Course Name: Solar Energy Engineering

Course Code: UME 853

Topic : Photovoltaic cell (Solar cell)

by
Dr. Madhup Kumar Mittal
Associate Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Thapar Institute of Engineering & Technology
Photovoltaic cell – An Introduction
Light
• A photovoltaic cell (PV cell) can be defined as an electrical device
(Radiant Energy)
that converts light energy (radiant energy) into electrical energy
through the photovoltaic effect.
Material-1 Material-2
• The photovoltaic effect is a phenomenon in which two dissimilar
materials in close contact produce an electrical voltage and current
when junction of dissimilar materials is exposed to light or other
radiant energy. Current

• The photovoltaic effect is used for direct transformation of solar (Solar Radiation Energy)
radiation energy into electrical energy by using photovoltaic cells.
Photovoltaic cell is a semiconductor device made from two different
P-type N-type
types of semiconductors, i.e., P-type and N-type semiconductors Semiconductor semiconductor

• As the Photovoltaic cells are used for direct transformation of solar

radiation energy into electrical energy, they are also called solar cells.
Current
N-type Semiconductors
N-type Semiconductor: N-type semiconductor is made by doping pure semiconductor material (quadrivalent
material e.g. silicon or germanium) with pentavalent material such as Phosphorous (P) or Arsenic (As). In N-
type semiconductor, electrons are the majority charge carriers.

Atomic structure of Si Lattice structure of pure Si Lattice structure of pure Si

(atomic number = 14) below room temperature at room temperature

Free electron
P (freely moving negatively
charged particle)

Atomic structure of P
Lattice structure of pure Si (atomic number = 15) Lattice structure of Si with doped P
P-type Semiconductors

P-type Semiconductor: P-type semiconductor is made by doping pure semiconductor material (e.g. silicon or
germanium) with trivalent material such as Boron. In P-type semiconductor, holes are the majority charge carriers.

Hole
(freely moving positively
charged particle)

Lattice structure of pure Si Atomic structure of Boron Lattice structure of Si with doped B
(atomic number = 5)
 P-type Semiconductors
Flow of Holes in P-type Semiconductor
Representation of P-type and N-type Semiconductors

P-type N-type

Holes Free electrons

Working Principle of Solar Cell

• Solar cell is, in fact, a p-n junction diode formed by joining P-type N-type
p-type and n-type semiconductors.

Holes Free electrons

• When these two types of semiconductor materials are joined

together, some electrons from ‘n’ side diffuse to the ‘p’ region P-type Diffusion N-type
and fill the holes available there.

• Likewise some holes from the ‘p’ side diffuse to the ‘n’ region
and combine with the free electrons available there.
Working Principle of Solar Cell
• Diffusion of mobile charges and electron-hole combination
result in the formation of a depletion region (depletion P-type Diffusion N-type
layer) wherein there are no mobile charges, i.e., there are no
free electrons and holes.
• Due to the outflow of electrons from n-side and inflow of
holes into n-side, the n-side boundary of depletion layer
becomes slightly positively charged. Likewise p-side
boundary of depletion layer becomes slightly negatively Depletion Layer
P-type N-type
charged. (P-N Junction)
- +
• Thus an electric field is formed across the boundaries of - +
- +
-- +
depletion layer, which provides a force opposing the charge - +
diffusion. When the electric field becomes sufficiently Electric field
strong, the further diffusion of electrons and holes stops and
the depletion layer reaches the equilibrium.
 Loa
Working Principle of Solar Cell
• When the light strikes the p-n junction (depletion layer), the
photon energy of light is sufficient to generate electron-hole Sun rays
pairs in the depletion region. + ve polarity -ve polarity
N-type -----
++++ P-type
• The electric field in the depletion region drives the electrons and + - + --
+ - + -
holes out of the depletion region. The holes (+ve charge carriers) + - + --
-- +
move along the direction of electric field and electrons (-ve + - +
- - - --
-
+ +++
charge carriers) move opposite to the direction of electric field. Electric field

• Thus the concentration of electrons in the ‘n’ region becomes so

high that this side acquires ‘-ve polarity’. Likewise ‘p’ region
acquires ‘+ve polarity’.

• Thus, a p-n junction diode behave like a small battery cell when

Electric
its p-n junction is exposed to light. A voltage is set up across the

cell
p-side and n-side region, which is known as photo voltage.
Working Principle of Solar Cell

• On connecting any electric load between ‘p’ and ‘n’ end surfaces, the electrons will
start flowing through the load.

• In this way, a solar cell continuously gives direct current so long as the depletion
layer receives the light.

