Experiment No: 1

Aim: Study of Layout of automobile.

The vehicle is based upon type of drive used. They are
Front engine rear wheel drive,
Rear engine rear wheel drive,
Front engine front wheel drive and
Four wheel drive, which are discussed below,
 Front Engine Rear Wheel Drive:
Rear wheel drive places the engine in the front of the vehicle and the driven wheels are
located at the rear, a configuration known as front-engine, rear-wheel drive layout.
In this layout a front mounted engine-clutch-gear box unit drives a beam type rear axle
supported on leaf springs through a propeller shaft with two universal joints.With the help of
coil springs, the front Wheels are independently sprung.

Advantages provided by this system are:

• Even weight distribution: Balanced weight distribution between the front and the rear
wheels providing good handling characteristics.
• Large luggage space is provided behind the rear seat.
• Maintenance and accessibility of engine, gear box is easy and the control over the
accelerator clutch, choke simple.
• Radiator cooling is natural (by air) so decreases the power required for cooling.
• Better braking efficiency.
Disadvantages:
• Reduces back seats leg room space.
• A tunnel is needed for the propeller shaft.
 • Reduces boot space.
• Heavier and more expensive.
• If stuck in mud or snow it is harder to drive away than in a front wheel drive car.

 Rear Engine Rear Wheel Drive:

This layout consists of placing the engine, clutch and gearbox in the back. So taking the
space of the boot. In these type of layout more than 50% of the weight is on the rear axle.
The necessity of the propeller shaft is completely eliminated. The clutch, gear box and
engine and final drive form a single unit.

Advantages:
• Excellent traction is available while climbing hills.
• A larger passenger space is available for the given length of body.
• Very compact and accessible power and transmission assembly is
provided.
• Lot of weight at the back improves acceleration and braking, rear
wheels and disc brakes can be designed to take a bigger amount of
braking due to the weight distribution to the rear end.
• Passengers are comfortable from engine noise, heat and fumes.
• Front of the vehicle provides good visibility and by designing the
body to aerodynamic shape gives good streaming lining.
Disadvantages:
• At high speed, relatively high proportions of weight at the rear axle
will make the car unstable at speed. There is a strong tendency for the
vehicle to oversteer.
• The space at the front has to be reduced to allow for the steering lock
of the front wheel.
 • Space utilized for engine compartment is wasted.
• Difficulties with the arrangement of the engine cooling system.
Natural cooling of radiator is not possible. Power requirement
increases. Compact engine, clutch and gearbox make servicing more
difficult.
• The wheels get turn too sharply due to tendency of the vehicle to over
steer. This necessitates the turning of the steering wheel in the
opposite direction to make the correction by driver.

 Front Engine Front Wheel Drive :

This type of arrangement provides optimum passenger space and a flat floor line resulting
in a transverse under floor-longitudinal engine position. The propeller shaft length is
reduced or neglects the propeller shaft Good grip with road surface due to engine weight at

Front. Power required for the cooling is reduced. When the vehicle is to be ‘steering in’ to the
curve, it provides ‘under-steer’ characteristics, which is always preferred.
Advantages:
• More space: The engine and transmission are located at the front of the vehicle, which
creates more room for passengers and cargo in the back.
• Better traction: The weight distribution of FWD vehicles helps them grip the road
better, especially on slippery surfaces.
• Fuel economy: FWD vehicles are lighter and have fewer components than other
drivetrains, which improves their fuel economy.
• Cooling: The air vents in front-engine cars help cool the engine as the vehicle moves
forward.
• Maintenance: The engine is easy to access, making it easier to maintain and service
the car.
  Four Wheel Drive: In this arrangement all the four wheels of the vehicle are driven by
the engine thus making the entire vehicle weight available for traction. These four
wheel drive vehicles are very useful on Hill station if one of the wheel slipping or
skidding then the other axle wheel transmit the tractive force to the vehicle. The
steering of the four wheel drive is hard to operate compared with other type of drive.

Advantages:
• Traction is nearly doubled compared to a two-wheel drive layout.
• Handling characteristics in normal conditions can be configured to emulate or RWD.
• Gives sufficient power, these results in unparalleled acceleration and drivability on
surfaces with less than ideal and superior engine braking on loose surfaces.
Disadvantages:
• The manufacturing cost of the vehicle is high.
• More component and complicate transmission.
• Increased power-train mass, rotational inertia and power transmission losses.
• Increased fuel consumption compared to 2WD.
 Experiment No: 2
Aim: Study of mechanism for air flow over different geometry of vehicles.
Introduction:
In aerodynamics one discusses the flow of air inside and around the body. It can also be
called as fluid dynamics as air is a thin fluid. Airflow impacts on speed, mileage and
handling. Hence to build the best car it is necessary to study the airflow around and through
the body. Car is one of the important means of transport. The space available in the boot is
not enough for the luggage. Due to this problem normally people use the roof to put extra
luggage. When a user installs a roof box on the top of the car, weight increases resulting
increase of fuel consumption. Increasing the down force (negative lift) which helps to
stabilize the vehicle and which will lead to decrease in fuel consumption. The objective is to
simulate a car model to increase its efficiency in terms of speed, balancing and fuel
consumption by managing drag and down force. Moreover how to install a roof box on the
car?
 Methodology:
1. The physical boundaries are defined for the given problem.
2. The volume occupied with the fluid is divided by discrete cells and meshing is done.
3. Boundary condition is defined and involves specific fluid behavior and properties at
boundaries of the problem.
4. The simulation is started and the equations are solved at steady state.
5. Finally a postprocessor is used for analysis and visualization of the results.
 Aerodynamic Principles:
Aerodynamic effects of air flow over the vehicle
The composition of Aerodynamic drag is due to i) the air flow in the boundary layer resulting
in the loss of momentum of the main stream and is called ‘skin friction drag’. A component
from the downstream of the trailing vortices behind the vehicle is called ‘Induced drag’ The
‘normal pressure drag’ is found out by integration of the product (normal pressure x area)
around the vehicle this produces net force.
Aerodynamic effects of air flow over the vehicle • opposing the motion of the vehicle
because separation of flow at rear of the vehicle results in lowering of pressure on rearward
facing surfaces. The skin friction drag and the induced drag are usually small in comparison
to normal pressure drag. The profile of the vehicle is the principle component of aerodynamic
drag and is governed by the way in which vehicle disturbs the air stream. Its behavior has
been found not to accord with established aerodynamic theory evolved in aviation since
vehicle has to maintain contact with the ground. Aerodynamic Forces and Moments: produce
body shapes which will have acceptable aerodynamic characteristics. • Considering a car
profile as an aerofoil the streamlines around a car body is as shown below,

Fig 2.1: Airflow over car

 Aerodynamic Forces and Moments:

The car body profile shown having smooth streamlines which are continuous and with no
separation of boundary layers & vortices. However, like an aerofoil, the streamlines over the
upper part have a higher velocity than the streamlines below the car. • For complete
description of aerodynamic effects on the motion of the vehicle it should be considered as a
mass having six degree of freedom and the aerodynamic forces and moments acting on the
vehicle are balanced by the wheel reactions.

