Chapter 6 Radiography The historic discovery of X-rays by W.C. Roentgen in 1895 and radioactivity by Becquerel in 1896 and their subsequent and logical application to the examination of material objects provided the starting point for the development and advancement of industrial radiography. This technique is one of the most widely used NDT methods for the detection of internal defects such as porosity and voids. With proper orientation, planar defects can also be detected with radiography. It is also suitable for detecting changes in material composition. thickness measurements, and locating unwanted or defective components hidden from view in an assembled part. The basic advantage of the use of ionising radiation in NDT arises from the fact that the objects which can be examined can range in size and shapes from microminiature electronic parts to mammoth missiles or power plant structures. Further, the method can be used on a variety of materials. No prior preparation of the specimen surface is necessary, unlike with other NDT methods. The main disadvantage of radiography is the hazards due to exposure to radiation for the operators, which can produce biological damage to body tissues. Consequently, strict control of human exposure to radiation is necessary. In this chapter, an overview is made on the basic principles of radiography and the various inspection techniques used for inspection of engineering components. 6.1 BASIC PRINCIPLE The purpose of radiography is to show the presence and nature of defects or other structural discontinuities in the interior of the materials under examination. The principle of radiographic examination is shown in Fig. 6.1. This technique makes use of the ability of short wavelength electromagnetic radiations, such as X-rays or gamma rays, to penetrate objects. In general, the shorter the wavelength, the greater is the penetrating power. The radiation that enters through the material, some being absorbed in the material itself and amount of absorption is a function of the density and thickness of the material. Should there be a cavity or discontinuity in the interior of the material, the beam of radiation will have less material to pass through than in solid material. Consequently, there will be a variation in the absorption of the rays by the material in the defective area. The variation, if measured or recorded on a film sensitive to X- or gamma radiation, produces an image that will indicate the presence of theRadiography 55 defect. The image is an X-ray shadow of the interior of the material. Thus, radiography is essentially based on the principle of shadow projection and such a shadow picture is called a radiograph. Variations in the darkness may be interpreted to provide information concerning the internal structure of the material. The basic setup essentially consists of a source of radiation, the object to be radiographed and a detector which is normally a sheet of photographic film. Source L Beam Recording medium (film) Defect image Fig. 6.1 Principle of radiographic examination 6.2 ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION SOURCES 6.2.1 X-Ray Source In the widely used conventional X-radiography, the source of radiation is an X-ray tube. The X-ray tube consists of a glass bulb under vacuum, enclosing a positive electrode or anode and a negative electrode or ‘cathode’. The cathode comprises a filament which, when brought to incandescence by a current of a few amperes emits electrons. Under the effect of electrical tension set up between the anode and cathode, these electrons from the cathode are attracted to the anode. This stream of electrons is concentrated in a beam by a cylinder or a focusing cup. The anti-cathode is a slip of metal with high melting point recessed into the anode at the place where it is struck by the beam of electrons. It is by impinging on the anti- cathode that fast moving electrons give rise to X-rays. Figure 6.2 shows the layout of a typical X-ray tube built by Collidge in 1913 which also used a heated filament to produce electrons. The development of electronics has led to the availability of constant potential Power —{ Rectifier ¥ supply — t High ¥ | voltage Target f- Tube voltage — Power —} Low +- Anode supply —J voltage Cathode | Electrons | |} a TUL X-rays Fig. 6.2 Schematic setup of X-ray tube and circuit56 Practical Nondestructive Testing units which give stable operating conditions. The replacement of the glass tubes by metal ceramic ones has led to an extended tube life. X-ray machines are characterised by the operating voltage and current which determine the penetrability and intensity of the radiation produced. Modern X-ray generators are available up to 450 kV and 15 mA. X-ray equipment with dual focal spot sizes and ultra-small focal spot and portable (~ 15 kg) equipment with an output voltage of 200 kV and 3 mA current are also available. Highly automated self propelled X-ray mini-crawlers which travel within pipelines are used to take radiographs of pipelines/welds from inside. ‘The area of the anti-cathode which is struck by the electron flux is called the “focal spot” or “TARGET”. It is essential that this area should be sufficiently large, in order to avoid local overheating which might damage the anti-cathode and to allow rapid dissipation of heat. The projection of the focal spot on a surface perpendicular to the axis of the beam of X-rays is termed as the “optical focus” or “focus”. This focus has to be as smalll as possible in order to achieve maximum sharpness in the radiographic image. The size of the focal spot is measured by the pinhole imaging technique. Here, a pinhole made in a suitably thick material with high density (lead) and having dimension one order less than the expected focal spot size is used. The pinhole is aligned parallel to the tube axis and perpendicular to X-ray beam and a radiographic image of the focal spot is obtained. By scanning this image using a microdensitometer, the focal spot size is obtained. 