Sun rays
+ ve polarity -ve polarity
P-type N-type
++++ -----
+ - + --
+ - + -
- +
+ - + -- Electric
- Load
+ - + - cell
+ +++ - - - --
Electron flow

Current
Construction of Solar cell
• A solar cell consists of a p-n junction diode formed by
joining p-type and n-type semiconductors. Front electrical contacts
Anti-reflection coating
• The upper layer (top layer) of p-n junction diode is made
N-type semiconductor
extremely thin so that incident radiant energy may easily P-N Junction (Depletion layer)
reach the p-n junction. Overall typical thickness of solar
P-type semiconductor
cells is in range of 200 to 500 μm.
Back electrical contact
• The semiconductor materials like silicon (Si), germanium
(Ge) and gallium arsenide (GaAs) are used for making
the solar cells. Mostly silicon is used for making the solar
cells.
• The main components of solar cell are as follows:
1. Top layer of solar cell 4. Front electrical contacts
2. Bottom layer of solar cell 5. Back electrical contact
3. Anti-Reflection Coating 6. Fingers
Construction of Solar cell
1. Top layer of solar cell
• The top layer of solar cell consists of N-type semiconductor. N-type semiconductor is made by
doping pure semiconductor with Phosphorous or Arsenic. The most common N-type semiconductor
for solar cell construction is silicon doped with phosphorous (Also known as N-type silicon).
• N-type silicon has a higher surface quality than P-type silicon so it is placed at the top of the cell. As
the N-type silicon has −ve polarity, it means the top of the solar cell is the negative terminal.
• The thickness of top layer is ultra-thin, i.e., less than 1 μm, so that incident light photons can easily
reach the p-n junction to generate mobile charge carriers.

Front electrical contacts

Anti-reflection coating

N-type semiconductor
(−)
P-N Junction (Depletion layer)

P-type semiconductor

(+)
Back electrical contact
Construction of Solar cell
2. Bottom layer of solar cell: The bottom layer of solar cell consists of P-type silicon. The most common
P-type semiconductor for solar cell construction is silicon doped with boron (Also known as P-type silicon).

3. Anti-Reflection Coating (ARC): Silicon has a high surface reflection of over 30%. Therefore top
surface of N-type silicon is coated with thin layer of anti-reflection coating to reduce reflection of incident
light. Anti-reflection coating consists of a thin layer of dielectric material such as silicon oxide, titanium
oxide, silicon nitride and boron nitride.

Front electrical contacts

Anti-reflection coating

N-type semiconductor
P-N Junction (Depletion layer)

P-type semiconductor

Back electrical contact

Construction of Solar cell
4. Front electrical contacts
• Metallic thin strips are attached on the top surface of the cell. These metallic strips are also referred as busbars.
These busbars are used as front electrical contacts of cell to carry the electric current out to an external load.
• In other words, front electrical contacts are used as one of the output terminal of cell.
• Usually, solar cell busbars are made of a silver paste or similar high conductivity materials.
• Typically 3-5 basbars are used in a single cell.
5. Back electrical contact
• A thin metallic sheet is attached on the beneath surface of the P-type semiconductor and it is connected with
the front electrical contacts (busbars) to complete the electric circuit for the flow of an electric current.

Front electrical contacts

Front electrical contacts
Anti-reflection coating
Busbars e- e- - -
N-type semiconductor e e
e- -
P-N Junction (Depletion layer) e- ee- e-
e-
P-type semiconductor N-type semiconductor
P-N Junction (Depletion layer)
Back electrical contact P-type semiconductor
Back electrical contact
Construction of Solar cell
6. Fingers
• Perpendicular to the busbars are the super-thin metallic strips which are connected by the busbar. These
super-thin metallic strips are called fingers.
• Fingers are used to collect the generated charges (i.e., current) from the top surface of N-type
semiconductor and deliver it to the busbars.
• Typical width of fingers is 20 to 200 μm and they are placed 1-5 mm apart.