Fig 2.2: Airflow over car

The aerodynamic forces on a vehicle act at the Center of Pressure and summarized as
follows • - Px : force of air drag in the direction of motion (longitudinal) • - Py : side forces
or cross wind forces (lateral) • - Pz : aerodynamic lift forces ( vertical ) • As these forces are
not acting at center of gravity, they cause moments as follows • - Mx : rolling moment
caused by force, Py about the X-axis.
My : Pitching moment caused by forces about the Y-axis • - Mz : Yawing moment caused by
the force, Py about the Z - axis • Drag force, Px • - The air flow over a vehicle is complex
and the aerodynamic drag is expressed by the semi - empirical equation to represent the
aerodynamic effect. It is defined by the following equation.Side force acts on the body at the
center of pressure • Py = 1/2 ρ V 2 A Cy , Kgf • where ; Cy = cross wind force coefficient •
Rolling : The angular oscillation of the vehicle about longitudinal axis is called rolling as
shown below,

Fig 2.3: Rolling effect on vehicle

Rolling Moment: The rolling moment acts about the longitudinal ( horizontal ) axis and is
produced by the side wind forces. It has only minor influence on vehicle stability depending
on the suspension system. • RM = 1/2 ρ V 2 A CRM . L , Kgf.m • where ; • CRM = rolling
moment coefficient L = wheel base.
Pitching: The angular oscillation of the vehicle about lateral (horizontal) axis is called
pitching as shown • Pitching Moments • Pitching moment acts to transfer weight between
the front and rear axles. The pitching moment is usually negative i.e., nose down. This
makes the rear axle lift off the ground and further reduce the available traction. The pitching
moment arises from the drag but drag itself does not act at the ground plane. The lifting
force may not act exactly at the center of the wheel base.
Yawing: The angular oscillation of the vehicle about the vertical axis is called yawing. It is
the vertical movement of the complete vehicle body. So the complete body rises up and
down and knows as bouncing as shown in the figure below,

Fig 2.4 Yawing effect on vehicle

Yawing Moment: The lateral force caused by a side wind does not act at the mid- wheel
base position. A side wind will produce a Yawing moment tending to turn the vehicle away
from the direction of motion. Yawing moment is defined as • YM = 1/2 ρ V 2 A Cym . L ,
Kgf.m where ; • Cym = Yawing moment coefficient • L = wheel base or characteristic
length, m.
 Aerodynamic Drag: Types & effects:
The total aerodynamic drag of a vehicle includes many factors which offer overall air
resistance to the motion of vehicle. The types of aerodynamic drag components and their
approximate relative contributions are ; • Profile or Form Drag 55 - 60 % • Induced or Lift
Drag ~ 8 % • Surface or Friction Drag ~ 10 % • Interference ~ 15 % • Cooling & Ventilation
System Drag ~ 10 % • Rotating Wheel & other ~ 1 %.

Fig 2.5: Airflow over various shapes

Fig 2.6: Pressure Drag Apparatus

Fig 2.7: Airflow over flat plate and Aerofoil inclined at small angle
 Experiment No: 3
Aim: Study of measurements of drag and lift coefficient for different
geometry vehicle using wind tunnel apparatus.
Introduction:
 Wind Tunnel principles:
The loads exerted by static air on a moving body are equal to those exerted by moving air on
a static body, as long as the relative velocities between the air and the body are the same in
both cases. For a truly representative wind tunnel experiment, the body must have its true size
and the wind must have the speed that the object would have if it was moving. These
conditions are not always possible. Several scaling laws can be used in order to render
representative experiments where the size or airspeed has been scaled.
Wind tunnels are used to predict the amount of force generated by solid objects. This helps
aerodynamicists choose the proper size for things such as wings, spoilers, and parachutes.
Information obtained in wind tunnels is used to improve the design of anything affected by
wind. Wind-Tunnels come in all shapes and sizes…
 Open type tunnels:
Advantages:
• Cheaper to build
• Pollutants is purged (e.g. smoke flow visualization or tests on internal combustion
engines)
Disadvantages:
• The size of the tunnel must be compatible to the size of the room: the room is the
return path for the air  Noisy  More expensive to run than closed type.

Fig 3.1: Open-return type wind tunnel

  Closed type tunnels:
Advantages:
• Cheaper to run: energy is required only to overcome losses.
• Less noisy than open type.
• The quality of the flow can be easily controlled.
Disadvantages:
• More expensive to build
• Not easy to purge
• Continuous losses of energy in the tunnel heat up the air, so the air may need cooling,
especially in the summer.

