Journal of Basic and Applied Engineering Research

Print ISSN: 2350-0077; Online ISSN: 2350-0255; Volume 1, Number 10; October, 2014 pp. 114-119
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Non-Destructive Testing in Distress

Structures – An Overview
Ramesh Kumar G. B.
Department of Civil Engineering, Saveetha School of Engineering,
Saveetha University, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India

Abstract: Buildings and structures are normally designed for a Assessment of the quality of existing structure can be achieved
specified target life based on the functional and economical by conducting in-situ tests on the structure besides visual
aspects. Now-a-days it is very common to see the structures, inspection. These tests have been developed with a primary
getting degraded and distressed much before attaining their objective of quickly evaluating the condition of in-situ
design life. It is due to the fact that the assumptions are made
concrete in structural members. While some of the methods
regarding durability of material without knowing the behavior of
material completely in real environment. Before taking up the are non-destructive, others are partially destructive. Each
repair & rehabilitation of structures, the causes of distress must method has its own merits and demerits. These methods
be identified as clearly as possible by means of initial visual include mapping of the crack pattern, distress location,
appraisal, detailed investigations and strength assessment of crushed concrete, reinforcement bending/yielding etc.
structures. The various tests are to be carried out to assess the Evaluation of existing structure is an essential part of its
causes & extent of distress, the quality/strength of concrete and retrofitting. Evaluation is also required for retrofitted
adequacy of structure. The paper briefly discusses various NDT structures to assess the adequacy of the retrofitting.
techniques such as Rebound Hammer, Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity,
Carbonation Test, Rebar Locator Test & Impact Echo Test, from
a practical standpoint of an experienced Structural Engineer 2. DISTRESS DIAGNOSIS & REHABILITATION OF
along with some partial-destructive testing methods of in-situ STRUCTURES
concrete.
The purpose of distress diagnosis and appraisal of structures is
Keywords: NDT Test, Repair and Rehabilitation, Distress, as follows:
Deterioration, Concrete Structure.
• Ascertain the present state of deterioration & distresses in
1. INTRODUCTION structure.
• Assessment of structural adequacy with respect to
Concrete construction is generally expected to give trouble
(i)Durability (ii)Structural strength (iii) Function /
free service through out its intended design life. However,
Serviceability (iv) Appearance.
these expectations are not realized in many constructions
because of structural deficiency, material deterioration, • Estimation of probable deterioration & distress in
unanticipated over loadings or physical damage. The structures in future.
deterioration of structures is a time dependent process caused
by several factors such as plastic deformations, interaction • Advice for appropriate remedial measures.
with the environment, initial design and construction flaws Although the approach to the appraisal of a simple structure
and accidents like fire and earthquake. and that for more complicated structure will differ
considerably, however, the following procedure shall be
The assessment of integrity of structures consists of not only adopted:
evaluation of the present concrete strength but also prediction
of the cause of deterioration and its future projection. It is a • Establish brief
crucial problem to have the correct assessment of concrete
strength to enhance the life of the structure. If the cause of • Check for access & safety
deterioration is predicted and a proper assessment of the • Undertake initial appraisal
structure is made, it may be economically feasible to repair the
distressed structure and prolong its life. • Carryout desk top study
• Detailed investigations
Non-Destructive Testing in Distress Structures – An Overview 115