6.2.2, Production of X-Rays X-rays are produced when fast moving electrons are suddenly brought to rest by colliding with matter. Electrons may also lose energy by ionisation and excitation of the target atoms. However, these do not result in X-ray production. The accelerated electrons therefore lose their kinetic energy very rapidly at the surface of the metal plate, and energy conversion consequently occurs. The kinetic energy of the accelerated electrons can be converted in three different ways. (i) A very small fraction, ie. less than 1%, is converted into X-radiation. The conversion factor f can be estimated by an approximate empirical relation fall x 10°Zv where Zis the atomic number of the target and V the energy of electron in volts. For tungsten (Z= 74) target, the fraction of X-ray energy converted into X-rays at 120 kV is 0.98%. (ii) Approximately 99% of energy of electrons is converted into heat by increasing the thermal vibration of the atoms of the target, the temperature of which may consequently ise considerably. : Some of the electrons have sufficient energy to eject orbital electrons from the atoms of the target material which are ionised. The secondary electrons produced in this way may escape from the surface of the target and subsequently be recaptured by it producing further heat or secondary radiation. The two most important distinguishing features of a beam of X-rays are its INTENSITY and QUALITY. The first term of course refers 10 how much radiation i.e. quantity of radiation. The second term quality refers to the kind of radiation i.e. how penetrating the radiation is.Radiography 57 6.2.3 High Energy X-Ray Source Examination of thicker sections is carried out using high energy X-rays whose energy value is 1 MeV or more. Using high energy X-rays, possibilities of large distance to thickness ratios with correspondingly low geometrical distortion, short exposure times and high production rate can be achieved. Also, small focal spot size and reduced amount of high angle scattered X-rays reaching the film result in radiographs with good contrast, excellent penetrameter sensitivity and good resolution. A number of machines such as synchrotron, betatron, Van De Graff type electrostatic generators etc. are available of which, electron Linear Accelerator (Linac) is the most popular. 6.2.4 Gamma Ray Sources In contra-distinction to X-ray machines which emit a broad band of wavelengths gamma ray sources emit one or few discrete wavelengths. Radiography with gamma rays has the advantages of simplicity of the apparatus used, compactness of radiation source, and independence from outside power. This facilitates the examination of pipe, pressure vessels and other assemblies in which the access to interior is difficult. Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiation emitted from an unstable nucleus. Each isotope with unstable nucleus will have characteristic nuclear energy levels and intensities for the emitted radiation. The gamma ray energy levels remain constant for a particular isotope but the intensity decays with time as indicated by the half life. Where a variety of radioisotopes are produced in a nuclear reactor, only a select few have been utilised for the purposes of radiography. The rest of the other isotopes produced have been found to be unsuitable for a variety of reasons such as shorter half life, low intensity, high cost of production etc. The four most popular radiographic sources are: Cobalt 60 (Co-60), Iridium 192 (Ir-192), Caesium 137 (Cs-137) and Thulium 170 ( Th-170). Table 6.1 lists important characteristics of four isotopes most commonly used for radiography. Table 6.1 Characteristics of Gamma Ray Isotopes Characteristics Cobalt-60 tridium-192 Caesium-137 Thulium-170 Half life 5.27 yrs 74.3 days 30.1 yrs 129 days Energy (MeV) 133-117 03-06 0.66 0.08-0.05 RhmvCi 1.35 0.55 0.34 0.003 Typical source curies 10 30 8 30 size (dia. mm) 25 25 10 25 Steel thickness 200 mm 75 mm 40-100 mm 10 mm which can be radiographed All the above radioisotopes, except Caesium-137 are produced by (n, y) reaction Caesium- 137 is separated out from the fission products of the irradiated reactor fuel. Cobalt-60 and Iridium-192 are available in high specific activities and thus tiny sources of these radioisotopes giving intense radiation have found popular use. Specific activity is defined as activity in curies per gram of material.58 Practical Nondestructive Testing 6.2.5. Properties of X- and Gamma Rays X-rays and gamma rays are electromagnetic radiations similar to light waves except that their wavelength is much shorter. Some of their properties are given below. 1. They move in straight lines and at the speed of light. 2. They cannot be deflected by means of lens or prism although their path can be bent (diffracted) by a crystalline grid. 3. They pass through matter. The degree of penetration depends on the kind of matter and the energy of radiation. They are ionising radiation, that is to say they liberate electrons in matter. They can impair and destroy living cells. Many substances fluoresce they absorb X-radiation notable among them are calcium tungstate, zincsulphide. lead-barium sulphate and since cadmium compounds. ave 6.3 RADIATION ATTENUATION IN THE SPECIMEN X-ray or gamma radiation when pass through the specimen get attenuated and reduced in the intensity. The important modes of this absorption are: (i) Photoelectric effect, (ii) Rayleigh scattering, (iii) Compton scattering and (iv) Pair production. The radiation attenuation in the specimen of thickness x can be calculated by using the following expression: 13 [Be (6.1) where J = intensity of radiation emerging out of the specimen, /o = intensity of radiation when value of x= 0, j= linear absorption coefficient per mm thickness, B = build up factor. For practical purposes in radiographic testing, half value layers (HVL) or tenth value layers (TVL) as given in Table 6.2 can also be used for calculation of radiation attenuation. Table 6.2 HVL and TVL of Steel and Lead (Thickness in mm) Material Cobalt-60 Caesium-137 Tridium-192 Thulium-170 Lead = HVL 25 6.35 48 - TVL 412 213 16.25 - Steel HVL 21 17.0 15.5 18 TVL 70.0 570 510 6.4 EFFECT OF RADIATION ON FILM 6.4.1 Film Ionisation The radiation source required to produce a certain blackening on the film depends on the energy of radiation. Low energy radiation needs smaller dose to ensure a certain film density as compared with hard radiation. Various isotopic sources with different radiation energy will cause different film ionisation. For example, Cobalt-60 = 1 Iridium-192 = 2.35 Caesium-137 = 5.5 Thulium-170 = 4-4.5 6.4.2 Inherent Unsharpness The inherent unsharpness is the result of the interaction of high energy radiation withRadiography 59 emulsion on the film. During the interaction, the electrons are dislodged from the silver halide emulsion after gaining excess energy in the form of kinetic energy. The electrons with high kinetic energy tend to fly off causing ionisation in the adjacent silver halide grains. Thus the boundaries of the exposed areas will show an unsharpness of the image which is called inherent unsharpness or film unsharpness (U;). Inherent unsharpness value is about 0.1 mm without lead screen and it is 0.2 mm when a film is used with a lead screen. 6.5 RADIOGRAPHIC IMAGING The appearance of a distinguishable image on a radiograph is dependent on several factors, the most important of which is the difference in radiation intensity at various locations in the image plane. The difference in intensity, then must be a function of the abnormality within the part being inspected. 