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ENG LISH LEXICO LO G Y Nguyen Thanh Loan

WORD MEANING ED – HANU

All units rely extensively on course book, reading at home is

compulsory.

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SEMANTICS

Semantics: the study of meaning in language.

Meaning is a component of the word through which a concept is

communicated, thus, providing the word with the ability of denoting real
objects, qualities, actions and abstract notions, etc.

Words don’t have exact meanings, they depend on context!

E.g. bar (n)
• Many countries ban unvaccinated people from entering nightclubs and bars.
• Marshall is studying hard to pass the bar.
• Yesterday, little Jim ate a whole chocolate bar.
• In many countries, being a woman was a bar to pursuing higher education.

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Some words have remained remarkably stable in meaning, e.g.: words that
are near and dear to people, such as for family members (mother, father,
brother, etc.) or for body parts like head, hand, leg; and most function words
(articles, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, etc.).

On the contrary, other words have undergone dramatic change in meaning.

Words can be linked semantically in many ways:

• by meaning (at least in some contexts)

• by being opposites

• because they often occur together

• by being part of the same classifications

• by having the same form but different meaning

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THE SEMANTIC STRUCTURE

OF WORDS
The modern approach to semantics based on the assumption that word has
two aspects:
• the outer form (sound form)
• the inner form (meaning)
Altogether, this represents the semantic structure of the word.
The semantic structure of a word is often investigated at two levels:
1. In the first level, the semantic structure is treated as a system of
meanings.
2. In the second level, each separate meaning may be represented as sets
of semantic components.

THE SYSTEM OF MEANING

1. The semantic structure is treated as a system of meanings

I
hand (n)
Part of the
body that is
used to hold I = main (primary) meaning
things
II, III, IV = secondary meanings;
having additional semantic features.

However, the main meaning is NOT

IV
II III
help (with control,
the part of a found in every polysemous word
clock that
something) power or points time
influence (word with many meanings).
that
someone has

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It is not easy to find the main meaning in every polysemous word.

E.g.:

bad (adj)

1. It’s difficult to break bad habits.

2. He was in a bad accident.

3. Pollution is having a bad effect on fish stocks.

4.The milk has gone bad.

à Semantic structure of a word NOT ONLY covers a system of different

meanings of a word, BUT ALSO the semantic components within each
meaning.

Each separate meaning may be represented as a set of two semantic

components:

• denotation (literal meaning)

• connotation (figurative meaning)

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SEMANTIC COMPONENTS

Denotation: literal meaning of a word (dictionary meaning).

Connotation: associations connected to a certain word, or emotional
suggestions, or implications related to that word.
Positive vs. negative connotations
Connotations are generally simple: liking or disliking, approval or
disparagement
E.g., visitor (neutral) – guest (positive) - intruder (negative)
Connotations are more difficult to determine à failing to understand
connotation will lead to misunderstanding between speakers.
Others?
curious (N) – interested (P) – nosy (N)
old (N) – vintage (P) – decrepit (N)

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POLYSEMY

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POLYSEMY

A word like pediatrician has only a single meaning; it is MONOSEMOUS .

By contrast, a word like see has multiple meanings (up to 9); it is POLYSEMOUS .

Polysemy (from Gr, poly, ”many” and semeion, “sign”) refers to the situation where
the same word has two or more different meanings.

A polysemous word (or polyseme) is a word that has 2 (or more) different but
closely related meanings.

Frequent usage leads to more different shades of meaning.

To determine how many polysemes any given word has is a matter of theoretical
stance and analysis, not by the way language is used.

A large proportion of a language’s vocabulary is polysemous.

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TYPES OF POLYSEMY
TYPE DESCRIPTION EXAMPLES
Linear Polysemous senses related by drink
polysemy generalization –
specialization
relationship.

man

Non-linear Polysemous senses related by e.g.:

polysemy METAPHOR and METONYMY. - Jane married a large bank account.
(metaphor)
-The village celebrated a fruitful harvest last
week. (metonymy)

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EXERCISE

Explain the meaning of each polyseme.

•His brother gave her the measles last year.
•“Kids, what does the chicken give you?” – Meat!
•Did you hear the last speech I gave?

vMy printer ran out of paper yesterday.

vHave you read the morning paper? Argentina just won the
World Cup.

vSusan may go to the bank today.

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SEMANTIC CHANGE
“Since language is a communicative activity,
semantic change is inevitable (Traugott, 2001)”

Semantic change is possible because human beings have the

capability to form associations between different concepts.

Word meanings rarely undergo sudden changes, instead,

they take place gradually and continually.

New meanings of a word often relate to the previous ones.

Causes of semantic change
1. Extra-linguistic causes: change of meaning are
determined by the close connection between language and
the evolution of human society.
E.g.: torch, mill, academy

2. Linguistic causes: the change is language-induced. (due to

factors from within the language).
* Supplemental reading: “Semantic changes”, from Frăţilă, L.
(2011). Words about words: An introduction to English Lexicology.
Editura Universităţii de Vest.