• Analysis of data tentatively determined to be feasible. The objectives of the

detailed investigation should be properly defined before
• Identification of damages/problems starting this investigation. Owner should be apprised of the
• Suggestion for remedial measures project budgets and costs of the detailed investigation before
proceeding with the detailed investigation. The detailed
• Consider legal matters investigation may be divided into following:
• Preparation & submission of final report
• Documentation
A. Methodologies of Evaluation
• Field observations and condition survey
Evaluation is generally carried out at two levels:
• Sampling and material testing
Preliminary Investigation • Re-evaluation
Preliminary investigation provides initial information • Final report
regarding the condition of the structure, the type and
seriousness of the problems affecting it, the feasibility of The findings of the detailed investigation will directly
performing the intended rehabilitation. This investigation influence the final outcome of the evaluation process, the
decides whether the detailed investigation is needed or not as choices of various rehabilitation alternatives, and ultimately
in some cases, the preliminary investigation may determine the selection of the appropriate rehabilitation method.
that it is not desirable to proceed with a further detailed Therefore extreme care is required in planning and executing
investigation in the case where excessive damage has already the detailed investigation.
so much occurred that the structural integrity cannot be
economically restored or the owner’s objectives cannot be Essential data relating to all defects is as follows.
satisfactorily met. Depending on the project size and • Location, type (e.g. crack, spalling, dampness, etc.) and
complexity, the preliminary investigation can involve the dimensions of the structural member in which each defect
follows; or group of defects occur, noting any change in geometry
• Review of plans, specifications, construction records, of the member near to the defects.
structural details, repair history etc. • Dimensions relationship of defects to reinforcement,
• Conditions assessment of structures movement or construction joints, repairs, modifications or
any other features which could help to establish causes. A
• Measurement of geometry, deflections, displacements, cover meter should be used to locate the position of
cracks, and other damage reinforcement.

• Nondestructive testing • Whether, and to what extent and in what form (and colour
if relevant), any other defects are associated with those
• Exploratory removal being described.
• Sampling, testing, and analysis • The environmental in which the defects have occurred
(e.g. external and open to rain, buried in waterlogged soil,
• Preliminary report in centrally heated building, above chlorinated water in
Detailed Investigation swimming bath, etc.). Always bear in mind that
environmental conditions may have changed since the
Detailed investigations have to be conducted when the damage was done. Recording devices are available.
construction drawings and the structural details of the building
including the specifications about the materials used and the B. Assessment of Distressed Structures
foundation details are not available. In the detailed To assess the quality of concrete, a number of non-destructive,
investigation measurements will also have to be made on the partially destructive and destructive techniques are available.
existing building for obtaining dimensions of the building Out of these techniques, Non-destructive tests (NDT) are most
elements. Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) and partial suitable for the assessment of concrete structures and for the
destructive testings are also required for obtaining properties prediction of the cause of deterioration of the concrete in the
of structural materials i.e. concrete, steel reinforcement and existing structure and, therefore, interest in this field is
masonry in the representative structural members. These tests increasing worldwide. With the revolution in electronics world
may be conducted in the field and in the laboratory. The and advent of micro-computers, a large number of
detailed field investigation is carried out after the preliminary sophisticated instruments have been developed for NDT
investigation is over, the owner’s goals identified and testing. With these tests, it is possible to know in-situ

Journal of Basic and Applied Engineering Research

Print ISSN: 2350-0077; Online ISSN: 2350-0255; Volume 1, Number 10; October, 2014
116 Ramesh Kumar G. B.

