8.

Electrostatics
charge configurations with the help of some
Can you recall?
examples.
1. What are conservative forces? 8.2.1 Electric Field Intensity due to Uniformly
2. What is potential energy ? Charged Spherical Shell or Hollow Sphere:
3. What is Gauss’ law and what is a Consider a sphere of radius R with its
Gaussian surface? centre at O, charged to a uniform surface
charge density σ (C/m2 ) placed in a dielectric
8.1 Introduction:
medium of permittivity ε (ε = ε 0 k ) . The total
In XIth Std we have studied the Gauss’ charge on the sphere, q = σ × 4πR2
Law which gives the relationship between By Gauss’ theorem, the net flux through a
the electric charge and its electric field. It closed Gaussian surface
also provides equivalent methods for finding φ = q/ε0 (for air/vacuum k=1)
electric field intensity by relating values of where q is the total charge inside the closed
the field at a closed Gaussian surface and the surface.
total charge enclosed by it. It is a powerful tool
which can be applied for the calculation of the
electric field when it originates from charge
distribution of sufficient symmetry. The Gauss'
law is written as
  q
   E  ds  --- (8.1)
0
where φ is the total flux coming out of a
closed surface and q is the total charge inside Fig. 8.1: Uniformly charged spherical shell or
the closed surface. hollow sphere.
To find the electric field intensity at
Common steps involved in calculating
electric field intensity by using Gauss’ law:
a point P, at a distance r from the centre of
1. Identify the charge distribution as the charged sphere, imagine a concentric
linear/cylindrical/spherical charge density. Gaussian sphere of radius r passing through
2. Visualize a Gaussian surface justifying its P. Let ds be a small area around the point P
symmetry for the given charge distribution. on the Gaussian surface. Due to symmetry and
3. Obtain the flux by Gauss’ law (Let this be spheres being concentric, the electric field at
Eq. (A)) each point on the Gaussian surface has the
4. With the electric field intensity E same magnitude E and it is directed radially
as unknown, obtain electric flux by outward. Also, the angle between the direction
calculation, using geometry of the structure of E and the normal to the surface of the sphere
and symmetry of the Gaussian surface (Let (ds) is zero i.e., cos θ = 1
this be Eq. (B))  
∴ E . ds = E ds cos θ = E ds
5. Equate RHS of Eq. (A) and Eq. (B) and
∴ flux d φ through the area ds = E ds
calculate E.
Total electric flux
 through the Gaussian

8.2 Application of Gauss' Law: surface    E ds   Eds  E  ds
In this section we shall see how to obtain ∴ φ = E 4π r 2 --- (8.2)
the electric field intensity for some symmetric From equations (8.1) and (8.2),
186
 q/ε0 = E 4π r2
∴ E = q/ 4 0 r 2 --- (8.3)
Since q = σ × 4πR 2

