General Questions:

 What is FT-IR spectroscopy?

Answer :
Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy, also known as FTIR Analysis or FTIR
Spectroscopy, is an analytical technique used to identify organic, polymeric, and, in
some cases, inorganic materials. The FTIR analysis method uses infrared light to scan
test samples and observe chemical properties.

 What does FT-IR stand for?

Answer : ( FT-IR stand for Fourier) Transform Infrared Spectroscopy .

What is the principle of FT-IR spectroscopy?

FTIR, or Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy, is a technique used to obtain the infrared spectrum of
absorption or emission of a solid, liquid, or gas. The principle of FTIR is based on the interaction of
infrared radiation with molecular vibrations.

When infrared light passes through a sample, certain wavelengths of the light are absorbed by the
molecules in the sample. This absorption occurs because the energy of the infrared light matches the
energy required to excite specific molecular vibrations, such as stretching or bending of chemical bonds.

Each type of bond and molecular structure has a unique vibrational frequency, which corresponds to
specific wavelengths of infrared light. As a result, when a sample is exposed to infrared radiation, it will
absorb light at characteristic wavelengths, creating a spectrum that acts like a molecular fingerprint.

 What is the purpose of FT-IR analysis?

The purpose of FT-IR (Fourier Transform Infrared) analysis is to identify and
characterize unknown materials by analyzing their chemical composition based on the
vibrational frequencies of their molecular bonds, allowing researchers to determine the
presence of specific functional groups within a molecule and thus identify the compound
itself, as well as potentially quantify its concentration within a sample; essentially, it
provides detailed information about the molecular structure of a substance by
measuring how much infrared radiation it absorbs at different wavelengths.

 What type of samples can be analyzed using FT-IR?

Types of Samples for FTIR Analysis
FTIR spectroscopy can analyze a wide range of sample types, including solids, liquids,
and gases.

1. Solid Samples:

 Pellets: Solid samples can be ground with potassium bromide (KBr) and
pressed into a thin pellet. This method is commonly used for inorganic
compounds.
 Thin Films: Solids can be dissolved in a suitable solvent and cast onto an
infrared-transparent substrate to form a thin film. Polymers and organic materials
are often analyzed this way.
 Powders: Fine powders can be analyzed using an attenuated total reflectance
(ATR) accessory, which allows direct measurement without extensive
preparation.
 Fibers and Fabrics: These materials can be examined using ATR or by
creating thin sections that can be analyzed using transmission FTIR.

2. Liquid Samples:

 Neat Liquids: Pure liquids can be placed directly in the path of the infrared
beam using liquid cells with appropriate window materials (e.g., NaCl or KBr
windows).
 Solutions: Liquids can be analyzed in solution form. The solvent should be
chosen such that it does not interfere with the IR spectrum of the analyte.
 Droplet on ATR: A small droplet of the liquid sample can be placed on the
ATR crystal for direct analysis.

3. Gas Samples:
 Gas Cells: Gases are typically analyzed using gas cells with long path lengths
to increase sensitivity. The cell windows must be transparent to infrared light,
commonly made from materials like CaF2 or KBr.

Instrumentation Questions:
 What are the main components of an FT-IR spectrometer?
The Components of FTIR Spectrometers

A common FTIR spectrometer consists of a source, interferometer, sample

compartment, detector, amplifier.

SOURCE of radiation in FT-IR: Generally we can use GLOBAR SOURCE,

NERNST GLOWER .These two sources are useful in the mid IR region which is from
4000 and 400cm-1

TUNSTEN-HALOGEN LAMP for near IR region

For far IR region use high pressure MERCURY VAPOUR LAMP .So these are the
sources can use in order to produce IR radiation.

INTERFEROMETER: In FT-IR spectroscopy MICHELSON interferometer is

used.

Michelson interferometer is consists of three parts

1.A Beam splitter at 45 angle that divides radiations Into two beams .

2. Stationary/ fixed mirror

3. Moving mirror

SAMPLE HOLDER SAMPLE HOLDER : Is typically made up of salts Which

is not absorbed IR radiation . such as KBR(Potassium bromide) , NaCl (Sodium
chloride) , CaF2(Calcium fluoride),ZnSe (zinc selenide)

DETECTORs : There are three types of detectors used in FT-IR instrument .