strength/quality of concrete and the extent of damage & This method is considered to be a valuable and reliable
various causes of the distressing of the structure could be method of examining the interior of a body of concrete in a
precisely identified. Based on the results of these tests, non-destructive way. However, the operator must be well
remedial measures to enhance the life of the structures can be trained and the results should be properly evaluated and
suggested. Details of some of the methods, generally used in interpreted by the experienced engineers. The detection of
the assessment of the structures, are as follows: flaws within the concrete is not reliable in wet conditions by
this method.
Rebound Hammer Test
Rebar Locator Test
This test is carried out to assess the quality of concrete and to
identify the presence of any delamination. It is a quick method By this test, bar diameter, cover to reinforcement, spacing of
for assessing the quality of concrete based on the rebound the reinforcement, number of bars and any discontinuity in the
number. The rebound number, which indicates the hardness of bars can be detected. This test is performed using Cover meter
the surface of the concrete, helps to identify surface which is based on electro-magnetic theory.
weaknesses in the concrete and is used to determine the
strength of concrete. Carbonation Test
Concrete is having micro-pores and these pores are filled with
The operation of rebound hammer test is that when the liquid, having pH-value as high as 12.5. Thus, Concrete is
plunger of rebound hammer is pressed against the surface of alkaline in nature. Due to alkaline nature of concrete, steel
the concrete, the spring controlled mass rebounds and the does not corrode. Calcium present in the concrete react with
extent of such rebound depends upon the surface hardness of the moisture which lowers the alkalinity of the concrete (pH-
concrete. The rebound distance is measured on graduated value of about 8.3) thus, reducing the ability of the concrete
scale and is designated as rebound number. The various to protect the steel from corrosion. The outer zone of concrete
factors such as type of cement coarse aggregates form, is affected first, but with the passage of time, carbonation
moisture presence of carbonation, curing, age surface structure penetrates deeper into the mass. If the depth of penetration
and orientation of instrument affects rebound significantly becomes equal to the cover of concrete, reinforcement is then
hence proper calibration is required. Rebound hammer has it prone to corrosion.
owns limitations. If all factors are taken into consideration the
strength of concrete may be found up to ±15% accuracy. Impact Echo Test
Further, this method represents the hardness of the surface
only and gives no idea about the quality of inside concrete. IS: This test is very important for assessment of integrity and
13311-1992(Part-2) explains the standard procedure for test durability performance of concrete structures. This test can be
and correlation between the compressive strength of concrete used to assess the non-visible cracks, voids, honeycombing,
and the rebound number. delamination etc. in the concrete structure. In the impact-echo
method, a transient stress pulse is introduced into a test object
Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity (UPV) Test by mechanical point impact. The pulse consists of
compression (P) and shear(S) waves, which propagate into the
Schmidt hammer test can indicate the quality of concrete, only object along spherical wave fronts and a Rayleigh ® wave,
near the surface where as the UPV test can indicate the quality which propagate along the surface. These waves are reflected
over a length, through which the pulses are transmitted. It is, by internal defects and boundaries of the object; the reflected
generally, used for the measurement of concrete uniformity, waves propagate back to the top surface. At the top surface,
determination of cracks & honeycombing, strength estimation waves are again reflected and they propagate into the object.
and relative quality between members or with in a member. Thus, a transit resonance condition is set up by multiple
UPV test determines the propagation velocity of a pulse of a reflections of waves between the top surface and internal flaws
vibrational energy through a concrete member. In concrete, or external boundaries. A displacement transducer located
this test consists of transmitting electro-acoustic pulse through close to the impact point is used to monitor the surface
the concrete medium from one side, receiving the signal from displacements caused by the arrival of these reflected waves.
other side, and measuring the transit time over a known travel
distance. Transit time depends mainly on elastic modulus of To successfully identify wave arrivals, a short duration impact
concrete. The direct method of testing, in which transmitting must be used, and the impact point and receiving transducer
and receiving points are on the opposite faces, is the most must be located sufficiently far from the edge of a test object
reliable from the point of view of transit time measurement, as so that wave reflections from the edge do not interfere with
maximum pulse energy is transmitted at right angles to the internal reflections. Once the wave speed is known, amplitude
face of transmitter. spectra obtained from portions of the slab containing flaws can
be interpreted.