Fig 3.1: Closed-return type wind tunnel

Special wind tunnels Transonic/Supersonic/Hypersonic  Low turbulence tunnels  High

Reynolds number (pressurized)  Transonic dynamics tunnels (for aeroelastic problems, e.g.
TDT at NASA Langley or T-128 at TsAGi)  Environmental tunnels (simulate the earth’s
atmospheric boundary layer)  Automobile tunnels (e.g. with moving floor)
Wind tunnel dimensions  The dimensions of a wind tunnel depend on several factors: Cost
and space considerations Speed range Application area (e.g. aerospace, automotive,
environmental flows etc) Required Reynolds number, Mach number Other requirements
(e.g. STOL tests)
 Wind Tunnel Testing:
Allows engineers to predict the amount of lift and drag that airfoils can develop in various
flight conditions.  A 747 aircraft can weigh over 200,000 lbs.
 2D Components of Lift and Drag:
Fig 3.2: Resultant force due to airflow across an asymmetric body is not in the direction
of the airflow
Lift: Generated by pressure difference over the airfoil when the air moving over the body
takes a different path to reach the same point.
Drag:
Result of fluid friction
Opposes body motion
Lift and Drag Dependence:
Size, Shape, Fluid flow, Principle of Similitude allows us to “non dimensionalize”these
parameters

Fig 3.3: Wind tunnel instruments

Fig 3.4: Schematic design of subsonic and supersonic wind tunnel

 Fig 3.5: Two different ways to measure the total and static pressure inside the test
section
Experimental procedure: The experimental procedure consists of the following
steps:
• Choose a vertical plane in the test section.
• Choose a vertical line within that vertical plane.
• Select a series of points along that vertical line where the velocity of the air will be
determined.
• Read the temperature and the pressure inside the lab, or inside the wind tunnel, or
both.
• Use these values to compute the mass density of air inside the lab using the ideal gas
law. Or Use these values to look up the mass density of air on a Table.
• Select a wind speed and set the wind tunnel to generate that wind speed inside the test
section.
• Use the wind tunnel at that set speed to measure the pressure difference, p0 -p , at
each point that was identified along the preselected vertical line. This process is
known as traversing a cross section of the flow space.
• Use Energy Eq. to compute the speed of the air at each such point.
Experimental determination of lift and drag forces on an airfoil  Purpose  To measure the
lift and drag of several different airfoils using a force balance and a subsonic wind tunnel,
and compare the results to published data and theoretical expectations.  Key equations  The
lift coefficient, CL, is given by  Where FL is the lift force, V is the average speed, and A is
the reference area.  The drag coefficient, CD, is given by,
  The diffuser:
The diffuser in the wind tunnel serves the purpose of recovering the kinetic energy of flow in
the test section as pressure energy. A well designed diffuser does this efficiently. In subsonic
wind tunnels, the diffusers are diverging passages with a semi divergence angle of about 7.5
to 8.0 degrees. The Bernoulli’s equation written in differential form in the context of a
diffuser is as follows:

This implies that for a decrease of kinetic energy per unit mass, there is a corresponding
increase in pressure energy. The pressure gradient in a subsonic diverging passage is adverse.
It is difficult to avoid boundary layer thickening and flow separation. Hence, the conversion
of kinetic energy into pressure energy is never fully efficient.
Losses in the wind tunnel circuit  Losses are due to: Inefficiency of drive unit. Skin friction,
separation etc. Loss of kinetic energy at the diffuser exit. Shocks in the case of supersonic
wind –tunnels.

Fig 3.5: Vehicle in wind tunnel

 Fan section:
Fans develop their highest efficiency when in a relatively high speed flow. Therefore, they
are not positioned in the section of the tunnel with the largest area. They are not positioned in
the first diffuser because of the fear of broken parts from models or loose tools etc. Therefore,
they are usually placed after the second corner, before the second diffuser.
 Cooling of wind tunnels:
Energy is lost from the flow in the form of heat. This energy is constantly replaced by the fan.
Therefore the temperature of the flow increases until the heat gain is balanced by heat loss to
the environment. Sometimes the equilibrium temperature can be too high for the required
experiments.
 Experiment No: 4
Aim: Study of ergonomically of interior considerations in automobile.

1. Introduction:
The word “Ergonomics” originated from two Greek words “Ergon” means “work”
and“Nomos” means“natural laws” International Ergonomics Association (IEA) defined
Ergonomics (or human factors) as the scientific discipline concerned with the understanding of
interactions among humans and other elements of a system, and the profession that applies
theory, principles, data and methods to design in order to optimize human well-being and overall
system performance. An ergonomist is an individual whose knowledge and skills concern the
analysis of human-system interaction and the design of the system in order to optimize human
well-being and overall system performance (IEA, 2000).

Fig: 4.1 vehicle package layout

Ergonomics:
Ergonomics is concerned with the health of the people and the productivity of the system. It is to
get proper fit between people and their technological tools and environments. It takes account of
the user's capabilities and limitations in seeking to ensure that tasks, equipment, information and
the environment suit each user. Simply expressed we can say that Ergonomics is fitting the task
to the person rather than fitting the person to the task.
Domains of Specialization:
According to international Ergonomics Association (IEA) ergonomics can be broadly classified
into:
• Physical Ergonomics
• Cognitive Ergonomics
• Organizational Ergonomics
Physical Ergonomics:
It is concerned with human anatomical, anthropometric, physiological and biomechanical
characteristics as they related to physical activity. Relevant topics may include working postures,
material handling, repetitive movements, work related musculoskeletal disorders, workplace
layout, health and safety.
Cognitive Ergonomics:
A proper fit of a product to a user does not end with physical interfaces. Cognitive / perceptual
ergonomics is concerned with mental processes, such as perception, memory, reasoning, and
motor response, as they affect interactions among humans and other elements of a system.
Relevant topics include mental workload, decision-making, skilled performance, human-
computer interaction, human reliability, work stress and training as these may relate to human-
system and Human computer interaction design.
Organizational Ergonomics:
It is concerned with the optimization of socio technical systems, including their organizational
structures, policies, and processes. Relevant topics include communication, crew resource
management, and work design, design of working times, teamwork, community ergonomics,
cooperative work, new work programs, virtual organizations, telework, and quality management.
Applications and Benefits:
Applications:
Ergonomics continues to be successfully applied in the fields of workplace design, occupational
health, safety, product design, aerospace engineering, mechanical engineering, health care, IT
sectors, transportation, training, nuclear power plant, virtual environments, industrial design and
so on.
Benefits:
Application of ergonomic principles in various fields provides to better man-machine interaction,
healthy and comfortable working environments, enhancement of human performance and
efficiency and thus ultimately leads to overall improvement of system’s (man-machine-
environment) productivity with reduction of error and accidents.

