TOPIC EIGHT: NETWORK ARCHITECTURE

Topic Learning Outcomes

By the end of this topic you should be able to:
i) Explain the roles of layering a networks
ii) Discuss existing network technologies
iii) Describe Hierarchical LAN design and converged network
iv) Describe common network topologies
v) Discuss network control access methods
8.1 Introduction
Network architecture is global view of network that describes how various
operation are organised in network and data communication. It address the
following:-
vi) Layering of networks
• OSI and TCP/IP models
vii) Network technologies
• ISDN, ATM, Ethernet, FDDI, Token ring, SONET, HIPPI e.tc,
viii) Network design
• Hierarchical design and converged network
ix) Network topologies
• Bus, star, ring, mesh and Hybrid.
x) Network control access method.
 Contention methods, token passing, demand priority, polling ad
Network switching
xi) Network security
• Security basic concepts, types of threats, security mechanisms,
secure channels, security services, message integrity and
confidentiality secure channels and access control.
Digital data communication are used in packet switched networks used to
transmit data or send data across WAN at
i) High speed,
ii) Convenient and
iii) Reliable
iv) Using different possible paths to package and route data.
8.2 Network Architecture Technologies
The most popular network architecture technologies include
8.2.1 Integrated Services for Digital Network (ISDN)
ISDN is a set of communication standards for simultaneous digital
transmission of multimedia and other network services over the public
switched telephone network (PSTN).
ISDN elements
i) With ISDN you can have a digital telephone line and a 64 Kbps data line,
or one 128 Kbps data line.
ii) 2B (Basic User) Channels – 64Kbps each – digital data and voice
iii) 1D (Data Traffic) Channel – 16Kbps – signalling information for B
channels
iv) H (High Speed) Channel – 348Kbps (H0), 1.536Mbps (H11), 1.92Mbps
(H12) – high speed apps, fax, video e.t.c
ISDN Services
There are two main ISDN services
i) The basic rate interface (BRI) is the service for homes and small
businesses. The entry level interface to ISDN is the Basic(s) Rate
Interface (BRI), a 128 Kbit/s service delivered over a pair of standard
telephone copper wires. The 144 Kbit/s payload rate is broken down into
two 64 Kbit/s bearer channels ('B' channels) and one 16 Kbit/s signaling
channel ('D' channel or data channel). This is sometimes referred to as
2B+D
 ii) The primary rate interface (PRI) is the service for larger businesses.
The other ISDN access available is the Primary Rate Interface (PRI),
which is carried over a T1 (2048 Kbit/s). A T1 is 23 'B' channels of 64
Kbit/s, one 'D' channel of 64 kbit/s and a timing and alarm channel of
64 Kbit/s. used to carry digital data in full duplex mode at rate of
1.544Mbps. A computer connected to a ISDN services can both use B
channels together for a combined 128Kbps data stream. If both end
stations support compression, much high throughput can be achieved
This is sometimes referred to as 23B+D
Example
Compute the full capacity of the following ISDN service types
i) BRI= 2B+D
= 2*64 + 16 =144Kbps
ii) PRI=23B+D
= 23*64 +64 =1.54Kbps
iii) What are D and B channels
B= Voice, data, video break down into payload
D= channels use for network management, call setup used to carry tear
down data
iv) Which one is equivalent to T1 circuit line? Explain
PRI= 23*B+D
PRI = 23*64 + 64 = 1.536Mbps = 1.544Mbps.
Explanation
1.544 Mbps @ 24 channels each 64Mbps
8.2.2 Asynchrones Transfer Mode (ATM)
ATM is the leased service that can provide a high-speed connection for data
transfer between two points either locally or over long distances. Both send
packets of data over high speed lines ad require a user to create a circuit with
a provider. It is capable of speeds up to 622 Mbps. Data travels over a
connection called a virtual channel connection (VCC). VCC is connection
between two endpoints. To better manage VCCs, a VCC must travel over a
virtual path connection (VPC). One of ATM’s strengths (besides its high
speeds) is its ability to offer various classes of service.
Types of ATM Bit Rate
i) If a company requires a high-speed, continuous connection, they might
consider a constant bit rate service.
ii) A less demanding service is variable bit rate (VBR). VBR can also
support real time applications, as well as non-real time applications, but
do not demand a constant bit stream.
iii) Available bit rate (ABR) is used for bursty traffic that does not need
to be transmitted immediately. ABR traffic may be held up until a
transmission opening is available.
iv) Unspecified bit rate (UBR) is for lower rate traffic that may get held
up, and may even be discarded part way through transmission if
congestion occurs.