1.Thermocouples 2.Pyroelectric detector 3. Photoelectric detector but in this we use

thermocouples.

 How does the interferometer work in FT-IR?

A typical Michelson interferometer consists of two perpendicular mirrors and

a beamsplitter. One of the mirror is a stationary mirror and another one is a
movable mirror. The beamsplitter is designed to transmit half of the light and
reflect half of the light. Subsequently, the transmitted light and the reflected
light strike the stationary mirror and the movable mirror, respectively. When
reflected back by the mirrors, two beams of light recombine with each other
at the beamsplitter.

If the distances travelled by two beams are the same which means the
distances between two mirrors and the beamsplitter are the same, the
situation is defined as zero path difference (ZPD). But imagine if the movable
mirror moves away from the beamsplitter, the light beam which strikes the
movable mirror will travel a longer distance than the light beam which
strikes the stationary mirror. The distance which the movable mirror is away
from the ZPD is defined as the mirror displacement and is represented by ∆.
It is obvious that the extra distance travelled by the light which strikes the
movable mirror is 2∆. The extra distance is defined as the optical path
difference (OPD) and is represented by delta. Therefore,

δ=2Δ

It is well established that when OPD is the multiples of the wavelength,

constructive interference occurs because crests overlap with crests, troughs
with troughs. As a result, a maximum intensity signal is observed by the
detector. This situation can be described by the following equation:

δ=nλ

with n = 0,1,2,3...

In contrast, when OPD is the half wavelength or half wavelength add

multiples of wavelength, destructive interference occurs because crests
overlap with troughs. Consequently, a minimum intensity signal is observed
by the detector. This situation can be described by the following equation:

1
δ=(n+ 2 ) λ

with n = 0,1,2,3...

 What is a Michelson interferometer, and why is it used in FT-IR?

A Michelson interferometer is an instrument in which the phenomena of interference is

used to make precise measurements of wavelengths refractive index and distance . An
FTIR spectrometer uses a Michelson interferometer . it is used to split one beam of light
into two so that the paths of the two beams are different results in constructive and
destructive interference based on the relative positions of a stationary and moving
mirror.

 What is the role of the beam splitter in FT-IR?

A Beam splitter is present in interferometer at 45 angle that divides radiations Into two
beams .
 1. Division of IR Radiation: The beam splitter divides the IR radiation from the source
into two perpendicular beams.

2. Creation of Interference Pattern: The beam splitter recombines the two beams,
creating an interference pattern that is measured by the detector.

How is an infrared source different from a visible light source?

 Wavelength: Infrared radiation has a higher wavelength than visible light.

 Perception: Humans cannot see infrared light.
 Heat generation: Infrared sources often produce less heat compared to visible light
sources.
 ENERGY: visible light has higher energy than infrared light
Examples:
 Visible light source: an visible light can be obtained by incandescent lamp with
tungsten filament
 Infrared light source: an IR radiations can be obtained by Nernst glower, globar etc

What is an interferogram, and why is it important in FT-IR?

An interferogram is a graphical representation of the interference pattern produced by
the superposition of two or more waves. In the context of spectroscopy, an
interferogram is typically generated by an interferometer, which splits a beam of light
into two or more paths and then recombines them on a beam splitter to produce an
interference pattern.
 It is used When the IR radiation is split into two beams and then recombined, an
interference pattern is produced. The interferogram represents this interference
pattern.
 The interferogram is a time-domain signal, which represents the interference
pattern as a function of time.
 It is used for high precision measurement

TECHNICAL QUESTION
How does FT-IR detect functional groups in a molecule?

ANSWER

Step 1: Infrared Radiation Interaction

When IR radiation interacts with a molecule, it causes the

molecule's bonds to vibrate. These vibrations occur at specific
frequencies, which are characteristic of the bond type and
surrounding molecular environment.