Key benefits of application of ergonomics are listed below:

• Human fatigue and error can be reduced.
• increase productivity and safety
• Increase work quality
• Decrease risk of accidents
• Improve people attitude
• More user satisfaction
• Less absenteeism
• Reduced lost time, etc.
Aspects of Ergonomics:
Study of compatibility issues for proper man-machine interface is very important in ergonomics.
Here, focus is generally made on user’s requirement, user’s characteristics and user’s
capabilities/limitations for user friendly design. Human compatibility with
machine/instrument/work elements are discussed in terms of anthropometric, biomechanical,
physiological and cognitive/ psychological aspects.
Anthropometry:
Anthropometry is the subject which deals with the measurements of the human external body
dimensions in static and dynamic conditions. Anthropometric data is used for product and
workplace design.
Anthropometry is of two types:
• Static Anthropometry
• Dynamic Anthropometry
Static Anthropometry:
External human body dimensional measurement taken when a man is placed in a rigid static
position i.e. standing, sitting, or other adopted postures.
Dynamic Anthropometry:
The dimensional measurement of human body with various movements taken into consideration
in different adopted postures which the work context demands are termed dynamic
anthropometry.

Introduction to Automotive Ergonomics:

Automotive ergonomics focuses on the role of human factors in the design and use of
automobiles. This includes analysis of accommodation of driver and/or passengers; their
comfort; vision inside and outside vehicle; control and display design; pedal behavior
information processing and cognitive load during driving etc. In the present module attempt will
be made to discuss various physical aspect of occupant packaging for providing comfortable
driving posture, clearance dimensions, proper view field, easy reach of the controls etc. to
The driver.
This module highlights the following:
• Spatial accommodation
• Seating Position
• Leg Room
• Head Clearance
• Lateral Clearance
• Sitting comfort /discomfort
• Reach and limitations of human

• Visual field and Visual Obstruction.

To establish the required interior space and arranging the interior and structural components, the
design methods relies on the human factors data base through years of research and practical
applications. The anthropometry for automotive design is consistent with the driver and
passenger safety, comfort, convenience and accommodation. The study of human capabilities
and limitations gives the measurements for designing automobiles. The anthropometry for
automotive design is consistent with the driver and passenger safety, comfort, convenience and
accommodation. The study of human capabilities and limitations gives the measurements for
designing automobiles.
Anthropometric Measurements for Automotive Ergonomics:
Automobile is designed as per the anthropometry of the targeted user population. Measurement
process can be broadly classified into two categories.

Conventional Static Measurements:

The measurements taken on human body with the subjects in rigid, standardized position
(fig.10). They are typically length, width, height and circumferences. These measurements
includes standing height, seated height, seated eye height, upper leg length, knee height, seat
length, upper and lower arm length, reach (total arm length), shoulder width, hip or seat width,
weight, etc. These measurements are referenced to non-deflecting horizontal or vertical surfaces
supporting the subject.

Fig: 4.2 conventional static measurements

Functional Task Oriented Measurements:

The measurements are taken with the human body dimensional co-ordinates x, y, z with respect
to body land marks as reference points. At work or motion in the workspace (fig. 11). Typically
they are represented in three dimensional co-ordinates x, y, z with respect to body land marks as
reference points.

6
 Fig:4.3 Seat measurements

Functional Task Oriented Measurements:

Few reference points e.g. H-point, BOF, AHP etc. are used as standard practice to define driver’s
position while SRP, NSRP and SgRP are generally used to define seat position in relation to
driver.
• H-point ( Hip pivot): Mid point of the line connecting two hip joints.
• BOF (Ball of Foot): Ball joint of Foot.
AHP (Accelerator Heel Point): position of the heel while placed on the accelerator.
• SRP (Seat Reference Point): Intersection point between midline of compressed seat back and
compressed seat pan.
• NSRP (Neutral Seat Reference Point): 50th percentile person selected SRP.
• SgRP: 95th percentile person selected SRP.
These landmarks relate the occupant to components in the vehicle interior such as foot controls,
seat and floor. For example, the foot is related to the ball of foot and accelerator heel point,
where as hip, elbow and shoulder width are related to the h-point location. To accommodate
wide range of target population, 5th and 95th percentile anthropometric data are used in general.

7
 Fig:4.4 Landmarks for measurements

Seat Track Travel Limit:

Seat track travel limit is decided in such a way so that individuals with smaller body dimensions
as well as larger body dimensions can seat comfortably on the seat and can access all the controls
Including accelerator, break and clutch. Seat track travel limits in forward-backward and
upward-down ward direction are decided as per operational requirement. Figure depicts forward-
backward movement of the seat as per the different percentile driver selected seat position.

Fig:4.5
Seat Track Travel Limit:
Spatial Arrangement:
After defining the position of the driver on the seat, all other interior and structural components
inside the vehicle are arranged accordingly with the intension to provide sufficient clearance
dimensions around him/her. This process relies on human factor database. Larger anthropometric
data (95th percentile value) are generally considered for this purpose. Spatial arrangement
includes the positioning of driver’s seat and passenger’s seat in the allocated space in side,
arrangement of various controls/components according to seating arrangements. In this module
leg room, head room and lateral space are to be described in brief.
Legroom: The sufficient space for keeping legs of the driver/passenger in a comfortable position
in an automobile. Proper legroom enables drivers to access structural component with ease.
There should not be any obstacle to keep feet comfortably and at the same time for accessing
controls like pedals (break/accelerator/clutch). Measurement of horizontal distance between H-
Point and AHP is useful for this purpose. Care should be taken to ensure that any parts of lower
body like thighs/knees should not touch with steering wheel or dash board or any other
component.
Headroom:
The height. It is the vertical clearance space above the head of driver/passenger in an automobile.
A minimum 5.0 cm head clearance for jolt in a vehicle is recommended (Galer 1987, Woodson
et al. 1992). In vehicular workstation, available head clearance must be sufficient for wearing
and removing the helmet in seated posture in seat.
Lateral Space:
Lateral space is the space pertaining to the side of driver/passenger. Lateral space is important
for physical or psychological comfort. Conventionally, 95th percentile bi-deltoid breadth of the
population with an additional allowance of 10% on each side can be considered adequate for
lateral clearance during normal sitting side by side.

Fig:4.6 Reach and Limitation of Human:

In many work situations, individuals perform their activity within a specified 3D space of fixed
location which is sometimes referred to as ‘work-space envelope’ (Sanders and McCormick
1993). This envelope preferably should be circumscribed by the functional arm reach of the
operator and most of the things they need to handle should be arranged within this envelope. In
figure describe human capabilities and limits in terms of reach on horizontal work-surface with
their measurements.