6.5.1 Geometrical Factors True focal spot for sources used in conventional radiography is not point source but rather is of a few millimetres in size. Due to the finite source size, the image projected on to. F - the film is enlarged leading to geometric unsharpness (Fig. 6.3). Geometric unsharpness (U,) is given by ft “Lo where F = focal spot size, ¢ = distance from the object to the receiving plane, Ly = distance from the source to the object. General rules as given below should be practised for optimum results U, (6.2) (i) Source or focal spot size should be as small as practicable. Ideal source will be a point source. (ii) Source to object distance should be _ "Radiographic image as large as possible. Fig. 6.3 Geometric unsharpness in radiographic * examination: (iii) The film should be in close contact with object. (iv) Source location should be such that radiation passes through the’ object thickness. 6.5.2 Radiographic Film Radiographic film is similar to photographic film in that there is a central carrier called the film base that is made of thin sheet of polyester type material. This is normally transparent and serves only as the carrier for the chemically reactive material that forms the emulsion. Emulsion consisting of a silver halide recording medium with a bider (gelatin) is applied to both sides of the base. Additionally, a protective layer may be applied over the emulsion. The silver halide is a granular material and its grain size has a significant effect on the exposure as well as the resolution ability of the film for defect detail. When radiation strikes60 Practical Nondestructive Testing the emulsion a change takes place in the emulsion. This change is referred to as the “latent image” (latent simply means ‘not available’, or hidden). Upon processing, the grains that have been exposed will be darkened. The silver halide is removed from the unexposed grains during film processing leaving a transparent area. Thus the darkness or density of the film is directly a function of the exposure of the grains on the film to the radiation. The film speed is another important film parameter. A film is called high speed film when its grains would begin reacting to the exposure considerably sooner than other films. Realizing that exposure is the product of time and intensity, the effect of film speed is rather significant. For a constant intensity, for e.g., the grains of high speed film would produce the required density before the grains of slow speed film. It is to be noted that, the faster speed films have larger grains and, therefore may not be able to produce the minute detail. Grain size in a film affects quality and time of exposure. Slow films have extra-fine grain or fine grain and give better quality even though the exposure time is longer. Of the many films available, the films that are referred in many standards and their classification are given in the Table 6.3. ‘Table 6.3. Various Class of Films and Their Characteristics Class Film Characteristics Class I Kodak RR, Extra fine grain high contrast, Kedak M, slow speed Structurix D 2 Class I Kodak AA. Fine grain, high contrast, medium Structurix D4 speed Structurix D7 Class HIT Kodak Kodirex X. High speed Structurix D 10 Class IV ‘They are screen type films used in conjunction with fluorescent screens. ‘These films are not recommended in industrial radiography. 6.5.3 Intensifying Screens ‘Use of thin screens/foils made out of heavier metals has been found to produce intensification when exposed them along with films to X or gamma radiations of 70 kV and above. The screens help to cut down the exposure time by utilising more effectively the radiations reaching the film. The intensification effect is primarily due to the liberation of photo- electrons from the screen/foil. For exposure using X or gamma radiation, following pairs of lead screens are recommended for optimum results: Cobalt-60 Front 0.1-0.2 mm Rear 0.2-0.5 mm Iridium-192 Front 0.1-0.15 mm Caesium-137 Rear 0.2 mm Thulium-70 Front 0.02 mm The intensification factor with the above screens is generally 2 to 2.5. Fluorescent screens, though give much higher intensification factor (approximately 5 to 6 or even more), are not recommended for use in radiography because of high screen unsharpness. The fluorometallic screens have been reported to have twin advantages of speed and low screen unsharpness.Radiography 61 6.5.4 Film Density All radiographs must have a readable density (blackening of the film). This is one of the first checks made on a radiograph before attempting to interpret it. The radiograph, when exposed and developed, will have various shades of density, depending upon how much exposure it received. The variables that affect density in a radiograph are kV, milliampere/source strength, distances, development procedure, film speed, and time. ‘A measure of the amount of exposure seen by the developed film is the light transmission density or optical density or film density D which is given by D = logy) 63) where I= light intensity which strikes the film, J, = transmitted light intensity. To check the density in a radiograph, a densitometer is used. Most specifications call for a film density of 1.5 103.3. 6.5.5 Radiographic Sensitivity The important consideration that must be made in making a radiograph is the amount of exposure that will penetrate in a given material. The radiographers should select an exposure that will produce just enough X-rays to penetrate the material to be radiographed. In other words use as low an exposure as possible to penetrate the material. Most standards recommend X-ray voltage settings and radioisotope sources to be used for various material thickness. This is one of the many variables the inspector must check and understand in radiographic inspection. Radiographic sensitivity is the ability of the technique to reveal the smallest discontinuity ‘on the radiograph. The term sensitivity is used in the sense that smaller the value better is the detection capability. The sensitivity can be expressed either in absolute value or in percentage with respect to the thickness of the specimen. Contrast sensitivity: Amount of radiation exposure affects the contrast sensitivity. Contrast sensitivity may be defined as the film density. In other words, it is the ease with which an image can be seen against the radiograph’s background. Without contrast sensitivity, material defects in the radiograph cannot be seen. If there is less material in one area, the film will record that area darker than the surrounding area, This will be shown on the radiograph an area with different film density (difference in blackness) which is the contrast. It is obvious that optimum contrast is required. Lowering the contrast sensitivity leads to failure to locate the defects that would normally be found. Detail sensitivity: When proper contrast is produced on a radiograph, all the defects that the