Geometry

MA 061 Geometry IDefinitions and Theorems

– Chapters 2-10 Definitions, Postulates, Theorems, Corollaries, and Formulas
Sarah Brewer, Alabama School of Math and Science Last updated: 03 February 2015
Chapter numbers refer to JacobsGeometry: Seeing, Doing, Understanding, 3ed

Chapter 2 – The Nature of Deductive Reasoning

conditional statement: “If a, then b.” or “a implies b.” or 𝑎 → 𝑏

a = hypothesis
b = conclusion

converse: “If b, then a.” or “b implies a.” or 𝑏 → 𝑎

In general, if a statement is true, then its converse is not necessarily true.

contrapositive: “If not b, then not a.” or “not b implies not a.” or ~𝑏 → ~𝑎
The contrapositive is logically equivalent to the original statement.

If both a statement and its converse are true, we can combine them with an if and only if (iff) statement: “a if and only if b” or 𝑎 ↔ 𝑏
Statements of definitions are always true, as are their converses.

Euler diagram for 𝑎 → 𝑏 ( b (a) )

A syllogism is a type of direct proof of the form

a b
bc
Therefore, ac.

The statements ab and bc are called the premises of the argument.
ac is called the conclusion of the argument, and is often considered to be a theorem.

A theorem is a statement that is proved by reasoning deductively from already accepted statements.

If the premises of a syllogism are true, it follows that its conclusion must be true.
If the premises of a syllogism are false, the conclusion may be true or false.

In an indirect proof, an assumption is made at the beginning that leads to a contradiction. The contradiction indicates that the assumption
is false and the desired conclusion is true.

Direct versus Indirect proof of the theorem “If a, then d.”

Direct Proof: Indirect Proof:

If a, then b. Suppose not d is true.
If b, then c. If not d, then e.
If c, then d. If e, then f,
Therefore, if a, then d. And so on until we come to a contradiction.
Therefore, our assumption (not d) is false; so d is true.
To avoid circular definitions, mathematics leaves certain terms undefined (e.g. point, line, plane), which can be used to define other terms.

Def: Points are collinear iff there is a line that contains all of them.
Def: Lines are concurrent iff they contain the same point.

Def: A postulate is a statement that is assumed to be true without proof.

Postulate 1: Two points determine a line.

Postulate 2: Three noncollinear points determine a plane.

The Pythagorean Theorem: The square of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides.

The Triangle Sum Theorem: The sum of the angles in a triangle is 180°.

Circle Theorems:
If the diameter of a circle is d, then its circumference is πd.
If the radius of a circle is r, then its area is πr 2.
Chapter 3 – Lines and Angles
Algebraic Postulates of Equality:
Reflexive Property: a=a (Any number is equal to itself.)
Substitution Property: If a=b, then a can be substituted for b in any expression.
Addition Property: If a=b, then a+c=b+c
Subtraction Property: If a=b, then a-c=b-c.
Multiplication Property: If a=b, then ac=bc.
Division Property: If a=b, then a/c=b/c.

−𝑏±√𝑏 2−4𝑎𝑐
Quadratic formula If 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, then 𝑥 = 2𝑎
.

Postulate 3: The Ruler Postulate – The points on a line can be numbered so that positive number differences measure distance.

Def: Betweenness of Points – A point is between two other points on the same line iff its coordinate is between their coordinates. (More
briefly, A-B-C iff a<b<c or a>b>c.)

Theorem 1: The Betweenness of Points Theorem – If A-B-C, then AB+BC=AC

Postulate 4: The Protractor Postulate – The rays in a half-rotation can be numbered from 0 to 180 so that positive number differences
measure angles.

Definitions: An angle is
Acute iff it is less than 90°.
Right iff it is 90°.
Obtuse iff it is more than 90° but less than 180°.
Straight iff it is 180°.

Def: Betweenness of Rays – A ray is between two others in the same half-rotation iff its coordinate is between their coordinates. (More
briefly, OA-OB-OC iff a<b<c or a>b>c.)

Theorem 2: The Betweenness of Rays Theorem – If OA-OB-OC, then ∠AOB+∠BOC=∠AOC.

Def: A point is on the midpoint of a line segment iff it divides the line segment into two equal segments.

Def: A line bisects an angle iff it divides the angle into two equal angles.