Journal of Basic and Applied Engineering Research

Print ISSN: 2350-0077; Online ISSN: 2350-0255; Volume 1, Number 10; October, 2014
Non-Destructive Testing in Distress Structures – An Overview 117

Pull Out Test strength (iii) Function/serviceability and (iv) Appearance. Of

these four requirements, restoration of durability is by far the
In the Pull out test, either an insert is cast in the concrete or most common in repair work. It is also very important to
fixed into a hole, which is drilled into the concrete. Force consider whether the repair is to be permanent or temporary
required to pull out the insert is measured which is correlated before finalizing the repair methodologies. When it is found
with the compressive strength. Although the result relates to by the various tests that concrete is porous/honeycombed, this
the surface zone only, the advantage is that a more direct should be treated with pressure grouting. In the pressure
measure of strength and at a greater depth, compared to the grouting process, grout material (generally consist of cement
surface hardness test, is available. slurry or epoxy) is injected into the concrete under constant
pressure. Shotcrete is another way to rehabilitate the structure,
Pull Off Test in which a dense and firmly adhesive coating is applied over
the exposed surfaces. Before shotcrete is applied to any
This test is based on the measurement of the in-situ tensile
surface, that surface should be thoroughly cleaned.
strength of concrete by applying a direct tensile force. The
method is specifically useful in measuring the bond between
the overlays. In this test, a metallic disk is glued either to the Following steps are generally used in the rehabilitation of
concrete surface or to the surface of partial core. The force distressed concrete structures:
required to pull off the disk, causing tensile failure of
concrete, is measured and correlated to the strength of • Support the structural members properly, if required.
concrete. The test requires the care in preparing surface and • Remove all loose concrete and expose the reinforcement.
can cause difficulty with damp surfaces.
• Clean the surface and exposed steel reinforcement
Core Test through sand blasting / water jetting or through steel wire
brush.
Core Test is one of the best methods to assess the strength of
the concrete in RCC construction. Compression testing and • Provide additional reinforcing bars as per the requirement,
Petrographic examination of cores, cut from hardened if the loss in reinforcement is more than 10%. New and
concrete, is a well established and most reliable method old steel reinforcement shall be coated with anti corrosive
enabling visual inspection of the interior regions & direct paint.
estimation of the strength. In this method, cores of various • Apply shotcreting/Polymer concrete for patch repair work
sizes & lengths are cut from the hardened concrete by using and grouting for porous/honeycombed concrete.
core cutting machine. These cores are, then, tested for the
compressive strength by applying a compressive force. • Apply protective coatings over the exposed/repaired
surface.
The results obtained from the other non-destructive tests are D. Deterioration Normally Observed and Remedial Measures
generally verified using core test. The main limitations of this
test are those of high cost, inconvenience, damage to the Distresses diagnosis and rehabilitation of structures has been
structure and localised nature of the results. one of the main thrust areas of CBRI, Roorkee. It is based on
the experience gained through various past and on-going
C. Rehabilitation of Distressed Structures research projects. The different types of distress in the
buildings are summarised as below;
The success of repair activity depends on the identification of
the exact cause of the deterioration as clearly as possible.
• Dampness / Seepage through roof, walls, toilet floors,
Surprisingly, the identification of exact cause of damage is service shaft.
being disregarded many times; resulting further repairs have to
be carried out within a very short time. Sometimes the cause is • Deterioration plaster of walls.
apparent as, for example, in many cases of accidental damage
but, more often than not, careful investigation is required. If • Honeycombed concrete.
the cause of deterioration/ damage is properly identified, • Spalling of concrete and concrete of lower strength.
appropriate repair strategies and methodologies be chosen and
implemented for the improvement of strength and durability, • Carbonation up to depth of 100 mm.
thus extending the life of the structure. Repairs of the structure • Brick masonry in damaged / decayed condition with lost
should be carried out as soon as the deterioration of concrete is section.
observed.
• Poor waterproofing system of roofs, toilets and
The main objective of repair is generally to restore on enhance bathrooms.
one or more of the following: (i) Durability (ii) Structural

Journal of Basic and Applied Engineering Research

Print ISSN: 2350-0077; Online ISSN: 2350-0255; Volume 1, Number 10; October, 2014
118 Ramesh Kumar G. B.