Advantages and Disadvantages of ATM

• Advantages of ATM include very high speeds and the different classes
of service.
• Disadvantages include potentially high costs (both equipment and
support) and a high level of complexity.
8.2. 3: Ethernet standards
Ethernet is the most widely-installed local area network (LAN) technology.
Specified in a standard, IEEE 802.3 project specification. The standards
comprise several wiring and signaling variants of the OSI model. It provides
services up to and including the data link layer. An Ethernet LAN typically uses
coaxial cable or special grades of twisted pair wires. Ethernet is also used in
wireless LANs. An Ethernet LAN typically uses coaxial cable or special grades
of twisted pair wires. Ethernet is also used in wireless LANs. The most
commonly installed Ethernet systems are called 10BASET and provide
transmission speeds up to 10 Mbps. Devices are connected to the cable and
compete for access using a Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Detection (CSMA/CD) protocol. Fast Ethernet or 100BASE-T provides
transmission speeds up to 100 megabits per second and is typically used for
LAN backbone systems, supporting workstations with 10BASET cards. Gigabit
Ethernet provides an even higher level of backbone support at 1000 megabits
per second (1 gigabit or 1 billion bits per second). 10-Gigabit Ethernet
provides up to 10 billion bits per second.
10BASE-T
This designation is an Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
shorthand identifier. The "10" in the media type designation refers to the
transmission speed of 10 Mbps. The "BASE" refers to baseband signaling,
which means that only Ethernet signals are carried on the medium. The "T"
represents twisted-pair; the "F" represents fiber optic cable; and the "2", "5",
and "36" refer to the coaxial cable segment length (the 185 meter length has
been rounded up to "2" for 200). 10BASE-T, one of several physical media
specified in the IEEE 802.3 standard for Ethernet local area networks (LANs),
is ordinary telephone twisted pair wire. 10BASE-T supports Ethernet's 10 Mbps
transmission speed. In addition to 10BASE-T, 10 megabit Ethernet can be
implemented with these media types:
i) 10BASE-2 (Thinwire coaxial cable with a maximum segment length of
185 meters)
ii) 10BASE-5 (Thickwire coaxial cable with a maximum segment length of
500 meters)
iii) 10BASE-F (optical fiber cable)
iv) 10BASE-36 (broadband coaxial cable carrying multiple baseband
channels for a maximum length of 3,600 meters)
 v) 10GB- transmit at 10gabit per second speed at long distance miles way
e.g optical fiber cable
8.2.4 Token Ring
Ring topology: every node has exactly two branches connected to it (a
succession of point-to-point links). Stations are connected using interfaces
(repeaters). Ex: Token Ring LAN. Repeaters joined by point to point links in
closed loop. Receive data on one link and retransmit on another and links
unidirectional. Data in frames circulate past all stations, destination recognizes
address and copies frame. Frame circulates back to source where it is
removed. Media access control determines when station can insert frame.
Dual ring allows for a second (reserve) ring; data flow has here an opposite
direction; not all stations linked to both rings. The dual ring topology uses a
second (auxiliary) ring which operates in the reverse direction compared with
the main ring. The second ring is for emergencies only
8.2.5 Fiber distributed data interface (FDDI)
FDDI is a high-performance fiber optic token ring LAN running at 100 Mbps
over distances up to 200 km with up to 1000 stations connected. FDDI is used
as backbone to connect copper LANs using repeater device to connect many
link. It also used token passing access control method to share a common link
generated by special token protocol 802.5. FDDI uses a multimode fiber. The
FDDI cabling consists of two fiber rings, one transmitting clockwise and the
other transmitting counter clockwise. If either one breaks the other If both
links break at same time they can be joined to form a new approximately twice
as long. This new ring is formed by relays at the two nodes adjoining the
broken link. The basic FDDI protocols are modeled on protocol 802.5.The
station must first capture a token, transmit a frame and remove it when it
comes around. In FDDI the time spent in waiting for a frame to circumnavigate
is reduced by allowing the station to put a new token back onto the ring as
soon as it has finished transmitting its frames. In a large ring, several frames
may be on the ring at the same time.
8.3 LAN design
A properly Network architecture is a fundamental requirement for any
organization well designed LAN is and be able to select appropriate devices to
support the network specifications of a small- or medium-sized business.
8.3.1 Switched LAN Architecture
Compared to other network designs, a hierarchical network is easier to
manage and expand, and problems are solved more quickly. Hierarchical
network design involves dividing the network into discrete layers. Each layer
provides specific functions that define its role within the overall network. By
separating the various functions that exist on a network, the network design
