List of Experiments :- Testing of NPN and PNP Transistor using Multimetre . Testing of Ceramic and Electrolytic Capacitor using Multimetre. Testing of Inductor using Multimetre. Testing of Values Voltages at different points on PCB using Multimetre. Testing of Current at different points on PCB using Multimetre. Testing of SMPS using Multimetre. Testing of Step Up and Step down Transformers using Multimetre. Testing of IF T(Intermediate Frequency Transformer) using Multimetre . Testing of Resistance using Multimetre and Reading of Resistance using Color Coding Table. Assemble Mono Stable, Astable, and Bistable multivibrator( Clocked and Unclocked ) using PCB.Experiment No. - 01 Aim: Testing of PNP and NPN transistor using multimeter. Apparatus Required: Multimeter, multimeter probes, NPN transistor, PNP transistor Principle: A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify or switch electronic signals and electrical power. It is a three-terminal semiconductor device, those pins are labelled collector(C), base(B) and emitter (E). A digital multimeter can be used as a fast and simple way to check a transistor for open or shorted junctions. For this test, you can view the transistor as two diodes connected as shown in Below Figure for both NPN and PNP transistors. The base-collector junction is one diode and the base-emitter junction is the other. Examples of faults and symptoms in the basic ‘A good diode will show an extremely high resistance (or open) with reverse bias and a very low resistance with forward bias. A defective open diode will show an extremely high resistance (or open) for both forward and reverse bias. A defective shorted or resistive diode will show zero or a very low resistance for both forward and reverse bias. An open diode is the most common type of failure. Since the transistor PN junctions are, in effect diodes, the same basic characteristics apply.Many digital multimeters (DMMs) have a diode test position that provides a convenient way to test a transistor. A typical DMM, as shown in Below Figure, has a small diode symbol to mark the position of the function switch. When set to diode test, the meter provides an internal voltage sufficient to forward-bias and reverse-bias a transistor junction, Procedure: For NPN transistor PNP Translator c c PNP Simpiyty Diagram Connection (A) First turn ON digital multimeter and select diode mode Connect the test leads to the transistor terminals. Keep test leads connected for a few seconds at like this (A) connection, Read the measurement displayed. If the transistor value is within the measurement range, the multimeter will display the transistor value. displayed multimeter value is from 0 above 150, the transistor is good. displayed multimeter value is 0 or .OL, the transistor is bad. vv v vv Connection (B)v Connect the test leads to the transistor terminals. Keep test leads connected for a few seconds at like this (B) connection > Read the measurement displayed. If the transistor value is within the measurement range, the multimeter will display the transistor value. > displayed multimeter value is from 0 above 150, the transistor is good, > displayed multimeter value is 0 or .OL, the transistor is bad. NPN Simpiyfy Diagram Connection (c) > Connect the test leads to the transistor terminals. Keep test leads connected for a few seconds at like this (C) connection. > Read the measurement displayed. If the transistor value is within the measurement range, the multimeter will display the transistor value. > displayed multimeter value is 1, the transistor is good a c e E NPN simplyty Diagram Connection (D) > Connect the test leads to the transistor terminals. Keep test leads connected for a few seconds at like this (D) connection. > Read the measurement displayed. If the transistor value is within the measurement range. the multimeter will disnlav the transistor valne> displayed multimeter value is 1, the transistor is good. For PNP trai fe PRP Simpy Diagram Connection (E) > Connect the test leads to the transistor terminals, Keep test leads connected for a few seconds at like this (E) connection > Read the measurement displayed. If the transistor value is within the measurement range, the multimeter will display the transistor value. displayed multimeter value is 1, the transistor is good. v E PNP Simpiyfy Dtagram Connection (F) v Connect the test leads to the transistor terminals. Keep test leads connected for a few seconds at like this (F) connection Read the measurement displayed. If the transistor value is within the measurement range, the multimeter will display the transistor value. displayed multimeter value is 1, the transistor is good. v vv vv > > Connection (G) Connect the test leads to the transistor terminals. Keep test leads connected for a few seconds at like this (G) connection. Read the measurement displayed. If the transistor value is within the measurement range, the multimeter will display the transistor value. displayed multimeter value is from 0 above 150, the transistor is good. displayed multimeter value is 0 or .OL, the transistor is bad. PNP simpy