We have E = σ × 4πR2 / 4 0 r

2

∴E = σR2 / ε 0 r
2
--- (8.4)
From Eqn. (8.3) it can be seen that, the
electric field at a point outside the shell is the
same as that due to a point charge. Thus it can
be concluded that a uniformly charged sphere
is equivalent to a point charge at its center. Fig. 8.2: Infinitely long straight charged wire
Case (i) If point P lies on the surface of the (cylinder).
charged sphere: r = R To find the electric field intensity at P ,at
∴ E= q/ 4 0 R 2 =σ/ ε 0 a distance r from the axis of the charged wire,
Case (ii) If point P lies inside the sphere: Since imagine a coaxial Gaussian cylinder of length l
and radius r (closed at each end by plane caps
there are no charges inside σ = 0,
normal to the axis) passing through the point P.
∴ E = 0.
Consider a very small area ds at the point P on
Example : 8.1 the Gaussian surface.
A sphere of radius 10 cm carries a charge of By symmetry, the magnitude of the electric
1µC. Calculate the electric field field will be the same at all the points on the
(i) at a distance of 30 cm from the center curved surface of the cylinder and will be
of the sphere directed radially outward. The angle between
(ii) at the surface of the sphere and the direction of E and the normal to the curved or
(iii)  at a distance of 5 cm from the center of flat surface of the cylinder (ds) is zero or (π/2) i.e.,
the sphere. cos θ =1 or cos (π/2) = 0.
∴ E.ds = Eds cos θ = Eds
Solution: Given: q = 1µC = 1 × 10-6 C
Flux d f through the area ds = E ds.
(i) Electric intensity at a distance r is Total electric flux through the Gaussian
E = q/ 4 0 r
2
cylindrical
 surface
For r = 30 cm = 0.3 m    E  ds   Eds  E  ds 
9  109  1 10 6 ∴ f = E. 2πrl --- (8.5)
E =  = 105 N/C
 0.3
2
From equations (8.1) and (8.5)
(ii) E on the surface of the sphere, R =10 q/ ε 0 = E 2π rl
cm = 0.10m Since λ = q/l , q = λ l
E = q/ 4 0 R 2 ∴ λ l / ε 0 = E 2π rl
E = λ / 2 0 r --- (8.6)
9  109  1 10 6 The direction of the electric field E is
= = 9 × 105 N/C
 0.10 
2
directed outward if λ is positive and inward if
(iii) E at a point 5 cm away from the centre is λ negative (Fig 8.3).
i.e. inside the sphere E = 0.
8.2.2 Electric Field Intensity due to an
Infinitely Long Straight Charged Wire:
Consider a uniformly charged wire of
infinite length having a constant linear charge
density λ (charge per unit length), kept in a
medium of permittivity ε (ε = ε 0 k ) . Fig. 8.3: Direction of the field for two types of
charges.
187
 Example 8.2: The length of a straight thin By symmetry the electric field is at right
wire is 2 m. It is uniformly charged with a angles to the end caps and away from the
positive charge of 3µC. Calculate plane. Its magnitude is the same at P and P'.
(i) the charge density of the wire The flux passing through the curved surface is
(ii) the electric intensity due to the wire at zero as the electric field is tangential to this
a point 1.5 m away from the center of the surface.
wire ∴ the total flux through the closed Gaussian
Solution: Given surface is given by
    Eds     Eds     Eds 
charge q = 3 µC = 3 × 10-6 C
P P' curved surface

Length l = 2 m, r = 1.5 m
(since θ = 0, cos θ =1)
(i) Charge Density λ = Charge/ length = EA + EA
3 10 6 φ
∴ = 2EA --- (8.7)
= = 1.5 × 10-6 C m-1
2 If σ is the surface charge density then
(ii) Electric Intensity E = λ / 2 0 r
σ = q/A, q = σA
1.5  10 6 ∴ Eq. (8.1) can be written as
=
2  3.142  8.85  10 12  1.5 φ = σA/ ε 0 
--- (8.8) 
= 1.798 × 104 N C-1 From Eq. (8.7) and Eq. (8.8)
8.2.3 Electric Field due to a Charged Infinite 2EA = σA/ ε 0 ∴ E = σ/2 ε 0
Plane Sheet:
Example: 8.3 The charge per unit area
Consider a uniformly charged infinite
of a large flat sheet of charge is 3µC/m2.
plane sheet with surface charge density σ.
By symmetry electric field is perpendicular Calculate the electric field intensity at
to plane sheet and directed outwards ,having a point just near the surface of the sheet,
same magnitude at a given distance on either measured from its midpoint.
sides of the sheet. Let P be a point at a distance Solution: Given
r from the sheet and E be the electric field at P. Surface Charge Density = σ = 3× 10-6 Cm-2
Electric Intensity E = σ/2 ε 0
3 10 6
= = 1.695 × 105 N C-1
2  8.85  10 12

Can you recall?