Front electrical contacts

busbars

busbars
Fingers
fingers

N-type semiconductor

P-type semiconductor
Back electrical contact
Solar panel and its construction
• The voltage generated by a single cell is very small. Hence, • In order to generate high current,
in order to generate high voltage several solar cells are several such solar panels are then
connected in series combination. This series combination of connected in parallel combination.
solar cells is called solar panel or solar module. 12V, 5A
- +
• The current generated by a single solar cell depends on
the size of the front cell area exposed to sunlight. 12V, 5A
- +
• Thus the voltage and current generated by solar panel
depends on the number of cells connected in series and 12V, 5A
- + +
size of front area of each cell, exposed to sunlight. 12V, 15A
12V, 5A solar panel -
• A solar panel consist of following
FRAME
main components:
GLASS COVER
1. Solar cells 4. Backsheet POLYMER SHEET
SOLAR CELLS
2. Polymer sheet 5. Frame POLYMER SHEET
BACKSHEET
3. Glass cover 6. Junction Box
JUNCTION BOX
BACKSHEET
Solar panel and its construction
1. Solar cells
• A solar panel is made of solar photovoltaic cells
arranged in a series configuration that can contain 32,
36, 48, 60, 72 and 96 cells.
• A typical single silicon solar cell generates open
circuit voltage (Voc)of about 0.5 – 0.6 volts.
• The output current generated by solar cell depends on
the size of the front cell area exposed to sunlight and the
Voc = 0.5 − 0.6 V
intensity of sunlight incident on it. In general, a typical
commercially available silicon cell produces a current
between 28 and 35 milliamps per square centimetre.
• A solar panel comprising 32 cells typically can produce
14.72 volts output (each cell producing about 0.46 volt
V = 0.46 V
of electricity). Thus a solar panel of 32 cells is capable
of charging a 12 V DC battery.
Solar panel and its construction
2. Polymer sheet
• A very thin and highly transparent sheet, fabricated from specially
designed polymer known as ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA), is used
to encapsulate the cells and hold them in proper position during
assembling and connecting in series combination.
• The EVA material is extremely durable and tolerant of extreme
BACKSHEET
temperature and humidity, hence it plays an important role in the
long term performance of cells by preventing the entry of moisture
and dirt into the cells.
FRAME
• The lamination on either side of the PV cells provides some shock GLASS COVER

absorption and helps protect the cells and interconnecting wires POLYMER SHEET

from vibrations and sudden impact from hail stones and other SOLAR CELLS
POLYMER SHEET
objects.
BACKSHEET
• A high quality EVA film provides long life to panel by preventing JUNCTION BOX
panel failure due to water ingress during rainy season.
Solar panel and its construction
3. Glass cover
• The glass cover protects the PV cells from the weather and impact
from hail or airborne dust particles.
• The glass used for glass cover is typically a high strength
toughened/tempered glass which is 3 to 4 mm thick and is designed
to resist mechanical loads and extreme temperature changes. The
IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission) standard impact BACKSHEET

test requires solar panels to withstand an impact of hail stones of 1

inch (25 mm) diameter traveling up to 60 mph (27 m/s).
FRAME
• In the event of an accident or severe impact tempered glass is also
GLASS COVER
much safer than standard glass as it shatters into tiny fragments
POLYMER SHEET
rather than sharp jagged sections.
SOLAR CELLS
• To improve the efficiency and performance of solar cell, most of the POLYMER SHEET
manufacturers use high transmittance glass which has a very low BACKSHEET
iron oxide content. Low-iron glass is a type of high-clarity glass that JUNCTION BOX
is made from silica with very low amounts of ferric oxide.
Solar panel and its construction
4. Backsheet
• The backsheet is the rear most layer of common solar panels
which acts as a moisture barrier and final external skin to
provide both mechanical protection and electrical insulation.

• The backsheet material is made of various polymers or plastics

BACKSHEET
including PP (Polypropylene), PET (Polyethylene Terephthalate)
and PVF (Polyvinyl Fluoride) which offer different levels of
protection, thermal stability and long term UV resistance. FRAME

GLASS COVER
• The backsheet layer is typically white in color but is also POLYMER SHEET

available as clear or black depending on the manufacturer and SOLAR CELLS

module. POLYMER SHEET

BACKSHEET

JUNCTION BOX
Solar panel and its construction
5. Frame
• The aluminium frame plays a critical role by both protecting the edge of the laminate section housing the cells
and providing a solid structure to mount the solar panel in position.
• The extruded aluminium sections are designed to be extremely lightweight, stiff and able to withstand extreme
stress and loading from high wind and external forces.
• The aluminium frame can be silver or anodised black and depending on the panel manufacturer the corner
sections can either be screwed, pressed or clamped together providing different levels of strength and stiffness.
6. Junction Box
• The junction box is a small weather proof enclosure located on the rear side of the panel.
• It is needed to securely attach the cables required to interconnect the panels.

