Harmonic Functions
References
Harmonic Functions

A real-valued function H of two real variables x and y is said to

be harmonic in a given domain of the xy plane, if throughout
that domain, it has continuous partial derivatives of the first and
second order and satisfies de partial differential equation

Hxx (x, y ) + Hyy (x, y ) = 0, (37)

or

∇2 H = 0, (38)

known as Laplace’s equation.

Analytic Functions

Functions of a complex variable

Limits
Theorems on Limits
Limits involving the point at infinity
Continuity
Derivatives
Differentiation Formulas
Cauchy-Riemann Equations
Analytic Functions
Harmonic Functions
References
References

• Complex Variables y Applications - J. W. Brown and R. V.

Churchill.
Chapter 2