Def: Two objects are congruent if and only if they coincide exactly when superimposed.

Def: A corollary is a theorem that can be easily proved as a consequence of a postulate or another theorem.

Corollary to the Ruler Postulate: A line segment has exactly one midpoint.

Corollary to the Protractor Postulate: An angle has exactly one ray that bisects it.

Def: Two angles are complementary iff their sum is 90°.

Def: Two angles are supplementary iff their sum is 180°.

Theorem 3: Complements of the same angle are equal.

Theorem 4: Supplements of the same angle are equal.

Def: Two angles are a linear pair iff they have a common side and their other sides are opposite rays.

Def: Two angles are vertical angles iff the sides of one angle are opposite rays to the sides of the other.

Theorem 5: The angles in a linear pair are supplementary.

Theorem 6: Vertical angles are equal.

Def: Two lines are perpendicular iff they form a right angle.

Theorem 7: Perpendicular lines form four right angles.

Corollary to the definition of a right angle: All right angles are equal.

Theorem 8: If the angles in a linear pair are equal, then their sides are perpendicular.

Def: Two lines are parallel iff they lie in the same plane and do not intersect.
Chapter 4 – Congruence
Distance formula: The distance between the points 𝑃1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝑃2 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) is √(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2

Def: A polygon is a connected set of at least three line segments in the same plane such that each segment intersects exactly two others, one
at each endpoint. The line segments are the sides of the polygon, and the endpoints are its vertices. The number of sides and vertices is
always the same, and the polygon is referred to as an “n-gon” if it has n sides and n vertices.

Def: Two triangles are congruent iff there is a correspondence between their vertices such that all of their corresponding sides and angles
are equal. ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 ≅ ∆𝐿𝑀𝑁, where “≅” means “is congruent to” 𝐴𝐵𝐶 ↔ 𝐿𝑀𝑁

Corollary to the definition of congruent triangles: Two triangles congruent to a third triangle are congruent to each other.

A polygon is convex if any line connecting two points of the polygon never goes outside the polygon.
A polygon is concave if there exists at least one set of points of the polygon such that a line connecting them must travel outside the polygon.

Postulate 5: The ASA Postulate

If two angles and the included side of one triangle are equal to two angles and the included side of another triangle, the triangles are
congruent.

Postulate 6: The SAS Postulate

If two sides and the included angle of one triangle are equal to two sides and the included angle of another triangle, the triangles are
congruent.

Def: Corresponding parts of congruent triangles are equal.

Definitions: A triangle is
scalene iff it has no equal sides
isosceles iff it has at least two equal sides
equilateral iff all of its sides are equal
obtuse iff it has an obtuse angle
right iff it has a right angle
acute iff all of its angles are acute
equiangular iff all of its angles are equal

Theorem 9: If two sides of a triangle are equal, the angles opposite them are equal.
Theorem 10: If two angles of a triangle are equal, the sides opposite them are equal.
Corollaries to Theorems 9 and 10:
An equilateral triangle is equiangular.
An equiangular triangle is equilateral.

Theorem 11: The SSS Theorem

If the three sides of one triangle are equal to the three sides of another triangle, then triangles are congruent.

Chapter 5 – Inequalities
The “Three Possibilities” Property: either a>b, a=b, or a<b
The Transitive Property of Inequality: If a>b and b>c, then a>c
The Addition Property of Inequality: If a>b, then a+c>b+c
The Subtraction Property of Inequality: If a>b, then a-c>b-c
The Multiplication Property of Inequality: If a>b and c>0, then ac>bc
The Division Property of Inequality: If a>b and c>0, then a/c>b/c

The Addition Theorem of Inequality: If a>b and c>d, then a+c>b+d

The “Whole Greater than Part” Theorem: If a>0, b>0, and a+b=c, then c>a and c>b

Def: An exterior angle of a triangle is an angle that forms a linear pair with an angle of the triangle.

Theorem 12: The Exterior Angle Theorem – An Exterior angle of a triangle is greater than either remote interior angle.

Theorem 13: If two sides of a triangle are unequal, the angles opposite them are unequal in the same order.

Theorem 14: If two angles of a triangle are unequal, the sides opposite them are unequal in the same order.