becomes modular, which facilitates scalability and performance.
The typical hierarchical design model is broken into three layers:
i) Access
ii) Distribution
iii) Core
8.3.2 Access Layer
The access layer interfaces with end devices, such as PCs, printers, and IP
phones, to provide access to the rest of the network. The access layer can
include routers, switches, bridges, hubs, and wireless access points. The main
purpose of the access layer is to provide a means of connecting devices to the
network and controlling which devices are allowed to communicate on the
network.
8.3.3 Distribution Layer
The distribution layer aggregates the data received from the access layer
switches before it is transmitted to the core layer for routing to its final
destination. The distribution layer controls the flow of network traffic using
policies and delineates broadcast domains by performing routing functions
between virtual LANs (VLANs) defined at the access layer. VLANs allow you to
segment the traffic on a switch into separate sub-networks. For example, in a
university you might separate traffic according to faculty, students, and
guests. Distribution layer switches are typically high-performance devices that
have high availability and redundancy to ensure reliability.
8.3.4 Core Layer
The core layer of the hierarchical design is the high-speed backbone of the
internetwork. The core layer is critical for interconnectivity between
distribution layer devices, so it is important for the core to be highly available
and redundant. The core area can also connect to Internet resources. The core
aggregates the traffic from all the distribution layer devices, so it must be
capable of forwarding large amounts of data quickly. E.g. routers
Benefits of a Hierarchical Network
i) Scalability: Hierarchical networks scale very well. The modularity of
the design allows you to replicate design elements as the network
grows. Because each instance of the module is consistent, expansion is
easy to plan and implement.
ii) Redundancy: As a network grows, availability becomes more
important. You can dramatically increase availability through easy
redundant implementations with hierarchical networks. Access layer
switches are connected to two different distribution layer switches to
ensure path redundancy. If one of the distribution layer switches fails,
the access layer switch can switch to the other distribution layer switch.
If an access layer switch fails, just the devices connected to that one
switch would be affected by the outage. The rest of the network would
continue to function unaffected.
iii) Performance: Communication performance is enhanced by avoiding
the transmission of data through low performing, intermediary switches.
Data is sent through aggregated switch port links from the access layer
 to the distribution layer at near wire speed in most cases. The
distribution layer then uses its high-performance switching capabilities
to forward the traffic up to the core, where it is routed to its final
destination. Because the core and distribution layers perform their
operations at very high speeds, no contention for network bandwidth
occurs. As a result, properly designed hierarchical networks can achieve
near wire speed between all devices.
iv) Security: Security is improved and easier to manage. Access layer
switches can be configured with various port security options that
provide control over which devices are allowed to connect to the
network. You also have the flexibility to use more advanced security
policies at the distribution layer. You may apply access control policies
that define which communication protocols are deployed on your
network and where they are permitted to go. Data security has two
elements and two models. Data security elements
a. Ensuring that the data is safe from intruders
b. . Ensuring that you can replace destroyed data
Security models
1. Physical model
2. Software model
i) Physical models involve keeping intruders way form network devices
and transmission media. i.e cables cannot be trap, isolation, devices
access e.t.c
ii) Software models involves shared oriented and user oriented security
Share oriented security the security information is attached to the object
and apples to everyone who might access that object User oriented
security focuses on the right and permission of each user. A table
attached to every object lists who can do what the object permits and
 keep track of every user. E.g WIN XP and WIN 2000/2003/2007 server
security models
v) Manageability: Manageability is relatively simple on a hierarchical
network. Each layer of the hierarchical design performs specific
functions that are consistent throughout that layer. Therefore, if the
need to change the functionality of an access layer switch, you could
repeat that change across all access layer switches in the network
because they presumably perform the same functions at their layer.
Deployment of new switches is also simplified because switch
configurations can be copied between devices with very few
modifications. Consistency between the switches at each layer allows
for rapid recovery and simplified troubleshooting. In some special