• Deteriorated Chajja over windows. • Fix a layer of hot dip Galvanized woven wire mesh 20/ 22
gauge ½” x ½” opening over both sides of wall and hold
• Damaged RCC roof top water tanks. these with the anchors/ nails fixed in the joint positions.
• Vertical crack in masonry wall the external staircase wall. • Apply a coat of cement slurry mixed with bond improving
• Leaking ducts carrying water/ sanitation line. and pore sealing chemical over the area to be treated.
Based on the analysis of data, visual inspection and • Ferro cement treatment should be carried out as explained
information provided by concerned client’s recommendations in annexure.
for repair and strengthening measures have been suggested
• Proper curing should be done for at least 10 days.
and main of those are reproduced below.
Rehabilitation of Damped Plaster
Repair of deteriorated/ lost plaster
• Remove the damped/ distressed plaster.
• Remove all loose plaster from the walls.
• Rake out the joint mortar – clean this exposed surface
• Chip out the decayed brick surface so that all loose properly and repack using seal coat after applying bond
material is removed. coat layer.
• Rake out the masonry joints and clean them properly. • Re-plaster using rich mix.
• Apply a bond coat of cement slurry mixed with bond • Apply coating of water proofing.
improving admixture over the entire exposed area.
Rehabilitation of Spalled of Concrete Roof Slab/Lintel Beam
• Seal coat is also to be applied to cover the cracks etc.
Reapply the bond coat over the entire area and plaster the • Support the roof/beam properly and effectively.
area with a rich 1:4 (cement: sand) mix. • Remove all loose concrete and expose the reinforcement.
• Proper curing should be done for at least 10 days. • Clean the surface through sand blasting / water jetting or
Repair of cracked masonry with deteriorated/ lost plaster at least use steel wire brush.
• Clean the reinforcement and provide additional
• Remove all loose plaster from the walls.
reinforcing bars as per requirement. New and old steel
• Chip out the decayed brick surface so that all loose reinforcement shall be coated with anti corrosive paint.
material is removed.
• Fix the grouting nozzle and rebuild the area using
• Rake out the masonry joints and widen the cracks. polymer mortar layer. Proper compaction shall be
ensured.
• Apply a bond coat of cement slurry mixed with bond
improving admixture over the joints which are to be • Pressure grout after 36 hours and finish the surface with
packed with seal coat. polymer modified mortar.
• Reapply the bond coat over the entire area and plaster the Repair of Honeycombed Concrete
area with a rich 1:4 (cement sand) mix.
• Remove the honeycombed concrete wherever visible.
• If there are larger gaps in corners of masonry joints or
cracks-fix nozzles and pressure grout with cement based • Clean the exposed area properly.
grout. A time gap of 36 hours should be allowed for • Drill and fix pressure grouting pipes in
setting up of nipples. slabs/beams/columns.
• Mix of pressure grout slurry must be added with non • Repack area around the grouting nozzle with non shrink
shrink compound and polymer bond improving polymer mortar – wait for 36 hours – pressure grout using
admixtures. machine mixed grout. Finish the surface properly with
• Fix 40 mm long 3~4 mm dia. anchor/ nails at 300 to 500 polymer modified mortar.
mm centre to centre in the packed joint position. Repair of Leakage through Toilet Seat
• Apply bond coat after washing and wire brushing the • Remove the old seat and check the joints of pipes for
chipped masonry surface and then apply a layer of leakage.
polymer modified mortar over the masonry in distress
area and make it rough. • Water proof area around the seat pit with the help of Ferro
cement lining of 14 mm thick.

