KBTC INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL

Cambridge Lower Secondary Course

REVISION NOTE
Secondary One
CHEMISTRY
(2023-2024 Academic Year)
 UNIT -2
Materials and their structure
2.1 Solids, liquids and gases
States of Matter - Everything we can see and feel is called matter. There are three states of matter which are
solids, liquids and gases.

Properties of Solid, Liquid and Gas

Particle Theory
The particles are arranged differently in solids, liquids and gases.

Attractive force between particles

 The attractive force holds the particles together.
 The force can stop the particles from moving around the solid because of fixed pattern.
 In liquid, the attractive force between the particles is weak enough to allow them to move but strong
enough to hold them together.
 In gas particles, there is no attractive forces between them and they can move easily.
2.2 Change of State
The diagram summarizes the common changes of state.
 A change of state is a physical change in a matter. They are reversible changes and do not involve
any changes in the chemical makeup of the matter.
 Common changes of the state include melting, freezing, sublimation, deposition, condensation, and
vaporization.

Evaporation, Melting and Boiling

 Energy must be transferred, by heating, to a substance for these changes of state to happen. During
these changes the particles gain energy. This is used to overcome forces of attraction between particles.
 Evaporation can take place below the boiling point of a substance.
 Boiling happens at the boiling point, when the rate of evaporation is much faster.
 The temperature at which a liquid boil is called the boiling point.
 The boiling point of water is 100°C.
 The temperature at which a solid melt is called the melting point.
 The melting point of a solid is 0°C.
 The freezing point of liquid is 0°C.

Condensing and Freezing

 Energy must be transferred from a substance to the environment for condensing and freezing to happen.
 During these changes of state, the particles lose energy as forces of attraction form between them.

2.4 The Water Cycle

 Water is vital for all living things. Our bodies are made up of at least 60% water.
 The water moves between rivers, lakes, oceans, the atmosphere and the land. It is recycled over and
over again in a continuous system called the water cycle.
Water moves into the atmosphere
- Evaporation happens when the temperature of water in the rivers, lakes and oceans increases and some of
the liquid water forms water vapor.
- Water can also evaporates into the atmosphere from plants which is called transpiration.

Water in the atmosphere cools down

- Condensation happens as the water vapor goes up to the atmosphere, it cools and changes back into little
droplets of water in the air.

Water falls from clouds

- Precipitation happens when the water drops in the clouds fall back to Earth as Rain. The drops become
colder, then form snow, hail or sleet.
Water falls on the Earth
- The precipitation that falls then collects in rivers and open water such as large lakes and the oceans.

Water in the ground

- Some of the water from precipitation will soak into the soil and rocks as ground water.
- Water that reaches the surface of the land may flow directly across the ground into the rivers, lakes and
oceans. This water is called surface run-off.

2.5 Atoms, elements and the Periodic Table

 Atoms are tiny pieces of matter and cannot be divided.
  Carbon nanotubes- a tube made of carbon. (nano – very, very small)

Different types of atoms

 94 different types of atoms – naturally in the universe
 24 kinds of atom – in laboratories
 Total – 118 atoms

Element - What is an element?

 An element is a substance that made of one kind of atom. (Examples, Gold, Silver and Carbon)

Elements on Earth - The various elements that are found in Earth Crust

Atoms joining together

Some substances are made up of individual atoms.
 A piece of gold is made up of millions of individual gold atoms.
 Neon is a gas – is made of individual neon atoms.

Molecules- group of atoms joined tightly together is called a molecule. In oxygen and sulfur, atoms joining
together to form small particles.
Arranging the elements - The Periodic Table

 The periodic table is organized into rows and columns.

 The rows are called period. On going from left to right in a period.
 The columns are called groups. On going from top to bottom in a group.
 Left of dark line – metal
 Right of dark line – non-metal
 Along each of dark line – metalloids
 Group IA – alkali metals
 Group IIA – alkaline earth metals
 Group VIIB – halogens
 Group 0 – noble gases or inert gases
 Empty space – transition metals

Chemical Symbols
No Element Symbol No Element Symbol
1 Hydrogen H 11 Sodium Na
2 Helium He 12 Magnesium Mg
3 Lithium Li 13 Aluminum Al
4 Beryllium Be 14 Silicon Si
5 Boron B 15 Phosphorous P
6 Carbon C 16 Sulfur S
7 Nitrogen N 17 Chlorine Cl
8 Oxygen O 18 Argon Ar
9 Fluorine F 19 Potassium K
10 Neon Ne 20 Calcium Ca
Gold – Au Silver – Ag
2.6 Compounds and Formulae
 Compound – many substances are made up of more than one kind of atoms or different types of atoms
are joined tightly together.