situations, configuration inconsistencies could exist between devices, so
you should ensure that configurations are well documented so that you
can compare them before deployment.
vi) Maintainability: Hierarchical networks are modular in nature and scale
very easily, they are easy to maintain. With other network topology
designs, maintainability becomes increasingly complicated as the
network grows. Also, in some network design models, there is a finite
limit to how large the network can grow before it becomes too
complicated and expensive to maintain. In the hierarchical design
model, switch functions are defined at each layer, making the selection
of the correct switch easier. Adding switches to one layer does not
necessarily mean there will not be a bottleneck or other limitation at
another layer. For a full mesh network topology to achieve maximum
performance, all switches need to be high-performance switches
because each switch needs to be capable of performing all the functions
on the network. In the hierarchical model, switch functions are different
at each layer.
8.3.5 Principles of Hierarchical LAN Design
i) Network Diameter: When designing a hierarchical network topology,
the first thing to consider is network diameter, Network diameter is the
number of devices that a packet has to cross before it reaches its
destination. Keeping the network diameter low ensures low and
predictable latency between devices.
ii) Bandwidth Aggregation: Each layer in the hierarchical network model
is a possible candidate for bandwidth aggregation. Bandwidth
aggregation is the combining of two or more connections to create a
logically singular higher bandwidth connection. After bandwidth
requirements of the network are known, links between specific switches
can be aggregated, which is called link aggregation. Link aggregation
allows multiple switch port links to be combined so as to achieve higher
throughput between switches.
iii) Redundancy: Redundancy is one part of creating a highly available
network. Redundancy can be provided in a number of ways .This
protects network if one of the distribution switches fails. In case of a
failure, the access layer switch adjusts its transmission path and
forwards the traffic through the other distribution switch.
8.4 Converged Network
Convergence is the process of combining voice and video communications
on a data network. Converged networks have existed for a while now, but
were feasible only in large enterprise organizations because of the network
infrastructure requirements and complex management that was involved
to make them work seamlessly. High network costs were associated with
convergence because more expensive switch hardware was required to
support the additional bandwidth requirements. Converged networks also
required extensive management in relation to quality of service (QoS),
 because voice and video data traffic needed to be classified and prioritized
on the network.
Benefit of a Converged Network
i) In converged network is that there is just one network to manage.
With separate voice, video, and data networks, changes to the
network have to be coordinated across networks. 2.
ii) Lower implementation and management costs. It is less expensive to
implement a single network infrastructure than three distinct network
infrastructures. Managing a single network is also less expensive.
8.5 Considerations of LAN Design
i) Traffic Flow Analysis: It is the process of measuring the bandwidth
usage on a network and analyzing the data for the purpose of
performance tuning, capacity planning, and making hardware
improvement decisions
ii) Analysis Tools: Many traffic flow analysis tools that automatically
record traffic flow data to a database and perform a trend analysis are
available. In large networks, software collection solutions are the only
effective method for performing traffic flow analysis.
iii) User Community: Analysis User community analysis is the process of
identifying various groupings of users and their impact on network
performance. The way users are grouped affects issues related to port
density and traffic flow, which, in turn, influence the selection of network
switches.
iv) Data Stores and Data Servers Analysis: When analyzing traffic on a
network, consider where the data stores and servers are located so that
you can determine the impact of traffic on the network. Data stores can
be servers, storage area networks (SANs), network-attached storage
(NAS), tape backup units, or any other device or component where large
quantities of data are stored.
 v) Topology Diagrams: A topology diagram is a graphical representation
of a network infrastructure. A topology diagram shows how all switches
are interconnected, detailed down to which switch port Interconnects
the devices
8.6 Network topologies
The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out
physically. Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a
topology. The topology of a network is the geometric representation of the
relationship of all the links and linking devices (usually called nodes) to one
another. There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring
which are shown in the following figure.