What is gravitational Potential ?
8.3 Electric Potential and Potential Energy:
Fig. 8.4: Charged infinite plane sheet. We have studied earlier that the potential
To find the electric field due to a charged energy of a system is the stored energy that
infinite plane sheet at P, we consider a depends upon the relative positions of its
Gaussian surface around P in the form of a
constituents. Electrostatic potential energy is
cylinder having cross sectional area A and
length 2r with its axis perpendicular to the the work done against the electrostatic forces
plane sheet. The plane sheet passes through to achieve a certain configuration of charges
the middle of the length of the cylinder such in a given system. Since every system tries
that the ends of the cylinder (called end caps to attain the lowest potential energy, work
P and P') are equidistant (at a distance r) from is always required to be done to change the
the plane sheet. configuration.
188
 We know that like charges repel and   1  Qq0
unlike charges attract each other. A charge FE =    2 r̂
exerts a force on any other charge in its  4  0  r
vicinity. Some work is always done to move where r is the unit vector in the direction of
 
a charge in the presence of another charge. r . Negative sign shows r and FE are
Thus, any collection of charges possesses oppositely directed.
potential energy. Consider a positive charge ∴For a system of two point charges,
Q fixed at some point in space. For bringing B r2
 1  Qq0 
any other positive charge close to it, work is ΔU = ∫dU =     2 rˆ.dr 
necessary. This work is equal to the change A r1  4  0  r
r
in the potential energy of the system of two  1   1 
2

charges.  U     Qq0  
 4  0   r r1
Thus, work done against a electrostatic force =
Increase in the potential  1   1 1
  energy of the system.   Qq0   
∴ F . dr = dU,  4  0   r2 r1 
where dU is the increase in potential energy
 The change in the potential energy depends
when
 the charge is displaced through dr and
only upon the end points and is independent of
F is the force exerted on the charge.
Expression for potential energy: the path taken by the charge. The change in
Let us consider the electrostatic field due potential energy is equal to the work done WAB
to a source charge +Q placed at the origin O. against the electrostatic force.
Let a small charge + q0  be brought from point  1   1 1
WAB  U    Qq0   
A to point B at respective distances r1 and r2  4  0   r2 r1 
from O, against the repulsive forces on it. So far we have defined/calculated the
change in the potential energy for system of
charges. It is convenient to choose infinity to
be the point of zero potential energy as the
Fig. 8.5: Change +q0 displaced by dr towards electrostatic force is zero at r   .
charge +Q. Thus, the potential energy U of the system
 Work done against the electrostatic force of two point charges q1 and q2 separated by r
FE , in displacing the charge q0 through a can be obtained from the above equation by