Chemical bond = Chemical compound

Metal + Non-metal – ionic bond or ionic compound
Sodim + Chlorine → Sodium chloride (Common Salt)

Naming Compounds
There are important rules to remember when naming compounds.
1. If the compound contains a metal, then the name of the metal
comes first in the name of the compound.
2. If the compound contains a non-metal, the name of the non-metal
is usually changed. For example, the compound made from sodium
(a metal) and chlorine (a non-metal) is not sodium chlorine, but
sodium chloride.
3. When two elements form a compound, the name often ends in ‘ide’.

Some compounds contain two different elements, plus a third element–oxygen. These compounds often
have names ending with ‘ate’. For example, a compound of calcium, carbon and oxygen is called calcium
carbonate.

Carbon dioxide particles are made up of one carbon atom joined to two oxygen atoms. ‘Di’ means two.

Carbon monoxide particles are made up of one carbon atom joined to one oxygen atom. ‘Mon’ or ‘mono’
means one.

Naming Oxide
1. Mono
2. Di
3. Tri
4. Tetra
5. Penta
6. Hexa
7. Hepta
 8. Octa
9. Nona
10. Deca

Particle diagrams

Using Formulae

Remark: two elements – bonded with, three elements – bonded together

 UNIT 5
Properties of Materials

5.1 Metals and Non-metals

Metals
Metals are strong and tough. They do not shatter when dropped and they do not crack easily. They can
hold large weights without breaking.

Properties of Metals
1. Metals are shiny when they are freshly cut or polished.
2. Metals can be bent to shape them. Metals are malleable, which means they can be hammered into shape.
3. Metals are ductile, which means that they can be drawn out into wires.
4. Metals make a ringing sound like a bell when they are hit: the word for this is sonorous. (eg., cymbals)
5. Most metals do not melt easily. They have high melting points and high boiling points. Mercury is the
only metal that is liquid at room temperature.
6. Metals are good conductors of heat. When you touch them they conduct heat energy away from the hand
so they feel cold. (eg., steel)
7. Some metals are magnetic. Iron, steel, nickel and cobalt are magnetic.

Examples of some metals and its uses

Metal Uses
Iron Bridges/Iron work
Gold/Silver Jewllery
Copper Electric wire
Mercury Thermometer
Aluminium Aluminium Foil/Ornament
Zinc Coating to prevent rusting

Need to remember that:

• the surface of most metals will become dull after a while
• big lumps of metal are hard to test for flexibility
• bottles and cups also make a ‘ringing’ sound when they are hit, but they are not made of metal.

Non-metals
Non-metals are often very useful because of the chemical reactions they have with other substances.

Properties of Non-metals
1. Non-metals look dull. They do not reflect light very well and the surface is not as smooth as metals.
2. Non-metals that are solids are brittle. If you drop them they may shatter.
3. Most non-metals do not conduct heat energy well. This is very useful because some of them can be used
to make handles for cooking pans, for example.
4. Most non-metals do not conduct electricity. This is very useful because some can be used to make
coverings for electric plugs and cables, for example. They are known as insulators; this means they do
not conduct heat or electricity.
5. Non-metals are not as hardwearing as metals.
6. Many non-metals are gases.
7. The non-metals that are not gases have low melting points and low boiling points.

Examples of some Non-metals and its uses

 Non-metal Uses
Sulfur Added to rubber to make it hard.
Pure oxygen In hospitals for people with breathing difficulties
Helium Filling in balloons
Chlorine To kill bacteria
Carbon To treat in digestion and to purify water
Silicon Computer chips

5.2 Comparing metals and non-metals

5.3 Metal mixtures

Alloys: Metal mixture (mixing different metals together and melting them)
The properties of the alloys are different from the metals they contain.