Step 2: Bond Vibrations

Different functional groups in a molecule have distinct bond

vibrations, which correspond to specific wavenumber ranges. For
example:

- C-H stretching vibrations occur around 3000-2800 cm−1

- C=O stretching vibrations occur around 1800-1600 cm−1

- N-H bending vibrations occur around 1600-1500 cm−1

Step 3: Absorption of IR Radiation

When the IR radiation interacts with the molecule, the bonds

absorb radiation at their characteristic frequencies. This
absorption causes a decrease in the transmitted radiation
intensity.

Step 4: Detection and Analysis

The FT-IR spectrometer detects the absorbed radiation and plots

it against the wavenumber. The resulting spectrum shows peaks
corresponding to the absorbed radiation, which can be assigned
to specific functional groups.
Step 5: Functional Group Identification

By analyzing the peaks in the FT-IR spectrum, researchers can

identify the functional groups present in the molecule. This
information provides valuable insights into the molecule's
structure, properties, and potential applications.

What is a baseline correction, and why is it performed in FT-IR?

n FT-IR (Fourier Transform InfraRed) spectroscopy, a baseline

correction is a mathematical adjustment made to the spectral
data to remove any unwanted background signals or offsets. This
correction is essential to ensure accurate and reliable spectral
interpretation.

Why is baseline correction performed in FT-IR?

Baseline correction is necessary for several reasons:

1. Instrumental background: FT-IR instruments can introduce

background signals due to various instrumental factors, such as
detector noise or optical components.

2. Sample background: Samples can also contribute to

background signals, for example, due to scattering or absorption
by the sample matrix.

3. Atmospheric interference: Water vapor and carbon dioxide in

the atmosphere can absorb IR radiation, leading to unwanted
peaks in the spectrum.

This correction is important because it ensures that the peaks in

the spectrum accurately reflect the actual absorbance of the
sample. Without baseline correction, you might misinterpret the
data, leading to incorrect conclusions about the sample's
composition. By performing this correction, you can enhance the
clarity of the spectrum and make it easier to identify the specific
functional groups and bonds present in the sample.

A typical FT-IR (Fourier Transform InfraRed) spectrum represents a plot of the

infrared radiation absorbed or transmitted by a sample as a function of
wavenumber (typically expressed in cm-1). The spectrum provides a molecular
fingerprint of the sample, showing the characteristic absorption peaks or bands
corresponding to specific molecular vibrations.

The x-axis of the spectrum represents the wavenumber (cm-1), while the y-axis
represents the absorbance or transmittance. The resulting spectrum can be
interpreted to:

1. Identify functional groups and molecular structures c=o,N-H,

2. Determine the presence of specific chemical bonds

3. Analyze the molecular composition of a sample

4. Detect impurities or contaminants

5. Study chemical reactions and interactions.

Application Questions 

What types of functional groups can be identified using FT-IR?

T-IR (Fourier Transform InfraRed) spectroscopy can identify a
wide range of functional groups, including:

1. Hydroxyl (-OH): Alcohols, phenols, and carboxylic acids

2. Carbonyl (C=O): Aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, and

esters

3. Amine (-NH2): Primary and secondary amines

4. Methyl (CH3) and Methylene (CH2): Alkanes and alkyl groups

5. Alkene (C=C) and Alkyne (C≡C): Unsaturated hydrocarbons

6. Ester (-COO-): Esters and lactones

7. Ether (-O-): Ethers and epoxides

8. Nitro (-NO2): Nitro compounds

9. Sulfur-containing groups: Thiols, sulfides, and sulfones

10. Phosphorus-containing groups: Phosphines, phosphates, and

phosphonates

How can FT-IR be used in identifying unknown compounds?

1. Sample preparation: Prepare the unknown compound for FT-

IR analysis, typically by creating a thin film or pellet.

2. Data collection: Collect the FT-IR spectrum of the unknown

compound using an FT-IR spectrometer.

3. Spectral analysis: Analyze the FT-IR spectrum to identify

characteristic absorption peaks or bands.
4. Database searching: Compare the FT-IR spectrum to reference
spectra or databases, such as the Sadtler or Aldrich libraries.

5. Matching and identification: Match the FT-IR spectrum to a

known compound, and verify the identification using other
analytical techniques, such as mass spectrometry or nuclear
magnetic resonance spectroscopy.