FRAME

GLASS COVER
POLYMER SHEET
SOLAR CELLS
POLYMER SHEET
BACKSHEET

BACKSHEET JUNCTION BOX

Manufacturing & production process of solar cell

The majority of solar cells (or PV cells) are made

by using silicon crystalline wafers. The wafers
can be one of two main types, monocrystalline
or multicrystalline (polycrystalline).
Monocrystalline solid multicrystalline solid
Basic steps to produce multicrystalline PV cells
1. Silica sand (95% SiO2) is purified by combining Carbon (C) and
Silica (SiO2) in an electric arc furnace. This process occurs at very Silica sand
high temperatures. As a result CO2 is formed and results in 99% (95% SiO2)
pure silicon which is called metallurgical grade (MG) silicon.

2. The MG silicon contains about 1% impurities and is fairly expensive. However, even
this grade of silicon (99% pure) is not suitable for making solar cells. The MG
silicon has to be further refined using a chemical purification process (Siemens
process) to make almost 100% pure silicon which is called semiconductor grade
(SeG) silicon. In this process MG-Si is treated with HCl to get SeG-Si. At this
stage 100% pure silicon has multicrystalline structure. 100% pure multicrystalline silicon
Manufacturing & production process of solar cell
3. The 100% pure multicrystalline silicon is doped with boron to make P-type multicrystalline silicon.

4. The doped multicrystalline silicon is cut into wafers through a process that involves casting, sawing, and slicing.
(a) Casting: Molten silicon is cast into large ingots in crucibles
(b) Sawing: The ingots are sawn into smaller blocks
(c) Slicing: The smaller blocks are sliced into wafers using a diamond wire-cut saw.

multicrystalline silicon ingot

multicrystalline wafers Grain shape of multicrystalline wafer

Small blocks of
multicrystalline silicon
Manufacturing & production process of solar cell
5. Similarly N-type multicrystalline silicon is produced by doping N-type
silicon with phosphorous. Then the P-type multicrystalline P-type

wafers are coated with a thin layer of N-type silicon to form the
PN-junction
PN-junction (depletion zone). (depletion zone)

busbars busbars
6. Flat thin wire busbars are printed onto the front surface via
a technology called screen printing. These wire busbars
are used as front electrical contacts of the cell.

7. Metallic fingers are screen printed on the front surface

of the cell. They are used to collect the generated charges fingers

from the top surface of the cell and deliver it to the busbars.

8. Finally a thin metallic sheet is attached on the

beneath surface of the P-type silicon, which is
used as back electrical contact of the cell.
Thin metallic sheet
Manufacturing & production process of solar cell
Basic steps to produce monocrystalline PV cells

1. Silica sand (95% SiO2) is purified by combining Carbon (C) and

Silica (SiO2) in an electric arc furnace. This process occurs at very Silica sand
high temperatures. As a result CO2 is formed and results in 99% (95% SiO2)
pure silicon which is called metallurgical grade (MG) silicon.

2. The MG silicon contains about 1% impurities and is fairly

expensive. However, even this grade of silicon (99% pure) is not
suitable for making solar cells. The MG silicon has to be further
refined using a chemical purification process (Siemens process)
to make almost 100% pure silicon which is called
semiconductor grade (SeG) silicon. In this process MG-Si is
treated with HCl to get SeG-Si. At this stage 100% pure silicon
has multicrystalline structure. 100% pure multicrystalline silicon
Manufacturing & production process of solar cell
3. The 100% pure multicrstalline silicon is doped with boron to make P-type multicrstalline silicon.

4. The doped multicrstalline silicon is converted into a single crystal solid ingot using
the Czochralski process. This process involves melting the polycrystalline silicon
under high pressure & temperature to slowly grow a single monocrystalline
crystal (P-type) known as an ingot. The single crystal silicon is obtained in the monocrystalline silicon ingot
form of a long cylindrical block of 6 to 15 cm in diameter. (P-type)

5. The ingot is diamond wire-cut into thin square monocrystalline

monocrystalline silicon wafer
wafers (P-type) of about 250 μm thick. (P-type)

6. The monocrystalline wafers (P-type) are coated N-type

with a thin layer of N-type silicon to form the P-type
PN-junction (depletion zone).
PN-junction
(depletion zone)
Manufacturing & production process of solar cell
busbars busbars
7. Flat thin wire busbars are printed onto the front surface
via a technology called screen printing. These wire
busbars are used as front electrical contacts of the cell.

8. Metallic fingers are screen printed on the front

surface of the cell. They are used to collect the fingers
generated charges from the top surface of the cell and
deliver it to the busbars.

9. Finally a thin metallic sheet is attached on the

beneath surface of the P-type silicon, which is
used as back electrical contact of the cell.
Thin metallic sheet
END