Diagram Connection (H) Connect the test leads to the transistor terminals. Keep test leads connected for a few seconds at like this (H) connection. Read the measurement displayed. If the transistor value is within the measurement range, the multimeter will display the transistor value. Displayed multimeter value is from 0 above 150, the transistor is good. Displayed multimeter value is 0 or .OL, the transistor is bad. Result: When the transistor was forward biased (i.e. making each diode forward biased one by one), the multimeter showed finite acceptable values. Inference: Both the given NPN and PNP transistors were in working conditions.Experiment No. — 02 Aim: Testing of Ceramic and Electrolytic Capacitor using Multimeter. Apparatus Required: Ceramic capacitor, electrolytic capacitor, multimeter, multimeter probes, Principle: Below is a very useful chart for calculation the right value of Ceramic / Non — Polarized Capacitors. There are special codes and marking on capacitor which tell about the value of capacitor. Example: Here is the Capacitor marking is “105” It means that = 10 + 5 Zeros = 1,000,000 pF = 1000 nF = 1 pF Procedure: yaeNe Make sure the capacitor is fully discharged. Remove the capacitors from board or circuit. Now Select “Capacitance” on your multimeter. Now connect the capacitor terminal to the multimeter leads. If the reading is near to the actual value of the capacitor (i.e. the printed value on the Capacitor container box). Then the capacitor is in good condition, (Note that the reading may be less than the actual value of the capacitor (the printed value on the Capacitor container box). If you read a significantly lower capacitance or none at all, then capacitor is dead and you should change it. (© = Copacitance c Capacitor P Result: The reading on the multimeter is near to the actual value of capacitor. Inference: The capacitors are good and in working conditionsExperiment No, — 03 Aim: Testing of inductor using multimeter. Apparatus required: Multimeter, multimeter probes, inductor. Theory: To check an inductor whether it’s good or faulty one, we need to check the resistance of its terminals. In the inductor, there is resistive material and every resistive material has its resistance, using that resistance measurement we can find out that an inductor is good one or not. i, If the measured value is in few ohms than the Inductor is working properly because functional inductors normally show the resistance of few ohms. Usually, it should be greater than 19 and less than 119 (1 to 119s). ii, If the measured inductor’s resistance is high, then the inductor is defective and you must replace it iii, If the measured inductor’s resistance is very, very low almost 0s. This indicates that the inductor is internally shorted and you need to replace it. Inductor is Dei Inductor will V Inductor is De} ‘ca ster tan 105 feplaseincuctortnan (19 to 119s) + + Inductor is Int Replace inductor than i Procedure:Take a multimeter and put it on the ohmmeter setting, Then connect the multimeter probes on any two terminals of an inductor. You will find the resistance of an inductor’s terminals. The polarity of probes on terminals doesn’t matter because we are interested into only finding resistance. RENE Result: The multimeter reading was in between 1 to 110. Inference: The inductor is good and is in working condition.Experiment No.— 04 Aim: Testing of values voltages at different points on PCB using multimeter. Apparatus required: Multimeter, multimeter probes and PCB. Theory: The printed circuit board (PCB) is an electronic component base where various components placed and solder. A PCB is made by etching the copper layer on the board as the layout of the circuit diagram. There are different methods of doing this, but the most common one is based on using a ferric chloride solution. If this etching process is not done properly, then shorting of adjacent traces may occur. Many times, the shorting is due to the incorrect layout designed on the copper plate. Finding a shorting on a PCB can become very challenging if the board is completely etched and has very thin lines of connections between various components. So, testing of continuity is a very important task of PCB before the insertion of various components, those are used in the circuit. The multimeter is widely used in every measurement technique. With the help of multimeter, we can measure various quantities such as resistance, AC & DC voltage, current, capacitance, etc. A multimeter is a voltmeter, ammeter, and millimetre combined together. There, it is also known as VOM (Volt-Ohm Millimetre). A. multimeter may likewise have different capacities, for example, diode testing, coherence test, transistor test, TTL rationale test, and recurrence test. Multimeters can be valuable troubleshooting tools when working with circuit boards. Even if you don't have an electrical schematic of the circuit board, which would identify components and give you the voltage and resistor values that should be present, many circuit boards have test points that are clearly labelled, Use a multimeter on