What industries commonly use FT-IR spectroscopy? give the ans

precisely

FT-IR spectroscopy is commonly used in the following

industries:

1. Pharmaceuticals

2. Biotechnology

3. Chemicals

4. Polymers

5. Food and Beverage

6. Forensic Science

7. Environmental Monitoring

8. Petrochemicals
 9. Cosmetics

10. Materials Science

How is FT-IR applied in organic chemistry?

FT-IR spectroscopy is applied in organic chemistry for:

1. Functional group identification: Identifying specific functional

groups, such as alcohols, amines, and carbonyls.

2. Structural elucidation: Determining the molecular structure of

unknown compounds.

3. Reaction monitoring: Monitoring chemical reactions and

identifying reaction products.

4. Purity analysis: Verifying the purity of organic compounds.

5. Characterization of polymers: Analyzing the molecular

structure and composition of polymers.

 What is the importance of FT-IR in environmental analysis?

1. Pollutant identification

2. Water and air quality monitoring

3. Soil analysis

4. Waste characterization

5. Biodegradation monitoring
Q1. WHAT IS THE ADVANTAGGE OF USING FOURIER TRANSFORM IN FT-IR?
The advantage of using Fourier transform in FTIR spectroscopy are:

1) HIGHER SENSITIVITY: The Fourier transform enhances the sensitivity of the measurements,
allowing for the detection of weaker signals and smaller amount of sample material.
2) FASTER SCANNING: It can collect data quickly because it captures all wavelengths
simultaneously rather than one at a time.
3) IMPROVE SPECTRAL RESOLUTION: The Fourier transform enables the calculation of high
spectral resolution, allowing for better separation of closely spaced spectral peaks.
4) SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO: The use of Fourier transform technique improve the signal-to-noise
ratio, resulting in clearer and more reliable spectra.
5) INCREASED ACCURACY: Through Fourier transform we get more precise and reliable spectral
data.

Q2. HOW DOES FT-IR COMPARE WITH DISPERSIVE IR SPECTROSCOPY?

FT-IR SPECTROSCOPY DISPERSIVE IR SPECTROSCOPY

1 In order to measure an IR spectrum, FTIR In order to measure an IR spectrum, the

takes only a few seconds. dispersion spectrometer takes several minutes.

2 It gives higher sensitivity and precision. It gives lesser sensitivity.

3 In FT-IR only the mirror moves during the There are many moving parts, resulting in
experiment. mechanical slippage.

4 In FT-IR spectroscopy we use Michelson In dispersive IR spectroscopy we use

interferometer. monochromator.

5 Use of laser provides high frequency Calibration against refrence spectra is required
accuracy. to measure frequency.

6 Faster than dispersive IR spectroscopy. Slower than FT-IR spectroscopy.

Q3. WHAT ARE THE LIMITATIONS OF FT-IR SPECTROSCOPY?

LIMITATIONS OF FTIR:

 It cannot be used to detect all the vibration modes in a molecule.

 It is not possible to know molecular weight of substance
  It is not possible to know whether it is pure compound or a mixture of compound.
 Interferogram are difficult to interpret without first performing a Fourier transform to produce a
spectrum.
 Accuracy of FT-IR remains true if there is no change in atmospheric conditions throughout the
experiment.
Q4. WHAT FACTORS AFFECT THE ACCURACY OF FT-IR SPECTRA?
FACTORS AFFECT ACCURACY OF FT-IR SPECTRA:
The accuracy of FT-IR spectra is affected by several factors, including:
1) INSTRUMENT QUALITY: The quality and calibration of the FT-IR instrument is a
significant factor in the accuracy of the analysis. Any drift in the instrument’s
parameters can affect the accuracy of the spectral data.
2) SAMPLE PREPARATION: The way a sample is prepared can significantly influence the
results. Inhomogeneities, contaminants, or improper thickness can lead to inaccurate
spectra.
3) RESOLUTION: The resolution of the FT-IR spectrometer must must be appropriately set
for the analysis being conducted. Too low a resolution may lead to loss of detail, while
too high a resolution can increase noise.
4) ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITION: Factors such as temperature, humidity, and
atmospheric pressure can impact the FT-IR measurements. For Example, water vapor in
the environment can interfere with the infrared signals.
5) DETECTOR SENSITIVITY: The sensitivity and response of the detector used in the FTIR
system can also affect the accuracy. A less sensitive detector may not pickup weak
signals effectively.