radiographic test can locate will be seen. In addition, ‘detail sensitivity’ is needed to identify the various types of defects. In radiographic inspection, ‘detail sensitivity’ is determined by the sharpness with which image detail of the penetrameter is shown. The variables that control detail sensitivity in a radiograph are the focal spot, anode size or target area of the tube, the focal-to-film distance, and the type of film. The smaller the focal spot the better is the ‘detail sensitivity’. Equipment manufacturer/radioactive source supplier specifies the focal spot/source size in mm. In radiographic film, maximum definition occurs when the film accurately reproduces the62 Practical Nondestructive Testing edge of the discontinuity on the film. In actuality, the change in density on the film caused by the edge of the object occurs over some finite distance. The width of this gradient is Known as the film unsharpness. Various types of unsharpnesses that contribute to the definition of the image are: (Geometrical unsharpness (U,) (ii) Movement unsharpness (U,,) Gii) Inherent or film unsharpness (U,) (iv) Scattering unsharpness (U,) (v) Film and processing factor. ‘The geometrical unsharpness U, is a major factor which can be controlled under a certain ‘exposure set up. Movement unsharpness can be considered negligible when source, object and the film are stationary during the exposure. The inherent unsharpness U; is fixed once the radiation energy is selected for the test. Scattered radiation produced within the object reduces contrast whereas scatter radiation generated from the edge of the specimen lowers the definition. Total unsharpness can be calculated using the following relationship. Us {U? +U? +U? (5.4) 6.5.6 Penetrameter A ‘penetrameter’ also known as “Image Quality Indicator’ (IQI) is a gauge used to establish radiographic technique or quality level. To accomplish this, IQI must be made of material radiographically similar to the material being radiographed. The identifying numbers in the penetrameter are in thousands of an inch (for ASTM) or from a table (for ASME). The proper size penetrameter must be used in the material. The penetrameter letter/symbol on the radiograph indicates what type of material the penetrameter is made of. The entire outer edge or outline of the penetrameter must be visible on the radiograph; if itis not, the radiograph does not have contrast sensitivity. The proper hole must be visible; if not, the radiograph does not have detail sensitivity. These two factors-contrast sensitivity and detail sensitivity-indicate the quality level for an established radiographic technique. The penetrameter will be placed on top of the material on the source side. A variety of penetrameter designs have becn suggested, however some of the most common ones have been described below. Number of penetrameters to be used for a specific job and their locations are specified in the codes/standards. Step type: This type of penetrameter is essentially a step wedge having 4 or 5 steps. The thickness of these steps increases either in geometric or arithmetic progression. In the following list of standards, step type penetrameters are used and the thickness of which increases in geometric progression. 1. Bureau of Indian Standard (BIS)- BIS 3657 2. AFNOR- French IQI - A04-304 3. IIW and ISO (similar to AFNOR) Wire type: Among the wire type penetrameters, DIN wire type penetrameters are most common. These are available in two types:Radiography 63 (i) DIN 54109: This type of penetrameter consists of a series of equidistance parallel wires whose diameter increases in geometric progression. Three indicators form the series. (ii) DIN 54110: This type of penetrameter consists of 4 indicators each having series of equidistance parallel wires, the diameter of which increases in arithmetic progression. BIS has also prescribed wire type penetrameters in BIS-3657. Plaque type: All the American penetrameters are plaque type, also called strip type. The penetrameter has three holes drilled on a strip having thickness of usually 2% of the specimen. 6.5.7 Determining Radiographic Exposure Obtaining a satisfactory radiograph is recognized to involve both material and geometric considerations as well as the knowledge of the source and film characteristics. These factors are summarized in exposure charts and are available with the X-ray machine manufacture and gamma ray source suppliers. Alternately, the exposure time can be calculated using the following expression. peat) ieee: GL C(RHM) 1007 where f= film factor i.e. radiation dose in Roentgens to produce a certain film density. This can be obtained from the characteristic curve of the film, x = thickness of the specimen in cm, HVL = half value layer, d = source to film distance (SFD) in cm, C = source strength in curies, RHM = radiation output in Roentgen per hour by one curie at 1 m. Exposure time in minutes = 6.6 INSPECTION TECHNIQUES With the various techniques available, the choice of appropriate one is made on the basis of geometry, size, sensitivity requirements, in-situ space availability etc. The techniques followed for various engineering components for radiographic inspection are given below. 6.6.1 Single Wall Single Image Technique ‘This technique is used when both the sides of the specimen are accessible. This is used for plates, cylinders, shells and large diameter pipes. This technique is illustrated in Fig. 6.4. The source is kept outside and the film inside or vice versa and the weld is exposed part by part (a smaller length of weld). Panoramic technique: In this technique, the radiation source is kept in the centre of the pipe and the film is fixed around the weld on the outer surface of the pipe. The total circumferential weld length is exposed at a time. This technique reduces the examination time considerably. It can be effectively employed only when the source to film distance is sufficient enough to ensure the proper sensitivity. The required IQI, as per the governing code, can be placed either on source or film side as the case may be. 6.6.2 Double wall penetration technique The double wall penetration technique can be effectively adopted, in three different methods, based on the prevailing pipe diameter and site restrictions. They are:64 Practical Nondestructive Testing (b) Source inside film inside (a) Source outside film inside Fig. 6.4 Radiographic examination of pipes with single wall penetration (a) Double wall single image, (b) Double wall double image and (c) Double wall superimposing image The techniques are shown in Fig. 6.5. These techniques are used where the inside surface of the pipe is not accessible. The source of radiation and the film are kept outside. The radiation penetrates both the walls of the pipe. (a) Double wall single image: The radiation source generally is kept on the