these test points to see if the voltage measured matches the labelled test point voltage. If they are the same, it will give you confidence that the circuit board is operating normally.Procedure: 1 Plug in your multimeter probes to your multimeter, making sure you observe the correct polarity. The red multimeter probe is the positive probe and has a banana jack at the end of the probe wire. Plug the banana jack into the red multimeter plug. Insert the black probe banana jack into the black multimeter plug. Select your multimeter function to measure voltage or resistance by turning the function knob or selecting a function button. If you're going to measure voltage, such as measuring the power that is supplied to the circuit board, select either an alternating current (AC) or direct current (DC) voltage. The electrical schematic of the circuit board will tell you which type of voltage is present. Unplug the clectrical device that the circuit board is a part of. Remove any housing on the device in order to gain access to the circuit board. Using caution not to touch any of the electrical components or wiring, plug the electrical device in and tum it on. Touch the multimeter probes to the circuit board test points if you're measuring voltage. Keep your hands on the plastic potion of the probes so you don't get shocked. The red probe goes to the test point and the black probe goes to ground or common. Read the multimeter display for the voltage or resistance measurement. After determining the voltage or resistance, remove the probes and write down the value. Move on to the next test point or resistor and repeat the measurement. ‘After you've made all your measurements, turn off the electrical device and the multimeter. Remove the power from the electrical device and put the housing back on. & Result: The multimeter showed finite voltages. Inference: The PCB is in the working conditionExperiment No. — 05 Aim: Testing of current at different points on PCB using multimeter. Apparatus required: Multimeter, multimeter probes, PCB. Theory: The printed circuit board (PCB) is an electronic component base where various components placed and solder. A PCB is made by etching the copper layer on the board as the layout of the circuit diagram. There are different methods of doing this, but the most common one is based on using a ferric chloride solution. If this etching process is. not done properly, then shorting of adjacent traces may occur. Many times, the shorting is due to the incorrect layout designed on the copper plate. Finding a shorting on a PCB can become very challenging if the board is completely etched and has very thin lines of connections between various components. So, testing of continuity is a very important task of PCB before the insertion of various components, those are used in the circuit The multimeter is widely used in every measurement technique. With the help of multimeter, we can measure various quantities such as resistance, AC & DC voltage, current, capacitance, etc. A multimeter is a voltmeter, ammeter, and millimetre combined together. There, it is also known as VOM (Volt-Ohm Millimetre). A multimeter may likewise have different capacities, for example, diode testing, coherence test, transistor test, TTL rationale test, and recurrence test. Procedure: 1. Firstly, check the PCB traces under the microscope or magnifying glass. See if you can find any traces that look short. Identify all suspicious places on the board with sorting is done and mark that places with the help of a marker. Try avoiding these shorting where you marked, You can place marks on nearby components or on ground or supply planes. 2. Ifacircuit diagram is available, find the traces or shorting places those you marked as suspicious on the diagram. Check if these shorting points should be separate or connected, In some cases, traces are deliberately connected. Go through all suspicious shorting points and remove the ones that are connected in the circuit diagram, If the circuit diagram is not present there, skip this step. 3. Insert the red Multimeter lead plug into the “V” socket of the millimetres and the black lead plug into the “COM” socket. Place the multimeter knob to the continuity test position. This position generally has a sign with several small parallel lines and a diode icon. 4, Turn on the multimeter. Test the multimeter continuity tester by touching its two leads together. This should produce a continues to beep. If it does not beep, you have not set the knob to the continuity testing position, or the check the battery may need to be replaced.5. Connect the first probe of multimeter at one end and second probe on the last point of the suspicious traces. It does not matter what is the polarity of connections. You will have to press strongly to make the electrical connection between the multimeter probes and the traces. If a beep sound produces, there is a short. Repeat this process for all suspicious traces. Postve Py a" | Result: No beep sound was produced while testing the PCB by the multimeter and showed finite current. Input Pins Inference: The PCB is in working condition.Experiment No. — 06 Aim: Testing of SMPS using Multimeter .Testing of Steps Up and Step down ‘Transformers using Multimetre. Apparatus required: Multimeter, multimeter probes, PCB. Theory: Transformers are an electrical component that transmit electrical energy between at least two circuits, Transformers regulate the voltage in circuits, but in some cases these can go bad and cause a circuit to not work. You'll need to identify key information about your transformer, like whether it's suffered visible damage and what its inputs and outputs are. After that, it should be relatively simple to test the transformer with a digital multimeter (DMM). Procedure: Inspect the transformer visually. Overheating, which causes the internal wiring of the transformer to run at elevated temperatures, is a common cause of transformer failure. This often causes a physical deforming of the transformer or the area surrounding it. + Ifthe transformer exterior is bulged or shows what appear to be burn marks, don't test the transformer. Instead, replace it 2. Determine the wiring of the transformer. The wiring should be clearly labeled on the transformer. However, it is always best to obtain a schematic of the circuit containing the transformer to determine how it is connected. + The schematic for the circuit will be available in the product information or on the website of the circuit manufacturer. 3. Identify the transformer inputs and outputs. The first electrical circuit will be connected to the primary of the transformer. This is its electrical input. The second circuit receiving power from the transformer is connected to the transformer secondary, or the output.[2] + The voltage being supplied to the primary should be labeled both on the transformer and the schematic. + The voltage being generated by the secondary should be labeled in the same fashion as the primary4, Prepare to measure the circuit voltages. Turn off the power to the circuit, Remove covers and panels as necessary to gain access to the circuits that contain the transformer. ‘Acquire a digital multimeter (DMM) to take the voltage readings. DMMs are available at electrical supply stores, hardware stores, and hobby shops. + Generally, you'll need to attach the leads of your DMM to the input lines to verify that the primary of the transformer is not shorted. The same process will be used to check the transformer secondary. 5. Confirm the proper input to the transformer. Apply power to the circuitry. Use the DMM in AC mode to measure the transformer primary. If the measurement is less than 80 percent of the expected voltage, the fault could lie in either the transformer or the circuitry providing the primary with power. In that case: + Separate the transformer from the input circuit. Test the input with your DMM. If the input power climbs to the expected value, the primary of the transformer is bad, + Ifthe input power does not climb to the expected value, then the problem lies not with the transformer, but with the input circuitry. [6]+ The input and output on the transformer may be labeled with "input" and “output,” or the input might be a black and white pigtail.[7] + Ifthe transformer has terminals, the input will usually be L, which stands for "line," or hot power, and N, which stands for neutral, or the neutral power going into that wire. The output will be the low voltage side. eee 6. Measure the secondary output of the transformer. If there is no filtering or shaping being performed by the secondary circuitry, use the AC mode of the DMM to read its output. If there is, use the DC scale of the DMM. + If the expected voltage is not present on the secondary, either the transformer or a filtering or shaping component is bad. Test the filtering and shaping components separately. + If the testing of the filtering and shaping components show no problems, then the transformer is bad7. Check for overdraw on your secondary. In some cases, the secondary of your transformer may be drawing too much current, causing it to short out. If you have a multi-tap transformer and you receive the reading "OL" from the secondary, it's likely the secondary is shorted. + Test this by hooking up the secondary to its circuit and using your DMM to test the secondary lines. If the reading is above the amperage rating for the transformer, the circuit is drawing too much power. Many common transformers have 3 amp fuses. The amperage rating for your transformer fuse may be labeled on the transformer, but will also be available in the circuit schematic.s.Remove inputs and outputs to determine the source of the failure. For linear fuses, you'll only have one input and output. In this case, your trouble is either coming from the input circuit or the output circuit. For more complex fuses, remove inputs and outputs to the transformer one by one to determine what component of the entire circuit is causing the short. Result: In a household circuit, you should get a reading close to 125 vac. Inference: The transformer is good and is in working condition,Experiment No. — 07 Aim :- Testing of