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RESULTS OF SEMANTIC
CHANGE
Change in denotation:
­ BROADENING (Generalization or Extension)

­ NARROWING (Specialization or Restriction)

Change in connotation:
­ ELEVATION (Amelioration)

­ PEJORATION (Degradation or Deterioration)

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CHANGE IN DENOTATION
BROADENING
Also known as Extension or Generalization.

Broadening: The denotative meaning of a word becomes more general

than its historical earlier form.

E.g.:
• aroma used to mean “the smell of spices” à now means a smell in
general, mostly a pleasant one.
• journal: a daily record of transactions or events à a daily newspaper
(record of events everywhere)
• companion used to mean “someone who eats bread with you” (Italian con
“with” + pane “bread”) à now means “someone who is with you”.
• Others: audition, manage, etc.

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CHANGE IN DENOTATION
NARROWING

Also known as Specialization or Restriction.

Narrowing: The denotative meaning of a word becomes less general than its
earlier historical form.

E.g.:
• meat used to mean “any kind of food” à now means “flesh taken from
animals”.
• corn used to mean “all kinds of grains” à now means a specific type of cereal
(called maize in American English).
• Others: wife, hound, etc.

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CHANGE IN CONNOTATION
ELEVATION

Also known as Amelioration.

Elevation: The connotative meaning of a word becomes more positive (or more
favorable) than its earlier form.

E.g.:

• nice (from OFr. nescius) “ignorant” (14c.) à now means “delightful, pleasant”.

• minister used to mean “a servant” à now means “leader of a governmental

body (ministry)”.

• Others: terrific, sick, geek, etc.

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CHANGE IN CONNOTATION
PEJORATION

Also known as Degradation or Deterioration.

Pejoration: The connotative meaning of a word becomes less positive (or

less favorable) than its earlier form. E.g.:
• accident ( used to mean “event”) à now means “unfortunate event”.

• sad used to mean “content, satisfied” à now means “sorrowful,

unhappy”.

• bully used to mean “sweetheart” (16c.) à now means harasser (from

17c.)

• Others: cunning, notorious etc.

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EXERCISE

Identify the type of semantic change

• Broadcast: “disperse (seeds) upon the ground by hand” à
to spread information on mass media.
• Camp: “the place where troops are lodged in tents” à a
temporary accommodation for troops, travelers, refugees,
etc.
• Mare: horse à female horse
• Barn: a place for keeping barley à a large farm building
used to keep grains, hay, etc.
• Queen: ill-behaved woman à female ruler of the kingdom/
the King’s wife
• Pen: a feather à a writing tool originally made by dipping
feather in ink

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TRANSFERENCE

Many cases of semantic change mentioned in the previous sections are

based on transference (transfer of meaning).

Transference includes Metaphor and Metonymy.

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METAPHOR

She is a rose.
= She is (as beautiful as) a rose.
Metaphor is the transference based on the similarities (resemblances) between
two things (phenomena, qualities, etc.).
Metaphors are ubiquitous in everyday language.
We might not always understand the implicit comparison in a metaphor, even
when we assume that some metaphor exists, e.g. why do people say It’s raining
cats and dogs?
à metaphors that can’t be interpreted are called IDIOMS.
Understanding metaphor is crucial in comprehending a language.
Another example: During the war protests of the 1960s, lawmakers who
supported the war were referred to in the news media as hawks, and those who
were against the war were called doves.

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METAPHOR:
COMMON PATTERNS

• Similarity of appearance: eye of a storm, leg of the table, tongues of a flame

• Similarity of position: foot of the bridge/ hill/ mountain, bottom of the page

• Similarity of size: midget submarine, a jumbo jet, a mammoth proportion

• Similarity of function/ purpose: key to the exercise, data bank, head of the school

• Similarity of quality, characteristic: breeze, a lion

• Similarity of physical sensation: cold war, warm congratulations, sweet dreams,

bitter remark;

• Similarity of orientation: on – off, up - down

• Etc.

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METONYMY

I like Mozart.

(= I like music composed by Mozart)

Metonymy is the transference based on understood association or

relatedness → one thing is compared with another that is cognitively
adjacent or contiguous to it.
This adjacency is not always easy to define.

The linguistic vehicle Mozart denotes the person (the source), but is used
here to denote the music (the target).

E.g.: The kettle is boiling.

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METONYMY

COMMON PATTERNS
• Container for contents: glasses, bottles
• Geographical names for products: bordeaux, cognac, champagne, china
• Names of inventors/ authors for inventions/ works: watt, celcius, Mozart,
newton
• Materials for products: glass, silver, iron
• The representative and its symbol: the Kremlin, the White house
• Part of something to mean the whole or the whole of something to mean a
part (this is known as SYNECDOCHE): wheels (for cars), mouth (for person), the
village (for its residents), hands, heads (for people)
• etc.

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EXERCISE

Identify the type of transference

1.Still waters run deep.
2.Jim was so upset that he only won bronze in the tournament.
3.Blood is thicker than water.
4.I have to say, of all the affordable laptops on the market, this
Dell ticks all the boxes!
5.It was cool this morning, but look at how the mercury is rising
now.
6.“The power of the crown was mortally weakened”.
7.Excessive jealousy in a relationship is a red flag that you should
look out for.

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Next week:
Synonymy – Antonymy

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