pipe or very near to the OD, and just near the weld so that the source side weld is not falling on the film side weld (Fig, 6.5(a)). This technique is employed for the pipes with diameter more than 90 mm OD. The IQI is placed on the film side. Here film side weld only can be interpreted. As the interpretable weld length is being small, this technique requires number of exposures to cover the entire weld length, depending upon the pipe diameter. (b) Doubie wall double image: This technique is specially suited for the smaller diameter pipes upto 90 mm OD. The radiation source is kept at a distance (SFD) with an offset from the axis of the weld, to avoid the superimposing of the source side weld over the film side weld and to obtain an elliptical image on the film (Fig. 6.5 (b)). The IQI is positioned on the source side. In this, both the source and the film side weld can be interpreted from the image. This requires minimum of two exposures, perpendicular to each other, to cover the entire circumference of the weld. ¢) Superimposing technique: This technique is attempted whenever the required offset to obtain double image could not be possible due to site restrictions for the pipes with diameter upto 90 mm OD. The source is kept at a distance (SFD) without offset (Fig. 6.5(c)), thereby the source side weld is superimposed on the film side weld on the film. The IQ1 is positioned on the source side. This requires minimum of 3 exposures at 120 cach, to cover the entire length of the weld. 6.6.3 Latitude technique Latitude of a film is closely associated with contrast. It is the range of thickness of a materialRadiography 65 (b) Double wall double image (©) Super imposing image Fig. 6.5 Radiographic examination of pipes with double wall penetration that can be recorded on the radiograph within the useful range of film density. A high contrast film has less latitude and conversely a low contrast film has higher latitude. There is a limitation on the specimen thickness range that can be inspected satisfactorily in a single radiograph. One method of extending this thickness range and thereby reducing the number of exposures required for a particular specimen involves the simultaneous exposure of two films of different speeds. When two films of different speeds are used to image the same subject in one exposure, the latitudes of the films are summed to expand the total latitude for the exposure. The technique is called double film technique.66 Practical Nondestructive Testing Double film technique: With proper selection of films and exposure conditions, the thicker sections will be recorded on the faster film and the thinner sections on the slower film (Fig. 6.6). The double film technique can be used with or without lead screens. A centre screen, between the two films may also be used to advantage. Using the above factors, manipulation can be done to get a better latitude Specimen Film Fig. 6.6 Double film technique 6.6.4 Special techniques In a complex part, it is often required to consider certain areas individually and prepare a separate technique for each area. Some pipe lines are designed to have the configurations of core pipe and an envelope pipe to meet the intended purposes. Double envelope welds can be tested by using multiwall penetration technique. Multiwall penetration technique: This technique can be divided into two: (a) Multiwall single image technique and (b) Multiwall double image technique. In these techniques, the radiation beam penetrates all the four walls. Due to the geometry of the joint, the interpretable weld length in a single exposure is much reduced in both the techniques compared to the techniques normally employed for the same diameter pipe. (a) Multiwall single image technique This technique (Fig. 6.7) is used for double envelope pipe of more than 90 mm OD and the Penetrameter Film Double envelopeRadiography 67 interpretable length is ascertained by the radiographic weld density. Hence a number of exposures are required to cover the entire length of the weld. (b) Multiwall double image technique This technique (Fig. 6.8) is used for double envelope pipe of 90 mm OD or less. Usually four exposures are taken for each weld joint. Proper care should be taken to keep the film normal to the radiation beam without wrapping the film on the pipe. The annular gap is estimated from the film by taking care of the enlargement of the image of the core and the envelope pipes. Minimum of three exposures are to be taken at 120° each to assess the annular gap in various directions. x Source Film Fig. 6.8 Multiwall double image technique 6.7 APPLICATIONS OF RADIOGRAPHIC INSPECTION (a) Radiography can be used to inspect most types of solid materials both ferrous and nonferrous alloys as well as nonmetallic materials and composites. (b) It can be used to inspect the condition and proper placement of components, for liquid level measurement in sealed components, etc. (c) The method is used extensively for castings, weldments and forgings when there is accritical need to ensure that the object is free from internal flaws. (@) Radiography is well suited to the inspection of semiconductor devices for detection of cracks, broken wires, unsoldered connections, foreign material and misplaced components, whereas other methods are limited in ability to inspect semiconductor devices. 6.8 LIMITATIONS Like other NDT methods, radiographic inspection method has certain limitations. Certain68 Practical Nondestructive Testing types of flaws are difficult to detected. For example, cracks cannot be detected unless they are parallel to the radiation beam. Tight cracks in thick sections usually cannot be detected at all, even when properly oriented. Minute discontinuities such as inclusions in wrought material, flakes, microporosity and microfissures cannot be detected unless they are sufficiently large in size. Laminations are nearly impossible to detect with radiography, because of their unfavourable orientations. The defect or discontinuity must be parallel to the radiation beam, or sufficiently large, to register on the radiograph. A defect usually must be at least 2% of the thickness of the material before it can register on a radiograph with sufficient contrast, thus to be detected. Certain areas in many items cannot be radiographed because of the geometric considerations involved. Often it is difficult, if not impossible, to position the film and source of radiation 80 as to obtain a radiograph of the area desired. Compared to other NDT methods of inspection, radiography is expensive. When portable X-ray or gamma ray source is used, capital costs can be relatively low. Inspection of thick sections is a time consuming process. Radioactive sources also limit the thickness that can be inspected, primarily because high activity sources require heavy shielding for protection of personnel. Protection of personnel for not only those engaged in radiographic work but also those in the vicinity of radiographic inspection site is of major importance. Safety requirements impose both economic and operational constrains on the use of radiography for inspection. 