IFT(Intermediate Frequency Transformer) using Multimetre. Apparatus required: Multimeter, multimeter probes, PCB. Theory: An IF transformer usually has two windings in it so it does contain variable inductors, but these may be tuned to a fixed frequency by placing capacitors across the inductors. If you have two parallel tuned circuits close enough to each other, then they will pass energy between them but only at a very limited range of frequencies. Other frequencies are mostly rejected. A common IF frequency is 455 KHz. IF transformers like that were mostly used for valve amplifiers because they had high impedance inputs and fairly high output impedances, IF transformers for FETs can have a low impedance input winding and a tuned secondary. This has the advantage that there is a voltage step- up and a lot of the voltage gain of the amplifier can come from this step-up. Procedure: ‘Vacuum tube AM radios use double tuned transformers for good rejection of stations on adjacent channels and wide bandwidth which gives good high frequency performance on the desired station. That means that there is a total of 4 tuned circuits in the IF amplifier. Transistor IF cans have only one tuned circuit which has a tap to match the low impedance of the collector and an un tuned low impedance secondary to match the even lower impedance of the base of the next transistor in the IF amplifier. My plan is to use two transistor IF transformers to make a single tube type one. Instead of trying to magnetically couple the resonators in two transistor IF cans I am going to design band pass couplers. The circuit I have arrived at does not require any modification of the transformer and the transformer itself does not experience any B+ voltage between primary and secondary. When two resonant circuits that are tuned to the same frequency are coupled together the band pass they produce depends on the amount of coupling. If they are over coupled the response is a double humped curve. If under coupled the insertion loss goes up but the bandwidth gets narrower. Sometimes loss is tolerated to obtain narrow bandwidth. But when the coupling is just right...ah, that is just right. The amount of insertion loss is minimum and the bandwidth has a nice single humped response. It doesn't matter if the method of coupling is magnetic as is used in tube type I F transformers or capacitive as in the transformers shown on this page. For more details on why over coupling produces the double humpMaking a Test Circuit. In order for the results to be valid the test circuit must be as much like the intended final circuit as possible. I built the first one on a scrap of PC board left over from the IM Analyzer project. I tried two yellow transformers, followed by two white and then two black. The results are summarized in the table below. Then I had an inspired thought.‘What if someday BG electronics runs out of transistor IF transformers, Then we would be reduced to scavenging from old transistor radios. There were plenty of them made so there should be a good supply. The problem is that from any one radio you are going to get 1 yellow, I white and 1 black transformer. To do two of the transformers described here you would need a total of 4 radios. That might exhaust the supply and raise the price pretty quickly. What if you only needed 2 radios? With this in mind I tested a filter that used a yellow and a white transformer together. The yellow slug was on the input side and the white on the output side. The coupling capacitor is 150 pf and there is no load resistor required on the output. The results appear in the table below. I made two of the yellow and white transformers and installed them in the 5 tube superhet which is still on one of my solder breadboards. The bandwidth seemed a little wide for night time listening so I investigated the effect of a 120 pf and then a 100 pf capacitor. ‘These results also appear in the table. The rows with the yellow background are for the two with the 150 pf cap that were installed in the radio. The two rows with the light blue background are for the two built with 100 pf caps and tested in the radio. Comparison of bandpass filers made with different transistor IF transformers. ‘Transformer | Coupling | Bandwidth Insertion | Overall Gain Color | Capipf | (kHz) BPA) Loss ap) | GBAG* (AB) White 100 10.6 64.1 00 419 Yellow 150 116 879 224 416 Black 33 10.4 28.9 2.5 39.1 Yellow & enw & | 150 R 2 228 M8 Yellow 8 ‘cow & 120 96 os 26 45.7 Yellow & 100 82 90.5 “3.0 475io > a a + Partial Schematic showing IF Transformer and connections to tubes. * The tube manual gives the following data for the 6BA6. At a plate voltage of 100 volts, plate resistance of 250 k ohms and a Transconductance of 4300 micromhos. At a plate voltage of 250 volts, plate resistance of 1 megohm and Transconductance of 4400 micromhos. Most AAS radios apply a voltage ranging from 130 to 140 volts to the plate of the 12BA6. If you look at the plate characteristics for the 6, or 12BA6 you see that the slope of the curves is changing rapidly around 100 volts and flatten out quickly only slightly