Theorem 15: The Triangle Inequality Theorem – The sum of any two sides of a triangle is greater than the third side.
Chapter 6 – Parallel Lines
Def: Two points are symmetric with respect to a line iff the line is the perpendicular bisector of the line segment connecting the two
points.

Theorem 16: In a plane, two points each equidistant from the endpoints of a line segment determine the perpendicular bisector of the line
segment.

Def: Two lines are parallel iff they lie in the same plane and do not intersect.

A transversal is a line that intersects two or more lines in different points.

Theorem 17: Equal corresponding angles mean that lines are parallel.
Corollary 1: Equal alternate interior angles mean that lines are parallel.
Corollary 2: Supplementary interior angles on the same side of a transversal mean that lines are parallel.
Corollary 3: In a plane, two lines perpendicular to a third line are parallel.

Postulate 7: The Parallel Postulate – Through a point not on a line, there is exactly one line parallel to the given line.

Theorem 18: In a plane, two lines parallel to a third line are parallel to each other.

Theorem 19: Parallel lines form equal corresponding angles.

Corollary 1: Parallel lines form equal alternate interior angles.
Corollary 2: Parallel lines form supplementary interior angles on the same side of a transversal.
Corollary 3: In a plane, a line perpendicular to one of two parallel lines is also perpendicular to the other.

Theorem 20: The Angle Sum Theorem – The sum of the angles of a triangle is 180°.
Corollary 1: If two angles of one triangle are equal to two angles of another triangle, the third angles are equal.
Corollary 2: The acute angles of a right triangle are complementary.
Corollary 3: Each angle of an equilateral triangle is 60°.

Theorem 21: An exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of the remote interior angles.

Theorem 22: The AAS Theorem – If two angles and the side opposite one of them in one triangle are equal to the corresponding parts of
another triangle, the triangles are congruent.

Theorem 23: The HL Theorem – If the hypotenuse and a leg of one right triangle are equal to the corresponding parts of another right
triangle, the triangles are congruent.
Chapter 7 - Quadrilaterals
Def: A diagonal of a polygon is a line segment that connects any two nonconsecutive vertices.

Theorem 24: The sum of the angles of a quadrilateral is 360°.

Def: A rectangle is a quadrilateral each of whose angles is a right angle.

Corollary to Theorem 24: A quadrilateral is equiangular iff it is a rectangle.

Def: A parallelogram is a quadrilateral whose opposite sides are parallel.

A figure has point symmetry if it looks exactly the same when it is rotated about a point.
Def: Two points are symmetric with respect to a point iff it is the midpoint of the line segment joining them.
Parallelograms have point symmetry about the point in which their diagonals intersect.

Theorem 25: The opposite sides and angles of a parallelogram are equal.

Theorem 26: The diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.

Theorem 27: A quadrilateral is a parallelogram, if its opposite sides are equal.

Theorem 28: A quadrilateral is a parallelogram if its opposite angles are equal.

Theorem 29: A quadrilateral is a parallelogram if two opposite sides are both parallel and equal.

Theorem 30: A quadrilateral is a parallelogram if its diagonals bisect each other.

Def: A square is a quadrilateral all of whose sides and angles are equal.

Every square is a rhombus.

Def: A rhombus is a quadrilateral all of whose sides are equal.

Theorem 31: All rectangles are parallelograms.

Given: ABCD is a rectangle.
Prove: ABCD is a parallelogram.

Theorem 32: All rhombuses are parallelograms.

Given: ABCD is a rhombus.
Prove: ABCD is a parallelogram.

Theorem 33: The diagonals of a rectangle are equal.

Given: ABCD is a rectangle.
Prove: AC=BD.

Theorem 34: The diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular.

Given: ABCD is a rhombus.
Prove: AC⊥BD.

Def: A trapezoid is a quadrilateral that has exactly one pair of parallel sides.
The parallel sides are called the bases of the trapezoid, and the non-parallel sides are called its legs. The pairs of angles that include each
base are called base angles.

Def: An isosceles trapezoid is a trapezoid whose legs are equal.

Theorem 35: The base angles of an isosceles trapezoid are equal.
Given: ABCD is an isosceles trapezoid with bases AB and DC.
Prove: ∠A=∠B and ∠D=∠C

Theorem 36: The diagonals of an isosceles trapezoid are equal.

Given: ABCD is an isosceles trapezoid with bases AB and DC.
Prove: DB=CA.