Fig:4.7 Maximum reach areas

Normal and maximum horizontal arm reach does not correlate with reach capabilities in actual
vehicle workstation. Factors such as seat position, seat deflection, shoulder articulation, and lean
allowed by lack in a shoulder harness (if one is worn) affects a drivers reach capabilities.
Forward arm reach of the driver according to anthropometry and seat track travel as described in
SAE J287 shown in figure.
Strength Capability
Strength for Control Operation:
Strength is one type of human performance limiting factor and concerns the application of force
in the operation of controls and in other physical tasks. Often, limitation of strength imposes a
one-way constraint and it is sufficient to determine the level of force that is acceptable for a
weak limiting user. The capabilities of human body are considered to make the operational
components in the vehicle while driving. For example, the force is required for the ease of
operation of clutch, steering, opening and closing of doors etc. Actuating force limits for some
important tractor controls for Indian male agricultural workers (CIAE, Bhopal, 2009) are given
Below:
• Brake Pedal:
• 5th p Rt leg strength (male)=261 N.
• Maximum actuating force for break operation should be less than 260 N.
• Clutch Pedal:
• 5th p Lt leg strength (male)=247 N.
• Frequently operated compared to break pedal.
• 50% of 5th p Lt leg strength (male)= 123.5 N.
• Maximum actuating force for Clutch operation should be less than 124 N.
Accelerator Pedal:
5th p Rt foot strength (male)=163 N.
Continuously operated, 30% of 5th p Rt foot strength (male)=49 N (upper limit). Maximum
actuating force for accelerator operation should be less than 49 N. Weight of leg = 9%= .09 of
body wt., part of this wt. is supported by heel. Lower limit of force exertion for accelerator=
54.7kg x9.81x.09x0.5=24N.
Steering Wheel:
5th p torque strength with both hands, sitting (male) =36 Nm (force 171 N with lever arm of 0.21
m). Frequently operated, 30% of 5th p = 51 N. Maximum actuating force for steering wheel
operation should be less than 51 N.
Gear Selection/ Speed Selection Lever: 5th p RT hand push strength = 49 N, limiting force for
operation. Maximum actuating force for gear operation should be less than 49 N.
INTRODUCTION TO DRIVER SEAT
Driver seat is an inseparable part of any automobile. Its main function is not only to provide a
seating space to driver but also support, protect and to provide comfortable seating posture to the
occupants. Today driver seat design has been given very importance because poorly designed
seat affect badly on human health as well as psychological condition of driver hence increases
the chances of accidents. It is evolved after evolution of first car at the start of nineteenth
century. Following table shows the evolution of driver seats with period and car where it is used.
1.1 Parts of Driver seat
Driver seat is very complicated, consists of large number of parts and mechanisms. Main parts of
driver seat are frame, padding, seat pan, head restraints system, reclining mechanism with lever,
trim (seat cover), and suspension system, air bags, seat belt, fore and aft adjustment, height
adjustment etc.

4Fig:4.8 Seat
1.2 Function of Major Components of Seat
1.2.1 Seat Frame
It is most important part of any seat over which all other adjustment systems and components are
mounted. It is made from HSLA (High Strength low alloy steel) tube
1.2.2 Anchorage
It is nothing but the space at which driver seat is mounted.
1.2.3 Seat Cushion/ Padding
It is that part of seat on which driver sit. It is soft and made from a resilient material such as PU
foam of varying stiffness. Base and back cushions are used for seat.
1.2.4 Seat Back
It is that part of seat which is vertical or somewhat inclined and supports the driver lumbar,
shoulder and head. At the top of seat back generally a head restraint system is mounted. Angle of
seat back can be adjusted with the help of back reclining mechanism.
1.2.5 Seat Adjustments
It includes height, fore and aft as well as back reclining adjustment systems used to adjust height,
fore and aft distance and angle of back respectively.
1.2.6 Head Restraint
It is mounted over the seat back at top, its main function is to support head also restrict the
backward displacement and protect the cervical vertebrae. There are four types of head restraints
namely integrated, detachable, separate and proactive head restraints .Proactive is advanced
version of head restraint.
1.2.7 Suspension
Generally at two places suspension is used namely seat base and seat back. For suspension
springs are used. Main purpose of suspension system is to attenuate the vibrations from road at
driver seat and his body.
1.2.8 Trim
It is nothing but outermost covering of a driver seat, made from a cloth or leather of good
quality. It has pleasant colour, appearance as well as styling.

PARAMETER AFFECTING DRIVER SEAT DESIGN

2.1 Ergonomics Related
Ergonomics is branch of design engineering applied to driver seat design requires that we take
into consideration how the products we design fit the people that are using them. When seat fit to
the driver it gives more comfort, less stress and maintains good psychological and health
condition of driver. Ergonomics can be an integral part of design, manufacturing and use.
Knowing how the study of anthropometry, posture, repetitive motion, and work space design
affects the user is critical to a better understanding of ergonomics as they relate to end-user
needs.
2.1.1 Comfort Related Parameters
Comfort is feelings like relief, encouragement, enjoyment and stable. Comfort is dependent on
pressure distribution over the seat, thermal comfort, vibration at driver body, geometric
parameters.

2.1.1.1 Pressure Distribution Over Seat

For better comfort and proper maintenance of driver health uniform pressure distribution along
the human body over the seat is very important parameter. Pressure distribution over a seat is
dependent on the properties of cushion material such as stiffness, deflection and design of
cushion. Also it depends on nature of loading, seat pan design and backrest design. A proper seat
pan contour distributes a uniform pressure over seat and avoids concentration of stress in human
buttocks. Properly inclined back rest avoids stresses at buttocks.

2.1.1.2 Thermal Comfort

It is most important ergonomic parameter on which comfort as well as health of driver
dependent. Generally seat cushion materials (seat cover, PU foam and coconut fibers) absorb
heat from driver body any acts as heat reservoir, this phenomenon is good for health in winter
season but responsible for un-comfort in summer season. This problem can be overcome by
using different types of seat covers depending on seasons.