6.9 REAL TIME RADIOGRAPHY Real time radiography uses X- or gamma radiation, as does conventional radiography, to produce a visible volumetric image of an object. A major difference is in viewing the image. During film radiography, the image is viewed in a static mode; during real-time radiography, the image is interpreted generally at the same time as the radiation passes through the object (dynamic mode). Another difference of real-time image is that a positive image is normally presented, whereas the X-ray film gives a negative image. ‘The term fluoroscopy is synonymous with real-time radiography and electronic radiography. Basic equipment for conventional fluoroscopy consists of a source of radiation, a fluoroscopic conversion screen, mirrors, and a viewing port. To get the basic real-time image an object is placed between the source of radiation and a fluoroscopic screen that converts the transmitted radiation to visible light. A specially coated mirror then reflects the visible image to a viewing port that lets the interpreter view the object. Because low light levels are produced during conventional direct-viewing fluoroscopy, a device called image intensifier is used to provide brightness of 100 or more times the intensity of the fluoroscopic screen. The image intensifier is a large glass enclosed electron tube. The function of the image intensifier is to convert radiation to light, light to electron for intensification and electron back to light for viewing. To make the conversions, the tube contains an input phosphor, a photocathode, accelerating and focusing electrodes, and a final output phosphor. Like the fluoroscopic screen, the input phosphor converts the radiation passing through the object to a light image. Photocathodes emit electrons when excited by the input phosphor light. Conversion is necessary because waves in the electromagnetic spectrum cannot be accelerated, whereas electrons can be. The acceleration of the electrons produces a brighter image when they are converted back to light by the output phosphor.Radiography 69 Real time radiography has the advantages of high speed and low cost of inspection. Real- time radiographic concept can be applied in the case of microfocal radiography. In real-time microfocal radiography, zooming or projection magnification of the object is catried out by dynamically positioning the object with the manipulators between the X-ray tube and image receptor. Higher the magnification, more the details one can see. Automatic defect recognition (ADR) is another application of real-time radiography. ADR is applied to parts which can be inspected for the presence or absence of certain components/materials for or the presence or absence of bonding agents such as solder the brazing. ADR may also be used at very high speed for objects that can be scanned and interrogated by intensity statistics, pixel statistics or similar window techniques for voids, inclusions or other anomalies with good contrast against the surrounding material. Fluoroscopic units have the disadvantage of lower sensitivity due to higher unsharpness of the screens. ‘The use of microfocal units in conjunction with image intensifying system greatly enhances the versatility and sensitivity of the real-time radiographic setup. The inherent unsharpness of the fluorescent screens would be compensated by the focal spot size (<100 1m) of the microfocal units. Ithas been reported that, real-time radiography has been applied to the inspection of laser welds or electron beam welds in thin pipes having thickness of about | mm and porosities in the range of 0.025-0.1 mm were detected. Approximately 1 second is required to complete the image. 6.10 SAFETY IN INDUSTRIAL RADIOGRAPHY ‘An important aspect to the considered in the radiographic inspection is the hazards involved and the safety of biological effects of ionizing radiation. There are two main aspects of safety: monitoring radiation dosage and protection of personnel. 6.10.1 Radiation Units Radiation is measured in terms of the ionizing effect that it has on a given quantity of atoms. The Roentgen () is a unit derived on this basis. However, effects of radiation on the human body depend on both the intensity and the type of radiation involved. Radioactivity is expressed in a unit called the Becquerel (Bq) = 1 disintegration per second (1 dps). The older unit of activity is Curie which corresponds to 3.7 x 10! dps. Exposure is a quantity expressing the amount of ionisation caused in air by X- or gamma radiation. The exposure was originally expressed in a unit called Roentgen which referred to that quantity of radiation which produces one e.s.u. of charge in one c.c. of air. Dose is a measure of energy imparted by any ionizing radiation in any medium like tissue. Absorbed dose is expressed in a unit called Gray (Gy). One Gy is equal to one joule per kg. Absorbed dose was formerly expressed in a unit called the rad. 1 Gray = 100 rad. Equal absorbed doses from different radiations do not necessarily have equal biological effects. Dose equivalent is equal to the absorbed dose x a factor that takes into account the way a particular radiation distributes energy in tissues. For gamma rays, X rays and beta particles, the factor is set at one and the Gray and Sievert are numerically equal. For alpha particles, the factor is 20, so that | Gray of alpha radiation corresponds to DE of 20 Sieverts. Formerly this unit was called rem and 1 Sievert = 100 rems.70 Practical Nondestructive Testing 6.10.2 Limits for Radiation Exposure Based on various studies, International Commission of Radiological Protection (ICRP-60) has recommended the following requirements: (@) No practice shall be adopted unless its introduction produces a positive net benefit. (b) All exposures shall be kept as low as reasonably achievable. (©) The effective dose equivalent (whole body) to individuals working in radiation area (radiation workers) shall not exceed 2 rems (20 msv) in any one year and for the general public is 0.2 rem (2 msv) in a year. The above occupational limits are for adults (age > 18). No person under the age of 16 shall be assigned work involving ionizing radiation. 