If a quadrilateral is a trapezoid, then its diagonals cannot bisect each other.

Given: ABCD is a trapezoid
Prove: AC and DB do not bisect each other.

Def: A midsegment of a triangle is a line segment that connects the midpoints of two of its sides.

Theorem 37: The Midsegment Theorem – A midsegment of a triangle is parallel to the third side and half as long.
Given: MN is a midsegment of ∆ABC.
Prove: MN||BC and MN=(1/2)BC.

Chapter 8 – Transformations
Def: A transformation is a one-to-one correspondence between two sets of points.

A translation slides an object a certain distance without turning it.

A reflection flips an object over a mirror line.

A rotation turns an object a certain number of degrees about a fixed point.

A dilation enlarges or reduces the size of an object.

Def: an isometry is a transformation that preserves distance and angle measure.

Translations, reflections, and rotations are all examples of isometries, but dilations are not.

Def: The reflection of point P through line l is P itself if P lines on l. Otherwise, it is the point P’ such that l is the perpendicular bisector of PP’.

Def: A translation is the composite of two successive reflections through parallel lines.

The distance between a point of the original figure and its translation image is called the magnitude of the translation.

Def: A rotation is the composite of two successive reflections through intersecting lines.

The point in which the lines intersect is the center of rotation, and the measure of the angle through which a point of the original figure turns
to coincide with its rotation image is called the magnitude of the rotation.

Def: A translation is the composite of two successive reflections through parallel lines.
The distance between a point of the original figure and its translation image is called the magnitude of the translation.

Def: A rotation is the composite of two successive reflections through intersecting lines.
The point in which the lines intersect is the center of rotation, and the measure of the angle through which a point of the original figure turns
to coincide with its rotation image is called the magnitude of the rotation.

Def: Two figures are congruent if there is an isometry such that one figure is the image of the other.

Def: A glide reflection is the composite of a translation and a reflection in a line parallel to the direction of the translation.

Def: A figure has rotation symmetry with respect to a point iff it coincides with its rotation image through less than 360° about the point.

A figure is said to have n-fold rotation symmetry iff the smallest angle through which it can be turned to look exactly the same is 360°/n.

Def: A figure has reflection (line) symmetry with respect to a line iff it coincides with its reflection image through the line. The line is
sometimes called the axis of symmetry.

Def: A pattern has translation symmetry iff it coincides with a translation image.
Chapter 9 – Area

Postulate 8 - The Area Postulate

Every polygonal region has a positive number called its area such that
(1) congruent triangles have equal areas
(2) the area of a polygonal region is equal to the sum of the areas of its nonoverlapping parts

Postulate 9 - The area of a rectangle is the product of its base and altitude
Corollary to Postulate 9 - The area of a square is the square of its side

Theorem 38 - The area of a right triangle is half the product of its legs.

Theorem 39 - The area of a triangle is half the product of any base and corresponding altitude.
Corollary to Theorem 39 - Triangles with equal bases and equal altitudes have equal areas.

𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
Heron's Formula – The area of a triangle with sides a, b, and c is √𝑠(𝑠 − 𝑎)(𝑠 − 𝑏)(𝑠 − 𝑐), where s is half the triangle’s perimeter 𝑠 = 2

Theorem 40 - The area of a parallelogram is the product of any base and corresponding altitude.

Theorem 41 - The area of a trapezoid is half the product of its altitude and the sum of its bases.

Theorem 42 (The Pythagorean Theorem) - The square of the hypotenuse of a right triangle is equal to the sum of the squares of its legs.
Theorem 43 (Converse of the Pythagorean Theorem) - If the square of one side of a triangle is equal to the sum of the squares of the other
two sides, the triangle is a right triangle.
Chapter 10 ‐ Similarity

Def: The ratio of the number a to the number b is the number .

A proportion is an equality between ratios.

a, b, c, and d are called the first, second, third, and fourth terms.
The second and third terms, b and c, are called the means.
The first and fourth terms, a and d, are called the extremes.
The product of the means is equal to the product of the extremes.
If , then 𝑎𝑑 𝑏𝑐.

Def: The number b is the geometric mean between the numbers a and c if a, b, and c are positive and .
Def: Two triangles are similar iff there is a correspondence between their vertices such that their corresponding sides are proportional and
their corresponding angles are equal.