above 100 V. Since the plate resistance is the reciprocal of the slope it is likely that the plate resistance of the tube is up around half a megohm at 140 volts. Perhaps the most commonly used intermediate frequencies for broadcast receivers are around 455 kHz for AM receivers and 10.7 MHz for FM receivers. ... Afirst intermediate frequency may even be higher than the input signal, so that all. undesired responses can be easily filtered out by a fixed-tuned RF stage. RESULT: Verify the result intermediate frequencies for broadcast receivers are around 455 kHz for AM receivers and 10.7 MHz for FM receivers. Inference: The IFT is in working conditions.Experiment No. - 08 Aim. Testing of Resistance using Multimetre and Reading of Resistance using Color Coding Table. Apparatus required: Multimeter, multimeter probes, various kinds of passive components, Theory: RESISTORS Ifa battery is connected across a conducting material, a certain amount of current will flow through the material. This current is dependent on the voltage of the battery, on the dimensions of the sample, and on the conductivity of the material itself. Resistors with known resistance are used for current control in electronic circuits. The resistors are made from carbon mixtures, metal films, or resistance wire and have two connecting wires attached. Variable resistors, with an adjustable sliding contact arm, are often used to control volume on radios and television sets. pass current in proportion to voltage (Ohm's law). Oppose flow of current Resistor fixed value © Power resistor — larger to safely dissipate heat generated © SIP or DIP resistor network — array of resistors in one package + Variable resistor © Rheostat - Two terminal variable resistor (often for high power) © Potentiometer — Three terminal variable resistor (variable voltage divider) © Trim pot — Small potentiometer, usually for intemal adjustments + Heater — heating element + Resistance wire, Nichrome wire — wire of high-resistance material, often used as heating element + Thermistor — temperature-varied resistor + Humistor — humidity-varied resistor + Varistor, Voltage Dependent Resistor, MOV — Passes current when excessive voltageProcedure: Method for calculation of colour code of Resistors The Resistor Color Code. We all know that we can find the resistance value of any resistor by using an ohmmeter. But what if we don't have an ohmmeter to use? Most of the case we can find the resistance value easier by interpreting its marking. Some resistors like wire-wound resistor have its printed value in ohms in their body. If they don't have the mark, you would require using an ohmmeter. An example of a resistor which usually has all of the data printed directly on the resistor body with the information such as tolerance, temperature characteristics, and exact resistance value is the precision wire wound resistor. Other resistor like the carbon resistors usually do not have the data of characteristics directly marked on them, instead they have a so called color code by which they can be identified. You will wonder why it is being done this way for carbon resistors. The reason of using a color code for a carbon resistor is that they are small which is difficult to read the printed values especially when they are mounted. Before we forgot something, there are two types of carbon resistors. The radial and an axial. They are only differ in the the way the leads are connected to the body of the resistor. Both employ the same color code but they are printed in the different manner. Radial lead resistors are not found in modern equipment. They are widely used in the past. I can't see any example of this now. 1 Place twenty given resistors on your breadboard, Make sure that there is only one resistor per row and that each leg of the resistor is in a separate row. See figure below for proper resistor placement. 2. Write down the resistor band colors for each of the resistors in the table. 3. Using the color codes determine the components theoretical resistance. 4. Turn on the multimeter, set the machine to measure resistance, and hook the leads up to the machine. View the provided course videos to see how to use this instrument. 5. Use your multimeter to measure the actual values of the resistors. Record these values in the table. 6. After steps one through five have been completed return the resistors to storage. Return the multimeter and its leads to their proper spot. 7. Fill in the rest of the table that is provided. Use the formulas provided to compute the acceptable range for the measured resistance values.www. resistorguide.com Color Signficant figures Multiply Tolerar () Bad 0 0 0 x1 Beer 1 1 1 x 10 1(F Rots 2 2 2 x 100 2(G Our 3 3 3 x 1K Young 4 4 4 x 10K Guts 5 5 5 x 100K 0.51 But 6 6 6 x iM 0.25 Vodka 7 7 7 x 10M O11 Goes 8 8 8 x 100M | 0.05 Wel white 9 9 9 x¥1G c aaa Bihaigt| x01 [50 Some silver aad x 0.01 10( Now! none bands 20 (Resistor Color Code e—_— Ca tu wit «EEK Blorance ial | = . = win 78, Brorance + bang anc + Green-Blue-Black-Brown 0 56 ohms + 1% + Red-Red-Orange-Gold © 22,000 ohms + 5% + Yellow-Violet-Brown-Gold 0470 ohms + 5% * Blue-Gray-Black-Gold 0 68 ohms + 5% RESULT: Verify the result of resistance measured from multimeter and through color code. Inference:Experiment No.