small displacement dr appears as an increase using r1   andr2  r . It is then given by
in the potential
 energy of the system.  1   q1q2 
.  U r   
dU = FE dr = - FE.dr   --- (8.9)
Negative sign appears because the  4  0   r 
 Units of potential energy :
displacement
 d r is against the electrostatic
force FE . SI unit= joule (J)
For the displacement of the charge from “One joule is the energy stored in moving
the initial position A to the final position B, a charge of 1C through a potential difference
the change in potential energy ΔU, can be of 1 volt. Another convenient unit of energy is
obtained by integrating dU electron volt (eV), which is the change in the
B B
  kinetic energy of an electron while crossing
∴ΔU = ∫ dU =   FE .dr
A A two points maintained at a potential difference
The electrostatic force (Coulomb force) of 1 volt.”
between the two charges separated by distance 1 eV = 1.6 × 10-19 joule
r is Other related units are:
189
 1 meV = 1.6 × 10-22 J the work done on a unit positive charge, dw =
1 kev = 1.6 × 10-16 J dV = difference in potential between M and N.
Concept of Potential:  dV   Edx
Equation (8.9) gives the potential energy dV
E
of a two particles system at a distance r from dx
each other. Thus the electric field at a point is the
 1   q1q2 
U r      negative gradient of the potential at that point.
 4  0 r   r  Zero potential:
 q   q  The nature of potential is such that its
  1  q2   2  q1
 4  0 r   4  0 r  zero point is arbitrary. This does not mean
 q  that the choice of zero point is insignificant.
The quantity V  r     depends upon Once the zero point of the potential is set,
 4  0 r  then every potential is measured with respect
the charge q and location of a point at a distance
to that reference. The zero potential is set
r from it. This is defined as the electrostatic
conveniently.
potential of the charge q at a distance r from it. In case of a point charge or localised
In terms of potential, we can write the collection of charges, the zero point is set at
potential energy of the system of two charges infinity. For electrical circuits the earth is
as U  r   V1  r  q2  V2  r  q1 , usually taken to be at zero potential.
where V1(r) and V2(r) are the respective Thus the potential at a point A in an
potentials of charges q1 and q2 at distance r electric field is the amount of work done to
from either. bring a unit positive charge from infinity to
∴ Electrostatic potential energy (U ) = electric point A.
potential V × charge q
Or, Electrostatic Potential (V ) = Electrostatic Example 8.4: Potential at a point A in
Potential Energy per unit charge. space is given as 4 × 105 V.
i.e., V = U /q (i) Find the work done in bringing a charge
Electrostatic potential difference between any of 3 µC from infinity to the point A.
two points in an electric field can be written as (ii) Does the answer depend on the path
U –U
V2 − V1 = 2  1 = dW = work done dW along which the charge is brought ?
q q
Solution : Given
(or change in PE) per unit charge to move the
Potential (V ) at the point A = 4 × 105 V
charge from point 2 to point 1.
Charge q0 = 3 µC =3× 10 –6 C
Relation between electric field and electric
(i) Work done in bringing the charge from
potential:
infinity to the point A is
Consider the electric field produced by a
W∞ = q0 V
charge +q kept at point O (see Fig. 8.6). Let us
= 3 ×10-6 × 4 × 105
calculate the work done to move a unit positive
= 12 × 10-1
charge from point M to point N which is at a
W∞ = 1.2 J
small distance dx from M. The direction of
 (ii) No, the work done is independent of
the electric field at M is along OM . Thus the
the path.
force acting on the unit positive charge is along
 Example 8.5 If 120 µ J of work is done in
OM . The work done = dW = - Fdx = -Edx. The
carrying a charge of 6 µ C from a place
negative sign indicates that we are moving the
where the potential is 10 volt to another
charge against the force acting on it. As it is
190
 r
place where the potential is V, find V -q
x
2
=
dx
Solution: Given : WAB = 120 µJ , 4 0 
q0 = 6 µC, VA = 10 V, VB = V -q  1  r
 1 
   x 2 dx  
As VB - VA = AB
W 4 0  x 
 x 
q0 q 1 1   1 
120  10 6 J
      0 
V - (10) = 4 0  r     
6  10 6 C q
V - (10) = 20 W = --- (8.12)
∴ V = 30 volt 4 0 r

By definition this is the electrostatic
8.4 Electric Potential due to a Point Charge,
potential at A due to charge q.
a Dipole and a System of Charges: q
∴V = W =  --- (8.13)
a) Electric potential due to a point charge: 4 0 r
Here, we shall derive an expression for the A positively charged particle produces
electrostatic potential due to a point charge. a positive electric potential and a negatively
Figure 8.6 shows a point charge +q, charged particle produces a negative electric
located at point O. We need to determine its potential
q
potential at a point A, at a distance r from it. At r = ∞, V = 0

This shows that the electrostatics potential
is zero at infinity.
Equation (8.13) shows that for any point
Fig. 8.6: Electric potential due to a point charge. at a distance r from the point charge q, the
As seen above the electric potential at a value of V is the same and is independent of
point A is the amount of work done per unit the direction of r. Hence electrostatic potential
positive charge, which is displaced from ∞ to due to a single charge is spherically symmetric.
point A. As the work done is independent of Figure 8.7 shows how electric potential
the path, we choose a convenient path along 1 1
( V α ) and electric field (E α 2 ) vary with
the line extending OA to ∞. r r
r, the distance from the charge.
Let M be an intermediate point on this
path where OM = x. The electrostatic force on
a unit positive charge at M is of magnitude
1 q
F   2 --- (8.10)
4  0 x Fig. 8.7: Variation
It is directed away from O, along OM. For of electric field
infinitesimal displacement dx from M to N, the and potential with
distance
amount of work done is given by
∴dW = - Fdx --- (8.11)
The negative sign appears as the
displacement is directed opposite to that of the
force.
Remember this
∴ Total work done in displacing the unit
positive charge from ∞ to point A is given by Due to a single charge at a distance r,
r r
1 q Force (F) α 1 / r 2 , Electric field (E) α 1/ r 2
W    Fdx    dx
 