Theorem 44 - The Side‐Splitter Theorem

If a line parallel to one side of a triangle intersects the other two sides in different points,
it divides the sides in the same ratio, that is, if in triangle ABC, DE||BC, then .
Corollary to the Side‐Splitter Theorem:
If a line parallel to one side of a triangle intersects the other two sides in different points, it cuts off segments proportional to the sides, that
is, and
Theorem 45 - The AA Theorem - If two angles of one triangle are equal to two angles of another triangle, the triangles are similar.
Corollary to the AA Theorem - Two triangles similar to a third triangle are similar to each other.
Theorem 46 - Corresponding altitudes of similar triangles have the same ratio as that of the corresponding sides.
Given: ∆ABC~∆DEF; BG and EH are altitudes Prove:
Theorem 47 – The ratio of the perimeters of two similar polygons is equal to the ratio of the corresponding sides.
∆
Given: ∆ABC~∆A’B’C’ Prove: 𝑟, where 𝑟
∆ ’ ’ ’
Theorem 48 – The ratio of the areas of two similar polygons is equal to the square of the ratio of the corresponding sides.
∝∆
Given: ∆ABC~∆A’B’C’ Prove: 𝑟 , where 𝑟
∝∆ ’ ’ ’

SAS Similarity Theorem: If an angle of one triangle is equal to an angle of another triangle and the sides including these angles are
proportional, then the triangles are similar.
Given: ∆ABC and ∆A’B’C’ with ∠A=∠A’ and .
Prove: ∆ABC~∆A’B’C’

SSS Similarity Theorem: If the sides of one triangle are proportional to the sides of another triangle, then the triangles are similar.
Given: ∆ABC and ∆A’B’C’ with .
Prove: ∆ABC~∆A’B’C’
Chapter 11 – The Right Triangle
Theorem 49: The altitude to the hypotenuse of a right triangle forms two triangles similar to it and to each other.

Corollary 1 to Theorem 49: The altitude to the hypotenuse of a right triangle is the geometric mean between the segments into which it
divides the hypotenuse.

Corollary 2 to Theorem 49: Each leg of a right triangle is the geometric mean between the hypotenuse and its projection on the hypotenuse.

Pythagorean Theorem: In a right triangle, the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the legs.

Theorem 50 – The Isosceles Right Triangle Theorem: In an isosceles right triangle, the hypotenuse is √2 times the length of a leg.

Corollary to Theorem 50: Each diagonal of a square is √2 times the length of one side.

Theorem 51 – The 30° 60° Right Triangle Theorem

In a 30° 60° right triangle, the hypotenuse is twice the shorter leg and the longer leg is √3 times the shorter leg.

√ √
Corollary to Theorem 51: An altitude of an equilateral triangle having side 𝑠 is 𝑠 and its area is 𝑠 .

Def: The tangent of an acute angle of a right triangle is the ratio of the length of the opposite leg to the length of the adjacent leg.
opposite
tan θ tangent of θ
adjacent

Def: The sine of an acute angle of a right triangle is the ratio of the length of the opposite leg to the length of the hypotenuse.
opposite
sin θ sine of θ
hypotenuse

Def: The cosine of an acute angle of a right triangle is the ratio of the length of the adjacent leg to the length of the hypotenuse.
adjacent
cos θ cosine of θ
hypotenuse

Theorem 52: Two nonvertical lines are parallel iff their slopes are equal.

Theorem 53: Two nonvertical lines are perpendicular iff the product of their slopes is -1.

Theorem 54 – The Law of Sines: If the sides opposite ∠𝐴, ∠𝐵, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∠𝐶 of ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 have lengths 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐, then
sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 sin 𝐵
𝑎 𝑏 𝑏
Theorem 55 – The Law of Cosines: If the sides opposite ∠𝐴, ∠𝐵, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∠𝐶 of ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 have lengths 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐, then
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 2𝑏𝑐 ∗ cos 𝐴 , 𝑏 𝑎 𝑐 2𝑎𝑐 ∗ cos 𝐵 , 𝑐 𝑎 𝑏 2𝑎𝑏 ∗ cos 𝐶
Ch 12 – Circles
12.1 ‐ Circles, Radii, and Chords
Def: A circle is the set of all points in a plane that are at a given distance from a given point in the plane.
Def: Circles are concentric iff they lie in the same plane and have the same center.
Def: A radius of a circle is a line segment that connects the center of the circle to any point on it.
The radius of a circle is the length of one of these line segments.
Corollary: All radii of a circle are equal.
Def: A chord of a circle is a line segment that connects two points of the circle.