8.6.1 Mesh Topology:

In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every
other device. The dedicated link carries traffic only between the two devices
it connects. The number of physical links needed in a fully connected mesh
network with n nodes are, n(n - 1). However, if each physical link allows
communication in both directions (duplex mode), we can divide the number
of links by 2. In other words, we can say that in a mesh topology, we need
n(n -1) /2 duplex-mode links. To accommodate that many links, every device
on the network must have n – 1 input/output (I/O) ports to be connected to
the other n - 1 stations which are shown in the following figure:

Advantages:
The different advantages of Mesh topology are as follows:
i) The dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry its own
data load, thus eliminating the traffic problems that can occur when links
must be shared by multiple devices.
ii) A mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes unusable, it does not
incapacitate the entire system.
iii) Another advantage of Mesh topology is advantage of privacy or security.
When every message travels along a dedicated line, only the intended
recipient sees it. Physical boundaries prevent other users from gaining
access to messages.
iv) Point-to-point links make fault identification and fault isolation easy.
Traffic can be routed to avoid links with suspected problems. This helps
to discover the precise location of the fault and aids in finding its cause
and solution.
Disadvantages: The disadvantages are as follows.
i) Every device must be connected to every other device. So large amount
of cabling and the number of I/O ports are required. So, the installation
and reconnection are difficult.
ii) The sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than the available space (in
walls, ceilings, or floors) can accommodate.
 iii) The hardware required to connect each link (I/O ports and cable) can
be prohibitively expensive.
8.6.2 Star Topology:
In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a
central controller, usually called a hub. The devices are not directly linked to
one another. Unlike a mesh topology, a star topology does not allow direct
traffic between devices. The controller acts as an exchange: If one device
wants to send data to another, it sends the data to the controller, which then
relays the data to the other connected device as shown in the following Figure.

Advantages:
i) A star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology. In a star, each
device needs only one link and one I/O port to connect it to any number
of others.
ii) A star topology is robust. Robustness. If one link fails, only that link is
affected. All other links remain active. This factor also lends itself to
easy fault identification and fault isolation.
Disadvantages:
 i) One big disadvantage of a star topology is the dependency of the whole
topology on one single point, the hub. If the hub goes down, the whole
system is dead.
ii) Although a star requires far less cable than a mesh, each node must be
linked to a central hub. For this reason, often more cabling is required
in a star than in some other topologies (such as ring or bus).
8.6.3 Bus Topology:
The preceding examples all describe point-to-point connections. A bus
topology, on the other hand, is multipoint. One long cable acts as a backbone
to link all the devices in a network which is shown in the following figure.

Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines and taps. A drop line is a
connection running between the device and the main cable. A tap is a
connector that either splices into the main cable or punctures the sheathing
of a cable to create a contact with the metallic core. As a signal travels along
the backbone, some of its energy is transformed into heat. Therefore, it
becomes weaker and weaker as it travels farther and farther. For this reason
there is a limit on the number of taps a bus can support and on the distance
between those taps.
Advantages:
i) The main advantages of a bus topology is ease of installation. Backbone
cable can be laid along the most efficient path, then connected to the
nodes by drop lines of various lengths.
Disadvantages:
i) The disadvantage of bus topology is difficult reconnection and fault
isolation. A bus is usually designed to be optimally efficient at
installation. It can therefore be difficult to add new devices. Signal
reflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality.
ii) A fault or break in the bus cable stops all transmission, even between
devices on the same side of the problem. The damaged area reflects
signals back in the direction of origin, creating noise in both directions.