2.1.1.3 Vibration
Road surface is not uniform everywhere yet it is constructed properly by advanced technology.
Such surface is responsible for vibrations at driver seats. Human body can sustain 4-7 Hz
frequency vibrations. Some tractor semi active hydraulic and active mechanical hydraulic
actuators (i.e. suspension systems) are used to attenuate vibration transferred to the driver. Driver
seat is so designed that very less vibrations transferred to driver.
2.2 Geometric Parameters
It includes the parameters like lumbar support, backrest slope angle, seat width, depth and height,
seat pan angle.
2.2.1 Lumbar Support
Driver works extended periods of times therefore proper lumbar support is very important in
order to maintain the position of vertebrae. Large number of anthropometric data is required for
proper design of seat which provides support to lumbar. Proper lumbar support can be achieved
by maintaining profile of seat cushions of PU foam material.
2.2.2 Other Adjustments
It includes other parameters apart from lumbar support. Seat adjustments totally depend on driver
body shape and size i.e. anthropometry. Therefore seat designer must study the huge amount of
data related to anthropometry before building a first prototype. Seat angle is also responsible for
Pressure distribution over seat. Seat pan can be tilted in between 0-10 0 angle depending on
driver body shapes and sizes.

Dash board instruments:

• Speedometer tells you the speed of your vehicle in MPH and KPH.
• Tachometer shows how many rotations your engine is making per minute.
• Odometer shows how many miles your car has traveled in its lifetime.
• Fuel Gauge shows how much fuel remains in your car's tank.
• Gear Display shows which gear your car is currently in.
• Turn Signal Indicators flash when your turn signals are on; both will flash if you turn on
your hazard lights.
• Active System Lights alert you to parts of the vehicle that are activated, such as an open
trunk or door.

Automotive displays:

Sharp’s ground-breaking Free Form Display has set the automotive world abuzz. Now,
automakers and OEM suppliers can integrate display panels in shapes and sizes never seen
before. With 25 years of experience developing and manufacturing high-end displays and
other components for automotive applications, Sharp Devices Europe also supplies the
European automotive industry with a full line of LCD technologies.

And there are more innovations waiting for you at Sharp, such as our 3D displays. Or our
progressive super view technology (PSV), which increases sunlight readability to enhance
safety and comfort. Pioneering Sharp Dual View displays allow drivers and co-pilots to view
different content on the same screen simultaneously.

These pioneering technologies combined with Sharp’s extensive consumer electronics

experience enable OEMs to succeed at what may be their toughest challenge: delivering in-
vehicle experiences that live up to the standards set by the latest consumer electronics.

Fig:4.9 Automotive displays

Electronic Stability Control

Electronic Stability Control (ESC), also called an Electronic Stability Program (ESP), or
Dynamic Stability Control (DSC), or Vehicle Stability Control (VSC), depending on the
automaker and the market it is being offered in. To summarize, VSC uses the vehicle's brakes to
help steer the vehicle during times of slipping or possible spinout. Braking is applied to wheels
individually to counter over or understeer. Most VSC systems also reduce engine power
automatically during these operations to further improve traction. Toyota calls its systems VSC
or Vehicle Dynamics Integrated Management (VDIM).

Fig:4.10 Electronic Stability Control

About one third of fatal traffic accidents could be avoided if a VSC system were employed,
according to both the Insurance Institute for Highway safety (IIHS) and the National Highway
Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA). As of 2009, ESC is mandated in vehicles of 10,000
pounds gross vehicle weight or lower sold in the United States on a rolling scale with all vehicles
of this size being required to have it after November, 2013.
 ESC and VSC first appeared in production vehicles in 1995. It was introduced simultaneously
that year by Mercedes-Benz, BMW, Volvo and Toyota. Suppliers included Bosch and ITT
Automotive (now owned by Continental Automotive). By the end of 2009, both Ford (which
gained their ESC from Volvo) and Toyota had made ESC/VSC standard in all vehicles sold in
North America, with Toyota rolling it into all of their brands (including Scion) by 2011.

How VSC Works

In the background, as the vehicle is driven, VSC continually monitors the driver's intended
direction (steer) with the vehicle's actual direction (lateral acceleration, yaw, and wheel speeds).
When these become disjointed, with the driver's intended direction not being the same as the
vehicle's actual direction, VSC intervenes appropriately.

Most commonly, VSC will engage during misjudged cornering (understeer or oversteer due to
excessive speed), evasive swerves, and hydroplaning. It operates on all driving surfaces and has
proven effective as a means of maintaining vehicle control and reducing accidents.

The system works through a combination of vehicle sensors, control of the anti-lock braking
system (ABS), and traction control systems (TSC/ASR) for drive wheels. Unlike these individual
systems, VSC considers input from the driver to add stability or correct for steering loss.

The VSC computer, usually located in the vehicle's main fuse box or as part of the ABS system
computer, continuously measures yaw (rotation around vertical axis, or left-right spin),
individual wheel spin rates, and traction. On most Toyotas with VSC, four sensors are
incorporated in this system:

• Steering wheel angle sensor

• Yaw rate sensor

• Lateral acceleration sensor

• Wheel speed sensor

Some larger vehicles will also include a roll rate sensor for rollover prevention. Input from these
sensors determines what the VSC is to do, if anything, based on the computer's comparison of
data with a total vehicle "state space" (equations used to model vehicle dynamics in real-time).
 Experiment: 5
Aim: Study of safety provisions in modern auto vehicle.
SAFETY EQUIPMENTS

Seat belt, regulations, automatic seat belt lightener system

Collapsible steering column, tilt able steering wheel
Air bags, electronic system for activating air bags
Bumper design for safety

SEAT BELT
 A seat belt, sometimes called a safety belt, is a safety harness designed to secure the
occupant of a vehicle against harmful movement that may result from a collision or a
sudden stop.
 As part of an overall automobile passive safety system, seat belts are intended to reduce
injuries by stopping the wearer from hitting hard interior elements of the vehicle, or other
passengers (the so-called second impact), are in the correct position for the airbag to
deploy and prevent the passenger from being thrown from the vehicle.
 Seat belts also absorb energy by being designed to stretch during an impact, so that there
is less speed differential between the passenger's body and their vehicle interior, and also
to spread the loading of impact on the passengers’ body.
 The final, so-called 'third impact' after a passenger's body hits the car interior, airbag or
seat belts, is that of the internal organs hitting the ribcage or skull.
 The force of this impact is the mechanism through which car crashes cause disabling or
life threatening injury.





Figure 5.1. Three points seat belt.