Def: A diameter of a circle is a chord that contains the center.

The diameter of a circle is the length of one of these chords.
Theorem 56: If a line through the center of a circle is perpendicular to a chord,
it also bisects the chord.
Theorem 57: If a line through the center of a circle bisects a chord that is not a diameter, it is also perpendicular to the chord.

Theorem 58: The perpendicular bisector of a chord of a circle contains the center of the circle.
12.2 ‐ Tangents
Def: A tangent to a circle is a line in the plane of the circle that intersects the circle in exactly one point.
Theorem 59: If a line is tangent to a circle, it is perpendicular to the radius drawn to the point of contact.
Theorem 60: If a line is perpendicular to a radius at its outer endpoint, it is tangent to the circle.

Theorem 59: If a line is tangent to a circle, it is perpendicular to the radius drawn to the point of contact.
Theorem 60: If a line is perpendicular to a radius at its outer endpoint, it is tangent to the circle.
12.3 ‐ Central Angles and Arcs
Def: A central angle of a circle is an angle whose vertex is the center of the circle.
Def: A reflex angle is an angle whose measure is more than 180o
Def: The degree measure of an arc is the measure of its central angle.

Theorem 61: In a circle, equal chords have equal arcs.

Theorem 62: In a circle, equal arcs have equal chords.

12.4 Inscribed Angles

Def: An inscribed angle is an angle whose vertex is on a circle, with each of the angle's sides intersecting the circle in another point.

Theorem 63: An inscribed angle is equal in measure to half its intercepted arc.
Corollary 1 to Theorem 63: Inscribed angles that intercept the same arc are equal.
Corollary 2 to Theorem 63: An angle inscribed in a semicircle is a right angle.
Theorem 63: An inscribed angle is equal in measure to half its intercepted arc.

The measure of a central angle is the same as the degree measure of its intercepted arc.
The measure of an inscribed angle is half the degree measure of its intercepted arc.
Inscribed angles with the same intercepted arcs are equal.
Angles inscribed in semicircles are right angles.

12.5 Secant Angles

Def: A secant is a line that intersects a circle in two points.
Def: A secant angle is an angle whose sides are contained in two secants of a circle so that each side intersects the circle in at least one point
other than the angle's vertex.

Theorem 64: A secant angle whose vertex is inside a circle is equal in measure to half the sum of the arcs intercepted by it and its vertical
angle.
Theorem 65: A secant angle whose vertex is outside a circle is equal in measure to half the difference of its larger and smaller intercepted
arcs.

12.6 ‐ Tangent Segments and Intersecting Chords

Def: If a line is tangent to a circle, then any segment of the line having the point of tangency as one of its endpoints is a tangent segment to
the circle.
Theorem 66: The tangent segments to a circle from an external point are equal.
Theorem 67: The Intersecting Chords Theorem
If two chords intersect in a circle, the product of the lengths of the segments of one chord is equal to the product of the lengths of the
segments of the other chord.

Ch 13 – Concurrence Theorems
Ch 13 ‐ The Concurrence Theorems
13.1 - Triangles and Circles
Def: A polygon is cyclic iff there exists a circle that contains all of its vertices.
Theorem 68: Every Triangle is cyclic.
Def: A polygon is inscribed in a circle iff each vertex of the polygon lies on the circle. The circle is circumscribed about the polygon.
Corollary to Theorem 68: The perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a triangle are concurrent.
Construction 9: To circumscribe a circle about a triangle.