8.6.4 Ring Topology:

In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with
only the two devices on either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in
one direction, from device to device, until it reaches its destination. Each
device in the ring incorporates a repeater. When a device receives a signal
intended for another device, its repeater regenerates the bits and passes them
along. A typical ring topology is as shown in the figure.
Advantages:
i) A ring is relatively easy to install and reconfigure. Each device is linked
to only its immediate neighbors (either physically or logically). To add
or delete a device requires changing only two connections.
ii) A signal is circulating at all times (token) if one device does not receive
a signal within specified period, it can issue an alarm. The alarm alerts
the network operator to the problem and its location
Disadvantages:
i) The main disadvantage of ring topology is unidirectional traffic can be a
disadvantage. In a simple ring, a break in the ring (such as a disabled
station) can disable the entire network.
8.6.5 Hybrid Topology:
A network can be hybrid. It compose of combination of more than one type
of topologies. For example, we can have a main star topology with each branch
connecting several stations in a bus topology as shown in the following figure.

Mostly this type topology is practically used in real working network. It is

impossible to implement only one type of topology in practical working
network.
8.7 Network Control Access Method.
In networking, to access a resource is to be able to use that resource. The
role of access methods is concerned with how data is put and traffic control
on a network cable. Multiple computers must share access to the cable that
connects them. However, if two computers were to put data onto the cable at
the same time, the data packets from one computer would collide with the
packets from the other computer, and both sets of data packets would be
destroyed. If data is to be sent over the network from one user to another, or
accessed from a server, there must be some way for the data to access the
cable without running into other data. And the receiving computer must have
reasonable assurance that the data has not been destroyed in a data collision
during transmission.
Access methods need to be consistent in the way they handle data. If different
computers were to use different access methods, the network would fail
because some methods would dominate the cable.
Access methods prevent computers from gaining simultaneous access to the
cable. By making sure that only one computer at a time can put data on the
network cable, access methods ensure that the sending and receiving of
network data is an orderly process.
There are five access methods:
i) Contention Methods
a. Carrier-Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)
Access Method
b. Carrier-Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)
Access Method
ii) Token passing,
iii) Demand priority.
iv) Polling
v) Switching
The Function of Access Methods
The set of rules that defines how a computer puts data onto the network cable
and takes data from the cable is called an access method. Once data is moving
on the network, access methods help to regulate the flow of network traffic.
8.7.1 CONTENTION METHOD
Carrier-Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)
Access Method
Using the method known as carrier-sense multiple access with collision
detection (CSMA/CD), each computer on the network, including clients and
servers, checks the cable for network traffic. Only when a computer "senses"
that the cable is free and that there is no traffic on the cable can it send data.
Once the computer has transmitted data on the cable, no other computer can
transmit data until the original data has reached its destination and the cable
is free again. Remember, if two or more computers happen to send data at
exactly the same time, there will be a data collision. When that happens, the
two computers involved stop transmitting for a random period of time and
then attempt to retransmit. Each computer determines its own waiting period;
this reduces the chance that the computers will once again transmit
simultaneously.
With these points in mind, the name of the access method—carrier-sense
multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD)—makes sense. Computers
listen to or "sense" the cable (carrier-sense). Commonly, many computers on
the network attempt to transmit data (multiple access); each one first listens
to detect any possible collisions. If a computer detects a possible collision, it
waits for a random period of time before retransmitting (collision detection).
CSMA/CD Considerations
The more computers there are on the network, the more network traffic there
will be. With more traffic, collision avoidance and collisions tend to increase,
which slows the network down, so CSMA/CD can be a slow-access method.
After each collision, both computers will have to try to retransmit their data.
If the network is very busy, there is a chance that the attempts by both
computers will result in collisions with packets from other computers on the
network. If this happens, four computers (the two original computers and the
two computers whose transmitted packets collided with the original
computer's retransmitted packets) will have to attempt to retransmit. These
proliferating retransmissions can slow the network to a near standstill.
The occurrence of this problem depends on the number of users attempting
to use the network and which applications they are using. Database
applications tend to put more traffic on the network than word-processing
applications do.
Depending on the hardware components, the cabling, and the networking
software, using a CSMA/CD network with many users running several
database applications can be very frustrating because of heavy network
traffic.
Carrier-Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)
Access Method
Carrier-sense multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA) is the least
popular of the three major access methods. In CSMA/CA, each computer
signals its intent to transmit before it actually transmits data. In this way,
computers sense when a collision might occur; this allows them to avoid
transmission collisions. Unfortunately, broadcasting the intent to transmit
data increases the amount of traffic on the cable and slows down network
performance.
8.7.2 Token-Passing Access Method
In the access method known as token passing, a special type of packet, called
a token, circulates around a cable ring from computer to computer. When any
computer on the ring needs to send data across the network, it must wait for
a free token. When a free token is detected, the computer will take control of
it if the computer has data to send.
The computer can now transmit data. Data is transmitted in frames, and
additional information, such as addressing, is attached to the frame in the
form of headers and trailers,
While the token is in use by one computer, other computers cannot transmit
data. Because only one computer at a time can use the token, no contention
and no collision take place, and no time is spent waiting for computers to
resend tokens due to network traffic on the cable.