  The sequence of energy dissipating and speed reducing technologies - crumple zone - seat
belt - airbags - padded interior, are designed to work together as system, to reduce the
force of this final impact
Types of seat belts
 Lap seat belt
 Three points
seatbelt Lap:
 Adjustable strap that goes over the waist. Used frequently in older cars, now uncommon
except in some rear middle seats. Passenger’s aircraft seats also use lap seat belts to
prevent injuries.
Sash:
 Adjustable strap that goes over the shoulder. Used mainly in the 1960s, but of
limited benefit because it is very easy to slip out of in a collision.
Three-point:
 Similar to the lap and shoulder, but one single continuous length of webbing. Both three-
point and lap-and-sash belts help spread out the energy of the moving body in a collision
over the chest, pelvis, and shoulders. Volvo introduced the first production three-point
belt in 1959. The first car with three point belt was a Volvo PV 544 that was delivered to
a dealer in Kristian stad on August 13, 1959. The three point belt was developed by Nils
Bohlin who earlier had worked on ejection seats at Saab. Until the 1980s, three-point
belts were commonly available only in the front seats of cars; the back seats had only lap
belts or diagonal belts. Evidence of the potential for lap belts to cause separation of the
lumbar vertebrae and the sometimes associated paralysis, or "seat belt syndrome", has led
to a revision of passenger safety regulations in nearly all developed countries requiring
that all seats in a vehicle be equipped with three-point belts. Since September 1, 2007, all
new cars sold in the U.S. require a lap and shoulder belt in the center rear.

Seat belts and seat-belt tighteners

Figure 5.2. Parts of Seat belt.

 Figure 5.3. Occupant protection systems with belt tighteners and front airbags

FUNCTION:
The function of seat belts is to restrain the occupants of a vehicle in their seats when
the vehicle hits an obstacle.
Seat-belt tighteners improve the restraining characteristics of a three-point inertia-reel
belt and increase the protection against injury.
In the event of a frontal impact, they pull the seat belts tighter against the body and
thus hold the upper body as closely as possible against the seat backrest.
This prevents excessive forward displacement of the occupants caused by mass inertia.

Operating concept:
 In a frontal impact with a solid obstacle at a speed of 50 km/h, the seat belts must absorb
a level of energy comparable to the kinetic energy of a person in free fall from the 4th
floor of a building. Because of the belt slack, the belt stretch and the delayed effect of the
belt retractor ("film-reel effect"),three-point inertia-reel belts provide only limited
protection in frontal impacts with solid obstacles at speeds of over 40 km/h because they
can no longer safely prevent the head and body from impacting against the steering wheel
or the instrument panel. An occupant experiences extensive forward displacement
without restraint systems.
 Deceleration to standstill and forward displacement of an occupant at an impact speed of
50 km/h.1 Impact, 2 Firing of belt tightener/airbag, 3 Belt tightened, 4 Airbag inflated.
without/ with restraint systems. In an impact, the shoulder belt tightener compensates for
the belt slack and the "film-reel effect" by retracting and tightening the belt strap.
 At an impact speed of 50 km/h, this system achieves its full effect within the first 20 ms
of the impact; and thus supports the airbag which needs approx. 40 ms to inflate
completely. The occupant continues to move forward slightly until making contact with
the deflating airbag and in this manner is protected from injury.
A prerequisite for optimum protection is that the occupants' forward movement away
from their seats remains minimal as they decelerate along with the vehicle. This is
 achieved by triggering the belt tighteners immediately upon initial impact to ensure that
safe restraint of the occupants in the front seats starts as soon as possible.

The maximum forward displacement with tightened seat belts is approx. 1 cm and the
duration of mechanical tightening is 5...10 ms. On activation, a pyrotechnical propellant
charge is electrically fired. The explosive pressure acts on a piston, which turns the belt
reel via a steel cable in such a way that the belt rests tightly against the body.



Figure 5.4. Shoulder-belt tightener

1.Ignition cable, 2 Firing elements, 3 Propellant charge, 4 Piston, 5 Cylinder, 6 Metal cables, 7 Belt reel, 8
Belt strap.
COLLAPSIBLE STEERING COLUMN
The collapsible steering column, like shoulder harnesses or air bags, is a device that
greatly increases driver survivability in the event of a head on collision. During a head on
crash, the steering column can be pushed into the passenger compartment with
tremendous force.
At the same time, drivers obey Newton’s first law of motion and continue to travel at the
same speed of the automobile until something acts on the driver to slow or stop them.
Too frequently, it was the steering wheel that caused drivers to stop, sometimes with
horrific consequences.
In fact, years ago it was not unheard of for drivers to be impaled on the steering shaft. As
a result, engineers began to investigate ways in which driver survivability could be
increased for those unlucky enough to slam into the steering wheel. The goal was to
develop a system in which the driver could safely slow down or decelerate during a front
end collision. What they developed is now known as the collapsible steering column. Its
design was so successful that nearly all of today’s steering columns are designed to
deform under pressure from impact.
Collapsible steering columns come in a number of designs. Some columns integrate a
series of telescoping tubes that collapse when impacted by the driver. Others use break
points in the column that will allow the bend more easily. Still others have a special joint
near the steering gear that allows the column to snap down during impact. While air bags
have become more prominent over the past few years, collapsible steering columns
continue to play an important role in enhancing driver safety. But rather than being a
primary safety feature, steering column designs have come to represent the last ring of
safety behind shoulder harnesses restraints and air bags. Together, more drivers are
walking away from crashes that would have certainly resulted in death, just a few years
ago.