Journal of Basic and Applied Engineering Research

Print ISSN: 2350-0077; Online ISSN: 2350-0255; Volume 1, Number 10; October, 2014
Non-Destructive Testing in Distress Structures – An Overview 119

• Re-fix using new pipes with strict care for the joints and strength obtained by these methods, in most of the cases, is
pack properly. comparable. Even then, no single method can be said to be
fully reliable and therefore, more than one method should be
• Check all the drainage points and rectify, if any. performed and results should be correlated. It is suggested that
• Check all water supply lines – replace all leaking valves, NDT tests should be carried by the skilled operators but
pipes and fittings. interpretation of the results must be done by the experts,
having experience and knowledge of application of such NDT
Repair/Replacement of Chhajjas tests. Some useful suggestions for the rehabilitation of the
distressed structures are given. Also, chemicals from standard
• Partially deteriorated chhajjas should be cleaned properly
and reputed companies should only be used. The precautions
and plaster the same with rich mix after applying bond
and mix proportions specified by the manufacturer should also
coat.
be adhered to.
• Remove all damaged chhajjas above doors/windows.
This paper can be useful tool for selecting appropriate NDT
• Replace either with single stone piece or with precast test, equipment and common distresses observed in the
Ferro cement with M S angles. Maintain proper slope of building with reference to the rehabilitation measures.
around 5-10%
Water Proofing Treatment of Roof REFERENCES

• Remove existing old water proofing treatment over the [1] ACI 437, Strength Evaluation of Existing Concrete Buildings,
roof terrace. 1991.
[2] ACI 364, 1R-94, Guide for Evaluation of Concrete Structures
• Provide new water proofing layer as given below: Prior to Rehabilitation, 1999.
• Repair the cracks by epoxy/ cement grouting if any [3] ACI 201.1R, Guide for Making a Condition Survey of Concrete
in Service.
• Repair the patch with modified cement mortar. [4] Allen, R. T. L.; Edwards, S.C.; and Shaw J.D.N, Repair of
Concrete Structures, Blackie Academic and Professional.
• Apply cement slurry as bond coat.
[5] Bungey, J.H., Millard, H.G, Grantham, M.G., Testing of
• Lay 20mm thick modified cement mortar (Seal Coat) for Concrete in Structures, 4th ed, Taylor & Francis, New York,
slope correction. 2006, 339pp.
[6] BS-1881: Part 202, Recommendations for Surface Hardness
• Lay polyester felt water proofing system as per Testing by Rebound Hammer, BSI, London
specifications of reputed firm. [7] CPWD Handbook on Repair and rehabilitation of Rcc buildings,
New Delhi, 2002, 498pp
• Top of the treatment should be finished with proof cote
[8] Emmons, P.H. and Sabnis, G.M., Concrete Repair and
elastomeric compound or equivalent in desired shade.
Maintenance – Illustrated, Galgotia Publications, New Delhi.
• The joints at parapet walls etc. should be properly sealed [9] Galan. A., Combined Ultrasonic Methods of Concrete
and treatment needs to be monolithic. Testing, Elsevir, Amsterdam, 1990.
[10] Henzel J. & Freitag W., The determination of compressive
• Proper golas should be prepared all over the roof edges strength of concrete in a structure with the aid of test cores of
and proper khurras should also be made. small diameter, Beton 1969.
[11] Holland, R. Appraisal & Repair of Reinforced Concrete,
3. CONCLUSIONS Thomas Telford 1997.
[12] IS: 13311, Part-1/1992, Non - destructive Testing of Concrete -
The appraisal and distress diagnosis is very important for Methods of Tests - Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity.
assessment of health of the structure for suggesting
[13] IS: 13311, Part-2/1992, Non - destructive Testing of Concrete -
appropriate remedial measures. Various NDT methods to Methods of Tests - Rebound Hammer.
assess the strength/quality of the concrete structures have been
[14] Malhotra, V.M. and Carino, N.J. Hand Book on Non-
discussed in the paper. It is important to note that almost all Destructive Testing of Concrete, Second Edition, CRC Press
the NDT methods indirectly estimate the concrete strength and LLC, 2004, 386pp.

Journal of Basic and Applied Engineering Research

Print ISSN: 2350-0077; Online ISSN: 2350-0255; Volume 1, Number 10; October, 2014