6.10.3. Methods for Exposure Control There are three basic ways to control the exposure when working with radiography sources: (a) Time: Don’t stay near a radiation source any longer than you have to. Time of handling can be low by proper training, adopting fast work technique, mock up practices and efficient administrative control. (b) Distance: Stay as far away as possible from the source. As the radiation intensity decreases with distance following the inverse square law, equipment design and operating procedure must take into account this factor. (c) Shielding: Yet another important way to reduce the dose is to place a shielding material between the source and the operator. Denser the shielding material, more effective it will be in bringing down the dose from X-rays and gamma rays. The commonly used shielding materials in the radiographic installations/equipment are steel, lead, concrete and depleted uranium. 6.10.4 Radiation Monitoring Another important aspect of hazard control is the radiation monitoring which consists of two components (a) area monitoring and (b) personnel monitoring. Area monitoring for radiation levels can be carried out by installed monitors or portable surveymeters. The detectors normally used in the portable survey meters are, ionization chambers, Gieger Muller (GM) counters and scintillation detectors, The most frequently used radiation monitor in radiography work is the GM survey meter having a range of 0.1 mR/h to 20 mRVh. Ionization chambers have a range of 5 to 500 mR/h. The objective of personnel monitoring is the measurement of radiation dose received by individual during the period of work. The most commonly used monitoring devices are (i) direct reading or pen type dosimeters (ii) film badge and (iii) TLD (thermoluminescent) dosimeters. These monitors are integrating type since they indicate total radiation dose received over a period. 6.11 STANDARDS: 1. IS 2478:1987 Glossary of terms relating to industrial radiography. 2. IS 2953:1985 Glossary of terms used for interpretation of welds and castings radiographs. 3. IS 1182: 1983 Recommended practice for radiographic examination of fusion welded butt joints in steel plates.Radiography 71 4, IS 2595:1978 Code of practice for radiographic testing. 5. IS 2598:1968 Safety code for industrial radiographic practice. 6. IS 3657:1978 Radiographic image quality indicators (first revision). 7. IS 4853:1982 Recommended practice for radiographic inspection of fusion welded butt joints in steel pipes. 8. 1S 7810:1975 Code of practice for the radiographic examination of resistance spot welds of aluminium and its alloys. 6.12 NEUTRON RADIOGRAPHY Neutron radiography (NR) is a valuable NDT technique that is identical in principle to the conventional radiography but complementary with respect to the nature of the information obtained. The history of neutron radiography with thermal neutrons can be traced shortly after the discovery of neutron by Chadwick, in 1932, Thewlis and Derbyshire produced the first reactor based neutron radiographs in 1956, using a reactor beam of the 8 MW BEPO reactor at Harwell. Commercial interest in neutron radiography began in mid 1960's and today this technique, apart from its applications in nuclear industry, finds extensive applications in aerospace and other industries. 6.12.1 Principles of Neutron Radiography Neutron radiography extends the ability to image the internal structure of a specimen beyond what can be accomplished with photon (X-ray & Gamma) radiation. Similarities as well as obvious differences exist when neutron radiography is compared to photon radiography. Similarities include the ability to produce a visual record of changes in density, thickness and composition of a specimen. It is the differences between the techniques, which provide the advantages of neutron radiography over photon radiography. The basic principle underlying in this technique is due to the penetrating nature of neutron radiation and its differential absorption by the material to obtain details of the internal structure. Just as in conventional radiography, in neutron radiography also the object to be examined is placed in a colimated neutron beam. Neutrons on passing through the object are differentially absorbed. This absorption depends on the atomic number, thickness of the materials, homogeneity and composition. The geometric pattern of the transmitted neutron intensity is recorded using a suitable detector and visualized. Figure 6.9 gives the schematic sketch of the above description. Graphical representation of the mass absorption coefficient of the elements for thermal neutron and X-radiation is shown in Figure 6.10. From this figure, it can be scen that the mass absorption coefficients for neutrons abruptly change and present a random picture when plotted against regularly increasing atomic number of absorber. On the other hand, the X-ray mass absorption coefficients increase with atomic number in a regular fashion. The differences in absorption coefficients between the neutrons and X-rays suggest a number of possible applications for NR, such as: (a) Examination of dense materials like uranium, lead etc. (b) Detection of light materials enveloped in denser materials (c) Differentiating between isotopes of same elements and (d) Examination of radioactive material due to availabitity of image detection methods, which are not sensitive to the associated gamma rays72 Practical Nondestructive Testing {Radiation Collimater Directed TAvenuated image} | mage | source (moderator) beam beam detector || ‘film | Object or recorder i . +O i as : | oO} = ' ' ee t i ' | Shielding — . * | Ondine Image Fig. 6.9 Schematic sketch for neutron radiography 6.12.2 Neutron Sources The neutron sources available for radiography fall conventionally into three classes namely: nuclear reactors. particle accelerators and radioisotopes in descending order of source intensity. engineering and operating complexity and cost. A majority of practical neutron radiography has been done using nuclear reactors as the source. This is because reactors are prolific sources of neutrons even when operating at low or medium power levels. 100 CGa g a § g 2 0.001 eS a 0.0001 oO 10 20 30 40 $0 60 70 80 90 100 Atomic Number Fig. 6.10 Variation of mass absorption coefficients with atomic number for X-rays and thermal neutronsRadiography 73 In the case of accelerators, nuclear reactions are used to produce neutrons from accelerated charged particles. Free neutrons can be produced by positive ion bombardment of selected materials with acceleration potential in the range of 100 keV to a few MeV. Some specific reactions for positive ion bombardment are H3 (D, n) He4, H2(D, n) He3, Li7(P, n) Be7 and B9(D, n) BIO. The most widely used accelerator source is the linear accelerator also called as LINAC. LINAC offers the possibility of both X-ray production and neutron production just by interchanging the targets. Isotopic sources can also be used as neutron sources. Many isotopic neutron sources make use of either the (@, n) reaction or (7, n) reaction for neutron production. These sources have the desirable features of being reliable and semi portable. Some of the isotopic sources are Sb-Be, Am-Be and Cf-252. Californium 252 is the most widely used isotopic source for neutron radiography. However, thermal neutron intensities that can be achieved from such isotopic sources tend to be lower especially when compared to an operating nuclear reactor or an accelerator based system. Also isotopic sources have considerable gamma background making them not so suitable for direct radiography. The length to diameter ratio of the collimators is also quite low. Thus the radiographs produced by such sources have low sensitivity and resolution. 