Token-passing is a method that uses an electronic signal called a token.

Possession of the token gives a device exclusive use of the transmission
channel. The token travels along the channel and stops at each device. A
device with a message to send will pick up the token and use it in order to
send its message.
When token-passing is used, the device gains access to the transmission
channel as follows:
• A network device with a message to send captures the available token
as it passes by on the channel.
• The message is attached to the token.
• The message-bearing token continues to circulate on the channel.
• As the token stops at a device, it is checked to see if the message is for
the device—this destination device will recognize its address and will
read the message.
• The destination device then attaches an acknowledgment of receipt to
the token which continues to circulate.
• When the sending device eventually receives the acknowledgment, it
clears the
• Token so it may be used by another device.
The token-passing scheme is most commonly used in ring or bus topologies.
8.7.3 Demand Priority Access Method
Demand priority is a relatively new access method designed for the 100-Mbps
Ethernet standard known as 100VG-AnyLAN. Standardized by (IEEE) in its
802.12 specification. This access method is based on the fact that repeaters
and end nodes are the two components that make up all 100VG-AnyLAN
networks. The repeaters manage network access by doing round-robin
searches for requests to send from all nodes on the network. The repeater, or
hub, is responsible for noting all addresses, links, and end nodes and verifying
that they are all functioning. According to the 100VG-AnyLAN definition, an
end node can be a computer, bridge, router, or switch.