Q5. HOW CAN FT-IR BE USED IN QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS?

FT-IR can be used in quantitative analysis through the following methods:

1. Calibration Curves: A series of standard solutions with known concentrations of the analyte can be
prepared. The FT-IR spectra of these standards are collected, and the absorbance (or transmittance) at
specific wavelengths is plotted against concentration to create a calibration curve. The concentration of
unknown samples can then be determined by measuring their absorbance and comparing it to the
calibration curve.

2. Beer-Lambert Law: The quantitative analysis can be based on the Beer-Lambert law, which states that
absorbance is directly proportional to concentration. The equation A = εlc is used, where A is
absorbance, ɛ is the molar absorptivity, I is the path length, and c is the concentration. By knowing ε and
I, the concentration of an unknown sample can be calculated from its measured absorbance.

3. Peak Area or Height Measurement: In some cases, the area under the absorption peak or the height
of the peak can be used to quantify the amount of analyte present. This method is particularly useful for
complex mixtures where multiple components are present.
4. Multivariate Calibration: For complex samples, multivariate techniques such as Principal Component
Analysis (PCA) or Partial Least Squares (PLS) can be employed. These methods analyze the spectral data
from multiple wavelengths simultaneously to improve the accuracy of concentration predictions.

5. Internal Standards: The use of an internal standard, a compound that is added in a known amount to
the sample, can help improve the accuracy and precision of the quantitative analysis by compensating
for variations in sample preparation or instrument response.

By employing these methods, FT-IR can effectively be used for quantitative analysis in various fields,
including pharmaceuticals, environmental monitoring and food quality control.

Q6. How does the fourier transform convert an innterferogram into an IR

spectrum?

The Fourier transform is a mathematical technique that converts a signal from its original domain (often
time or space) into the frequency domain. The method by which Fourier transform convert an
interferogram into an infrared (IR) spectrum is;

1. Interferogram: When you perform an IR spectroscopy experiment, the sample is exposed to infrared
light. The light is split into two beams, and after reflecting off the sample and a mirror, the beams are
recombined. This creates an interferogram, which is essentially a time-domain signal representing the
intensity of light as a function of the path difference between the two beams.

2. Time Domain to Frequency Domain: The interferogram contains information about the different
frequencies (or wavelengths) of light absorbed by the sample. To extract this information, apply the
Fourier transform to the interferogram. The Fourier transform decomposes the time-domain signal into
its constituent frequencies.

3. Spectrum Generation: The result of the Fourier transform is a spectrum that displays the intensity of
light absorbed by the sample as a function of frequency (or wavelength). Peaks in this spectrum
correspond to specific molecular vibrations and transitions in the sample, allowing for the identification
of different chemical species.

 The Fourier transform takes the raw interferogram data, which is a time-domain representation, and
converts it into a frequency-domain representation, resulting in an IR spectrum that reveals the
chemical composition of the sample.

Q7. WHAT ARE THE ADVANTAGES OF USING INTERFEROMETRY IN FT-IR

COMPARED TO DISPERSIVE SPECTROSCOPY?
The advantages of using interferometry in FT-IR spectroscopy over dispersive spectroscopy are:

1. Speed: FT-IR can acquire the entire spectrum simultaneously rather than scanning through each
wavelength one at a time as in dispersive spectroscopy. This leads to much faster data
collection.
2. Sensitivity: FT-IR is generally more sensitive than dispersive methods. It can detect lower
concentrations of analytes because it collects more data in a single measurement.
3. Resolution: FT-IR can achieve higher spectral resolution due to the use of a Michelson
interferometer, which allows for precise control over the path length difference between the
two beams of light.
4. Signal-to-Noise Ratio: The technique benefits from a higher signal-to-noise ratio due to the co-
addition of multiple scans, which averages out noise and enhances the quality of the spectrum.
5. No Moving Parts: the interferometer is designed with fewer moving parts compared to
dispersive system, leading to potentially lower maintenance and greater reliability.