6.12.3 Moderator and Coltimator Practically all neutron radiography work is performed using thermal neutrons. Whether it is a reactor, or accelerator or isotopic source. the primary neutrons are high energy neutrons. Their average energy is moderated to thermal range using a moderator such as water or other hydrogenous materials. For neutron radiography, a useful beam of neutrons is required. The extraction of the neutron beam from the reactor core is achieved through the insertion of probe (beam) tube or collimator into the moderator. This permits only those neutrons having a direction to that of the tube axis to pass through. The divergent type collimator is widely used since a uniform beam can be projected over a large inspection area. The important geometric factors for a neutron collimator are the total length (L.) from inlet aperture to detector and effective dimensions of the inlet collimator (D). This is usually expressed as L/D ratio. Higher this ratio, better would be the resolution. 6.12.4 Neutren Detection Neutrons are not directly ionizing radiation and hence have no effect on the conventional films used in industrial radiography. Hence, the detection system for neutrons consists of a latent image recorded in close contact with a thin sheet of material (referred to as converter, screen), which absorbs the neutrons and converts them into a form of secondary radiation to which the image recorder responds. The converter screens are often metallic foils. The emissions from these foils can be either charged particles or electromagnetic radiation, which produce the image on the film/screen, The technique used for imaging can be classified as direct and indirect. Apart from the industrial X-ray film, there are also etchable plastic films, image intensifiers and imaging plates for displaying the image. (a) Direct technique: A foil of gadolinium is used before the film (Fig. 6.11(a)). Gadolinium atoms in the foil absorb a neutron and promptly emit other radiation such as electron. Alternatively, a scintillator screen containing a mixture of lithium-6 and zinc sulphide can74 Practical Nondestructive Testing be used. On observing a neutron, a lithium atom emits an alpha particle and this then strikes the zinc sulphide screen, which in turn emits a light photon. As the above processes are continuous reactions, this type of foil and scintillator screen can be used with low neutron fluxes and long integrating exposures. Also, as the film is in contact with the converter during the neutron exposure all of the forward emitted radiations takes part in the exposure of the film. Thus, the direct technique is fast, the scintillator screens being 30 to 100 times faster than metal foils. (b) Indirect technique: This is also referred to as transfer technique. This method relies on the build up of radioactivity in the foil produced by neutron absorption. In this way an activation image is formed in the foil and subsequently transferred to a photographic film in contact and allowing the decay radiations from the foil to produce the latent image on the film (Fig. 6.11(b)). This method is useful for nuclear applications since the process of activation and film exposure are two independent processes. However, the technique is much slower compared to direct one. Film Neutron beam (@) Direct method Conventional foil Specie Neutron beam (b) Transfer method Film Conventional foil Fig. 6.11 Detection techniques for neutrons. (c) Track-etch technique: For neutron radiography of radioactive objects, nitrocellulose film is used as a neutron detector. This is a dielectric material which can detect charged particles by the radiation damage caused in it. The charged particles are produced by an or emitting converter, The radiation damage is made visible by etching this film in hot sodium hydroxide solution. Higher definition and very good spatial resolution can be obtained by this technique.Radiography 75 6.12.5 Applications of Neutron Radiography In the nuclear field, neutron radiography has been used extensively for post irradiation metallurgical examination of nuclear fuel elements, control rods, irradiation rigs, for differentiation of isotopes like U235 from U238 etc. Figure 6.12 is a typical neutron radiograph of a fuel pin of a Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor. The pellet to pellet gap can be clearly seen. In the non-nuclear field, this technique is widely used for the inspection of Pyrotechnic (explosive) devices, cooling passages in turbine blades, foreign materials in electronic relays and packages, adhesives in metallic honeycomb structures, ceramic component values and presence or absence of rubber seals, gaskets etc. in complex assemblies. One of the recent applications is the study of multiphase flow measurements in thermal hydraulics using real time image intensifier based systems. Neutron radiography is the only technique that makes possible visualization of the flow and also quantitative measurement of void fraction. - Pellet CoMmanl COMLERE <¢— PellevPellet gap <+— Peter Fig. 6.12 Typical NR of fuel pin. The pellet to pellet gap can be seen elearty. Neutron radiography is applied in aerospace industry to detect hidden corrosion damage in multi layered structures made of aluminium alloys. In the space programme, pyro devices are also used in various launch vehicles and satellites. The pyro devices contain low density explosive charges encased in metal casing. Neutron radiography is used (a) to ensure presence and proper loading of pyro charges such as RDX, NC and PETN, (b) to ensure presence of 0" rings in assemblies, (c) to assess the condition of potting compound (epoxy) and (d) to identify the interface between the pyro charges and also between the charge and the metal.76 Practical Nondestructive Testing Chare <> O-rings 7 / Cutter (Cadmium coated) - O-rings — Charge \ Body Fig. 6.18 Typical NR of two pyro devices: (a) Bolt cutter and (b) Explosive manifold Figure 6.13 shows the typical neutron radiograph of two widely used pyro devices—bolt cutter and explosive manifold. The pyro charge is revealed by neutron radiography. In defence industry. neutron radiography is used to detect manufacturing defects in shielded metal detonator cords (SMDC), detonating charges, exploding bride wire assembly charge in lead cases, ammunition items etc.