Demand-Priority Contention
As in CSMA/CD, two computers using the demand-priority access method can
cause contention by transmitting at exactly the same time. However, with
demand priority, it is possible to implement a scheme in which certain types
of data will be given priority if there is contention. If the hub or repeater
receives two requests at the same time, the highest priority request is serviced
first. If the two requests are of the same priority, both requests are serviced
by alternating between the two.
In a demand-priority network, computers can receive and transmit at the
same time because of the cabling scheme defined for this access method. In
this method, four pairs of wires are used, which enables quartet signalling,
transmitting 25 MHz signals on each of the pairs of wire in the cable.
Demand-Priority Considerations
In a demand-priority network, there is communication only between the
sending computer, the hub, and the destination computer. This is more
efficient than CSMA/CD, which broadcasts transmissions to the entire
network. In demand priority, each hub knows only about the end nodes and
repeaters directly connected to it, whereas in a CSMA/CD environment, each
hub knows the address of every node in the network.
Demand priority offers several advantages over CSMA/CD including:
 The use of four pairs of wires.
By using four pairs of wires, computers can transmit and receive at the
same time.
 Transmissions through the hub.
Transmissions are not broadcast to all the other computers on the
network. The computers do not contend on their own for access to the
cable, but operate under the centralized control of the hub.
Simple LANs generally consist of one or more switches. A switch can be
connected to a router, cable modem, or ADSL modem for Internet access.
Complex LANs are characterized by their use of redundant links with switches
using the spanning tree protocol to prevent loops, their ability to manage
differing traffic types via quality of service (QoS), and to segregate traffic with
VLANs. A LAN can include a wide variety of network devices such as switches,
firewalls, routers, load balancers, and sensors.
8.7.4 Polling
Polling requires that each device on the network be asked if it has a message
to transmit. To ensure that each device is given an equal opportunity to
speak, polling must be under central control.
Most commonly found on networks with a central controlling device such as
that found in a star topology.
When polling is used, the device gains access to the transmission channels as
follows:
• The central controlling device checks with, or polls, each station
regularly to see if it has a message to send.
 • If the station has a message to send, and the transmission channel is
clear, the station receives exclusive use of the channel and sends its
message.
• As soon as the station has sent its message, the channel is free for
another device to use.
8.7.5 Switching
While not strictly an access control scheme, switching provides a mechanism
where a station does not have to share a transmission channel. Switching
provides a dedicated transmission channel to each port of a switching hub.
Each transmission channel can have multiple stations attached to it, but in
high traffic environments, each station can be assigned its own dedicated
channel to the switching hub. The switching hub is responsible for providing
communications between the channels.
Traditionally, if a network is experiencing excessive traffic—slow performance
the network is split into smaller segments, each with its own hub and with
fewer attached stations. A switching hub performs this type of segmentation
inside a single chassis. It has a number of ports, each of which is a dedicated
LAN segment. When switching is used, stations access the transmission
channel and communicate as
follows:
• The sending station puts its data onto the transmission channel.
• The switching devices handles the connection to other stations.
• The switching devices handles intersegment traffic via an internal matrix
switch.
• When a packet arrives at the switch, its destination address is noted and
a connection is made to the destination station.
• The packet is then switched to the destination station.
• Subsequent packets are relayed through the switch automatically
There are two types of switching as discuss in topic 9
 i) Packet switching:
ii) Circuit switching :

In summary, you learned the following concepts on this topic

i) Network technologies
• ISDN, ATM, Ethernet, FDDI, Token ring, SONET, HIPPI e.tc,
ii) Network design
• Hierarchical design and converged network
iii) Network topologies
• Bus, star, ring, mesh and Hybrid.
iv) Network control access method.
• Contention Methods, Token passing, Demand priority, Polling and
Switching
TOPIC ACTIVITIES
Activity
Read and make briefly on
i) SONET network architecture, define, implementation, protocol use,
access control method, application
ii) HIPPI network architecture define, implementation, protocol use,
access control method, application.
Topic Review questions
i) The basic rate interface (BRI) is the service for homes and small
businesses, while the primary rate interface (PRI) is the service for
larger businesses. Compute the full capacity of the following service
types.
i) BRI= 2B+D
ii) PRI=23B+D
ii) Fibre distributed data interface (FDDI) is used as backbone to connect
copper LANs to connect many link. Explain which network topology,
 network access control and network device is used to share a common
link.
iii) An airline seat reservation system is being designed in a new airport.
One problem that existed in the old location is that some of fast
computers on the network could monopolize the bandwidth, causing
agents with slower computer to miss seating opportunities Recommend
and explain network topology could you use that creates a far
environment in which all computer have equal access to the available
bandwidth?
iv) Discuss types of connection that ATM utilizes to implement connectivity
and manage data transfer between two endpoints either locally or over
long distances.
v) A properly designed LAN is a fundamental requirement for any
organization well designed LAN is and be able to select appropriate
devices to support the network specifications of a small- or medium-
sized business. The typical hierarchical design model is broken into three
layers namely;
 Access layer
 Distributed layer
 Core layer
a) Write short notes on each hierarchical layer above
b) State three key principles of hierarchical LAN Design