Figure 5.5. Parts of conventional steering column assembly

 Figure 5.6. Parts of standard crushable steering column assembly

AIR BAGS, ELECTRONIC SYSTEM FOR ACTIVATING AIR BAGS:

Front airbag
Function:
The function of front airbags is to protect the driver and the front passenger against head
and chest injuries in a vehicle impact with a solid obstacle at speeds of up to 60 km/h.
In a frontal impact between two vehicles, the front airbags afford protection at relative
speeds of up to 100 km/h. A belt tightener alone cannot prevent the head from hitting the
steering wheel in response to severe impact. In order to fulfill this function, depending on
the installation location, vehicle type and structure-deformation response, airbag shave
different filling capacities and pressure build-up sequences adapted to the specific vehicle
conditions.
In a few vehicle types, front airbags also operate in conjunction with "inflatable knee
pads", which safeguard the "ride down benefit", i.e. the speed decrease of the occupants
together with the speed decrease of the passenger cell.
This ensures the rotational forward motion of the upper body and head which is actually
needed for optimal airbag protection, and is of particular benefit in countries where seat-
belt usage is not mandatory.
Figure 5.7. Construction and working of airbag.
 Operating concept:
To protect driver and front passenger, pyrotechnical gas inflators inflate the driver and
passenger airbags in pyrotechnical, highly dynamic fashion after a vehicle impact
detected by sensors.
In order for the affected occupant to enjoy maximum protection, the airbag must be fully
inflated before the occupant comes into contact with it.
The airbag then responds to upper-body contact with partial deflation in a response
pattern calculated to combine "gentle" impact-energy absorption with non-critical (in
terms of injury) surface pressures and decelerative forces for the occupant. This concept
significantly reduces or even prevents head and chest injuries.
The maximum permissible forward displacement before the driver's airbag is fully
inflated is approx.12.5 cm, corresponding to a period of approx. 10 ms + 30 ms = 40 ms
after the initial impact (at 50 km/h with a solid obstacle) (see Fig. "Deceleration to
standstill"). It needs 10 ms for electronic firing to take place and 30ms for the airbag to
inflate.
In a 50 km/h crash, the airbag takes approx. 40 ms to inflate fully and a further 80...100
ms to deflate through the deflation holes. The entire process thus takes little more than a
tenth of a second, i.e. the batting of an eyelid.

Impact detection:
 Optimal occupant protection against the effects of frontal, offset, oblique or pole impact
is obtained through the precisely coordinated interplay of electrically fired pyrotechnical
front airbags and seat-belt tighteners.
 To maximize the effect of both protective devices, they are activated with optimized time
response by a common ECU (triggering unit) installed in the passenger cell. The ECU's
deceleration calculations are based on data from one or two electronic acceleration
sensors used to monitor the decelerative forces that accompany an impact. The impact
must also be analyzed. A hammer blow in the workshop, gentle pushing, driving over a
curbstone or a pothole should not trigger the airbag. With this end in mind, the sensor
signals are processed in digital analysis algorithms whose sensitivity parameters have
been optimized with the aid of crash-data simulations.
 Depending on the impact type, the first trigger threshold is reached within 5...60 ms. the
acceleration characteristics, which are influenced for instance by the vehicle equipment
and the body's deformation performance, are different for each vehicle. They determine
the setting parameters which are of crucial importance for the sensitivity in the analysis
algorithm (computing process) and, in the end, for airbag and belt-tightener firing.
 Depending on the vehicle-manufacturer's production concept, the trigger parameters and
the extent of vehicle equipment can also be programmed into the ECU at the end of the
assembly line ("end-of-line programming" or "EoL programming").In order to prevent
injuries caused by airbags or fatalities to "out-of-position" occupants or to small children
in Re board child seats, it is essential that the front airbags are triggered and inflated in
accordance with the particular situations.


  The following improvement measures are available for this purpose 1. Deactivation
switches. These switches can be used to deactivate the driver or passenger airbag. The
airbag function states are indicated by special lamps.2. In the USA, where there have
been approx. 130 fatalities caused by airbags, attempts are being made to reduce
aggressive inflation by introducing "depowered airbags".
 These are airbags whose gas-inflator power has been reduced by 20...30 %, which itself
reduces the inflation speed, the inflation severity and the risk of injury to "out-of-
position" occupants. "Depowered airbags" can thus be depressed more easily by large and
heavy occupants, i.e. they have a reduced energy-absorption capacity. It is therefore
essential above all with regard to the possibility of severe frontal impacts for the
occupants to fasten their seatbelts.3. "Intelligent airbag systems".
 The introduction of improved sensing functions and control options for the airbag
inflation process, with the accompanying improvement of the protective effect, is
intended to result in a step-by-step reduction in the risk of injury.

Acceleration sensors:
 Acceleration sensors for impact detection are integrated directly in the ECU (belt
tightener, front airbag)and mounted at selected points on the left and right body sides
(side airbag) or in the vehicle's front-end deformation area (upfront sensors for
"intelligent airbag systems").
 The precision of these sensors is crucial in saving lives. They are generally surface-
micromechanical sensors consisting of fixed and moving finger structures and spring
pins. A special process is used to incorporate the "spring/mass system" on the surface of a
silicon wafer.
 Since the sensors only have low working capacitance (≈1 pF), it is necessary to
accommodate the evaluation electronics in the same housing so as to avoid stray-
capacitance and other forms of interference.


Gas inflators:
The pyrotechnical propellant charges of the gas inflators for generating the airbag
inflation gas (mainly nitrogen) and for actuating belt tighteners are activated by an
electrically operated firing element.
The gas inflator in question inflates the airbag with nitrogen. The driver's airbag
integrated in the steering-wheel hub (volume 35...67 l) or the passenger airbag installed in
the glove box (70...150 l) is inflated approx. 30 ms after firing.

 Figure 5.8. Combined ECU for belt tighteners and front/side airbags
.

BUMPER DESIGN FOR SAFETY

A bumper is a shield made of steel, aluminum, rubber, or plastic that is mounted on the
front and rear of a passenger car. When a low speed collision occurs, the bumper
system absorbs the shock to prevent or reduce damage to the car
The front and rear of the vehicle should be protected in such a manner that low-speed
collisions will only damage the vehicle slightly, or not at all. Prescribed bumper
evaluation tests (US Part 581, Canada CMVSS 215, and ECE-R 42) specify minimum
requirements in terms of energy absorption and installed bumper height.

Figure 5.9. Front bumper of a car.

 Bumper evaluation tests in accordance with US Part 581 (4 km/h barrier collision, 4 km/h
pendulum tests) must be passed by a bumper system whose energy absorber is of the no-
damage absorber type.
The requirements of the ECE standard are satisfied by plastically deformable retaining
elements located between the bumper and the vehicle body structure. In addition to sheet
steel, many bumpers are manufactured using fiber-reinforced plastics and aluminum
sections

Figure 5.10. Cross sectional view of bumpers 1. Shock-absorber system, 2 Energy-absorbing

PUR-foam systems