Alloy Mixing metals Remark

Bronze Copper and Tin Harder than either copper or tin.
Steel Iron and Carbon -
Steel Iron, carbon, chromium and Does not rust and used for cutlery
nickel
Alloys in everyday life
Silver Coins Silver, Copper and Nickel Hardwearing and malleable enough
Copper Coins Copper, Zinc and Tin Hardwearing and malleable enough
Gold jewellery Gold and Copper Pure gold is 24 carats.
18 carat gold (18 parts out of 24 pure
gold, 6 parts are other metal like copper,
silver and zinc)
Aeroplanes/Aircrafts Duralumin (Aluminium, The metal used to build needs to be light
magnesium and copper) but very strong.
Pure aluminium would not be strong
enough.
Duralumin is five times stronger than
aluminium.
Artificial joints Titanium and plastics Hip joint
Modern alloys Nitinol (Nickle and titanium) Glasses frame
(Shaped memory
alloys)
Brass and Bronze

Brass: An alloy of copper and zinc.

Note
 Copper and zinc have just one temperature listed.
 However, brass has a range of temperatures. There are many different types of brass, which are made by
using different amounts of copper and zinc.
 So, there is no specific melting point for brass; it depends on the proportions of copper and zinc that have
been used.

Bronze: an alloy of copper and tin

5.4 Using the properties of materials to separate mixtures

Mixture: Mixtures contain different substances that are not combined together chemically.

Separating mixtures
Mixture Type of mixture Separation Technique
Iron and sulfur Solid-solid Magnetic separation.
(Iron is magnetic and sulfur is
not.)
Dry rice and pea Solid-solid Sieving
Copper sulfate and water Solid-liquid Evaporation
Food dye and water Liquid-liquid Distillation
Sandy and salty water Solid-liquid Filtration and evaporation

Distillation apparatus

Filtration and evaporation apparatus

5.5 Acids and Alkalis

Acid: any substance that form an aqueous solution with pH less than 7. (sour taste)

Base: Any substance with a pH greater than 7. (bitter taste)

Alkalis: A base that dissolves in water to form a solution with a pH greater than 7.
Acid in food and drink: Examples
Citric acid (lemons and limes), Carbonic acid (eg carbonated drink), Lactic acid (Milk)

Acid in laboratory and Industry: Examples

Hydrochloric acid (HCl), Sulfuric acid (H2SO4), Nitric acid (HNO3)

Common Alkalis: Examples

Sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH solution), Potassium hydroxide solution (KOH solution), Calcium hydroxide
(CaOH solution)

Alkalis containing products: Cleaning products, Detergent, Toothpaste and so on.

Acid and Alkalis Caution: Strong and corrosive, Skin burn/chemical burn (dissolve the skin), irritate the skin

Note: Diluted acid and alkalis might be less dangerous but still harmful.

Hazard Warning Labels

Many chemicals are hazardous. Their bottles are clearly labelled with
hazard warning symbols so that you know you must handle them carefully.
Here is a list of the most common hazard symbols and what they mean.
5.6 Indicators and pH scale

Indicator: substances that change color when they are added to acidic or alkaline solutions.

Indicators can be made from the brightly colored berries, flowers and other parts of plants. These include:
• red cabbage
• blackcurrant
• beetroot.

Litmus
 Litmus is a very common indicator. It is a dye.
 Usually use litmus paper, which is made by soaking absorbent paper in litmus solution.
 Litmus turns red in acids.
 Litmus turns blue in alkalis.
 Litmus turns purple when it is in a neutral substance.
 A neutral substance is one that is neither acid nor alkali.
 Litmus turns purple in water. Water is neutral. This means water is neither an acid nor an alkali.
Other indicators (Universal indicators)
 Universal indicator shows how acidic or alkaline a substance is.
 The acidity or alkalinity of a substance is one of its chemical properties.
 Universal indicator can change to many different colours.
 Universal indicator is made up of a mixture of different indicators.

 The strength of acids and alkalis is measured on the pH scale.

 Universal indicator changes color and shows the pH of a substance.
 The pH of a substance is one of the chemical properties of that substance.