13.2 - Cyclic Quadrilaterals

Theorem 69: A quadrilateral is cyclic iff a pair of its opposite angles are supplementary.
13.3 ‐ Incircles
Def: A circle is inscribed in a polygon iff each side of the polygon is tangent to the circle. The polygon is circumscribed about the circle.
The circle is called the incircle of the polygon and its center is called the incenter of the polygon.
Theorem 70: Every triangle has an incircle.
Corollary to Theorem 70: The angle bisectors of a triangle are concurrent.
Construction 10: To inscribe a circle in a triangle.
13.4 ‐ The Centroid of a Triangle
Def: A median of a triangle is a line segment that joins a vertex to the midpoint of the opposite side.
Theorem 71: The medians of a triangle are concurrent.
Def: The centroid of a triangle is the point in which its medians are concurrent.
Theorem 72: The lines containing the altitudes of a triangle are concurrent.
Def: The orthocenter of a triangle is the point in which the lines containing its altitudes are concurrent.
13.5 - Ceva's Theorem
Def: A cevian of a triangle is a line segment that joins a vertex of the triangle to a point on the opposite side.
Theorem 73: Ceva's Theorem

The point at which the perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a triangle are concurrent is the center of a circle circumscribed about the
triangle.
The point at which the angles bisectors of a triangle are concurrent is the center of the incircle, or a circle inscribed within the triangle.

The point at which the medians of a triangle, or line segments joining each vertex to the midpoint of the opposite side, are concurrent is the
centroid, or center of mass.

The point at which the lines containing the altitudes of a triangle are concurrent is the orthocenter.

Ch 14 - Regular Polygons and the Circle

14.1 ‐ Regular Polygons

Def: A regular polygon is a convex polygon that is both equilateral and equiangular.
Theorem 74: Every regular polygon is cyclic.
Def: An apothem of a regular polygon is a perpendicular line segment from its center to one of its sides.

14.2 – The Perimeter of a Regular Polygon

Theorem 75 – The perimeter of a regular polygon having 𝑛 sides is 2𝑁𝑟, in which 𝑁 𝑛 sin and 𝑟 is its radius.
Length of one side of a regular 𝑛-gon is 2𝑟 sin
Perimeter of a regular 𝑛-gon is 2𝑛𝑟 sin
14.3 – The Area of a Regular Polygon

Theorem 76 – The area of a regular polygon having 𝑛 sides is 𝑀𝑟 , in which 𝑀 𝑛 sin cos and 𝑟 is its radius.

14.4 – From Polygons to Pi

Def: The circumference of a circle is the limit of the perimeters of the inscribed regular polygons.
Theorem 77 – If the radius of a circle is 𝑟, its circumference is 2𝜋𝑟.
Corollary to Theorem 77 – If the diameter of a circle is 𝑑, its circumference is 𝜋𝑑.

14.5 – The Area of a Circle

Def: The area of a circle is the limit of the areas of the inscribed regular polygons.
Theorem 78 – If the radius of a circle is 𝑟, its area is 𝜋𝑟 .

14.6 – Sectors and Arcs

Def: A sector of a circle is a region bounded by an arc of the circle and the two radii to the endpoints of the arc.

If a sector is a certain fraction of a circle, then its area is the same fraction of the circle’s area. If an arc is a certain fraction of a circle, then its
length is the same fraction of the circle’s circumference.

Ch 15 – Geometric Solids

15.1 – Lines and Planes in Space

Postulate 11 – If two points lie in a plane, the line that contains them lies in the plane.
Postulate 12 – If two planes intersect, they intersect in a line.
Def: Two lines are skew iff they are not parallel and do not intersect.
Def: Two planes, or a line and a plane, are parallel iff they do not intersect.
Def: A line and a plane are perpendicular iff they intersect and the line is perpendicular to every line in the plane that passes through the
point of intersection.
Def: Two planes are perpendicular iff one plane contains a line that is perpendicular to the other plane.

15.2 – Rectangular Solids

Def: A polyhedron is a solid bounded by parts of intersecting planes.
Def: A rectangular solid is a polyhedron that has six rectangular faces.
Theorem 79 – The length of a diagonal of a rectangular solid with dimensions 𝑙, 𝑤, and ℎ is √𝑙 𝑤 ℎ .
Corollary to Theorem 79 – The length of a diagonal of a cube with edges of length 𝑒 is 𝑒√3.
15.3-15.4 – Prisms

15.6-7 – Cylinders & Spheres

15.5-6 – Pyramids & Cones

Ch 16 – Non‐Euclidean Geometries

Statement Euclid Lobachevsky Riemann

Through a point not on a exactly one line parallel to more than one line parallel no line parallel to the line.
line, there is the line. to the line.
The summit angles of a
right. acute. obtuse.
Saccheri quadrilateral are