— 09 Aim: Assemble Mono Stable, Astable, and Bistable multivibrator (Clocked and Unclocked ) using PCB. Apparatus required: Multimeter, multimeter probes, PCB. Theory: Multivibrators are sequential logic circuits that operate continuously between two distinct states of HIGH and LOW Individual Sequential Logie circuits can be used to build more complex circuits such as Multivibrators, Counters, Shift Registers, Latches and Memories. But for these types of circuits to operate in a “sequential” way, they require the addition of some form of clock pulse or timing signal to cause them to change their state. Clock pulses are generally continuous square or rectangular shaped waveform which are produced by a single pulse generator circuit such as a Multivibrator. A multivibrator circuit oscillates between a “HIGH!” state and a “LOW” state producing a continuous output, Astable multivibrators generally have an even 50% duty cycle, that is that 50% of the cycle time the output is “HIGH” and the remaining 50% of the cycle time the output is “OFF”. In other words, the duty cycle for an astable timing pulse is I Scquential logic circuits which use a clock signal for synchronization are dependent upon the frequency and therefore the clock pulse width to activate their switching action. Sequential circuits can also change their switching state using cither the rising edge, falling edge, or both edges of the clock signal as we have seen previously with the basic flip-flop circuits. The following list are terms commonly associated with a timing pulse or waveform, Cock Period “AE onl] Clock width Clock Signal Waveform Active HIGH — if the state change occurs from a “LOW” to a “HIGH” on the clock’s pulse rising edge or during the clock width. Active LOW — if the state change occurs from a “HIGH” to a “LOW” on the clock’s pulses falling edge. Clock Width — this is the time during which the value of the clock signal is equal to a logic “1”, or HIGH. + Clock Period — this is the time between successive transitions in the same direction, ie, between two rising or two falling edges. Duty Cycle — this is the ratio of the clock width to the clock period. Clock Frequency ~ the clock frequency is the reciprocal of the clock period, frequency = I/clock period. ( f = /T )Clock pulse generation circuits can be a combination of analogue and digital circuits that produce a continuous series of pulses (these are called Astable multivibrators) or a pulse of a specific duration (these are called Monostable multivibrators). Combining two or more multivibrator circuit provides generation of a desired pattern of pulses (including pulse width, time between pulses and frequency of pulses). There are basically three types of clock pulse generation circuits: + Astable— A free-running multivibrator that has NO stable states but switches continuously between two states this action produces a train of square wave pulses at a fixed known frequency. + Monostable — A one-shot multivibrator that has only ONE stable state as once externally triggered it returns back to its first stable state. + Bistable — A flip-flop that has TWO stable states producing a single pulse cither HIGH or LOW in value. One way of producing a very simple clock signal (or pulse) is by the interconnection of digital logic gates. As NAND gates contain current amplification, they can also be used to provide a suitable clock signal or timing pulse with the aid of a single Capacitor and Resistor to provide the required feedback and timing functions. These timing circuits are often used because of there simplicity and are also useful if a logic circuit once designed has some unused gates which can be utilised to create a monostable or astable oscillator. This simple type of RC Oscillator network is sometimes called a “Relaxation Oscillator” Monostable Multivibrator Circuits Monostable Multivibrators or “one-shot” pulse generators are generally used to convert short sharp pulses into much wider ones for timing applications. Monostable multivibrators generate a single output pulse, either “HIGH” or “LOW”, when a suitable external trigger signal or start pulse T is applied. This trigger pulse signal initiates a timing cycle which causes the output of the monostable to change state at the start of the timing cycle, ( t; }. The ouput remains in this second state until the end of the timing period, ( t; ) which is determined by the time constant of the timing capacitor, Cy and the resistor, Rr. The monostable multivibrator now stays in this second timing state until the end of the RC time constant and automatically “resets” or retums itself back to its original (stable) state. Then a monostable circuit has only one stable state which is its idle or rest state. A more common name for this type of circuit is simply a “Flip-Flop” as it can be made from two cross-coupled NAND gates (or NOR gates) as we have seen previously. Consider the circuit below.