4 0 x 2 but Potential (V) α 1/ r.
191
 Example 8.6: A wire is bent in a circle of –q
V2 =
radius 10 cm. It is given a charge of 250µC 4 0 r2
which spreads on it uniformly. What is the The electrostatic potential is the work
electric potential at the centre ? done by the electric field per unit charge,
 W
Solution : Given : V   .
 Q
q = 250 µC = 250 × 10-6 C
The potential at C due to the dipole is,
R = 10 cm = 10-1 m
q 1 1
V = ? VC  V1  V2   - 
1 q 9 109  250 10 6  4 0  r1 r2 
As V = =
4π  0 r 10 1
By geometry, 2
r 12  r    2 r  cos 
2 2
= 2.25 × 107 volt
r 2  r    2 r  cos 
2 2
b) Electric potential due to an electric dipole:
We have studied electric and magnetic r 2  r 2  1    2  cos  
2

dipoles in XIth Std. Figure 8.8 shows an 1  

 r2 r 

electric dipole AB consisting of two charges
r  r 2  1    2  cos  
2 2

+q and -q separated by a finite distance 2ℓ. 2

  r2 r 
Its dipole moment is p, of magnitude p = q ×
2l, directed from -q to +q. The line joining the For a short dipole, 2  << r and
centres of the two charges is called dipole axis.  2
If r >>  r is small ∴ 2 can be neglected
A straight line drawn perpendicular to the axis r

and passing through centre O of the electric
 r 1  r 2  1  2  cos  
2

dipole is called equator of dipole.  r 

In order to determine the electric potential 2
 2 
due to a dipole, let the origin be at the centre r 2  r 2 1  cos  
 r 
(O) of the dipole. 1
 r  r  1  2 cos  
2

1  r 
 
1

r2  r  1  2 cos  
2

 r 
1
1 1  2  2
  1  cos   and
r1 r  r 
1
Fig. 8.8: Electric potential due to an electric 1 1  2  2
 1  cos  
dipole. r2 r  r 
Let C be any point near the electric dipole  1
q 1 2  cos   2
VC  V1  V2   1 
4 0  r 
at a distance r from the centre O inclined at an
r 
angle θ with axis of the dipole. r1 and r2 are 
the distances of point C from charges +q and 1 2  cos  
1
2 
-q, respectively.  1  
r r 
Potential at C due to charge +q at A is, 
V = + q Using binomial expansion, ( 1 + x)n = 1 +
4 0 r1
1
nx, x << l and retaining terms up to the first
Potential at C due to charge -q at B is, 
order of only, we get
r
192
 q 1  Solution: Given
    
VC 
  1  cos     1  cos    p = 1×10-9 Cm
4 0 r  r   r 
r = 0.3 m
q    

 1  cos   1  cos   a) Potential at a point on the axial line
4 o r  r r  1 p 9  109  1 10 9
q  2  V = = =100 volt
  cos   4π  0 r 2  0.3
2
4 o r  r  b) Potential at a point on the equatorial line
1 p cos 

VC  ∵ p  q  2  = 0
4 0 r2
c) Potential at a point on a line making an
Electric potential at C, can also be expressed angle of 60° with the dipole axis is
as,  
1 p .r 1 p cos  9  109  1 10 9 cos 60
VC  V= =
4 0 r 3 4  0 r 2  0.3
2

  = 50 volt
1 p .r   r 
VC  ,  r   c) Electrostatics potential due to a system of
4 0 r 2  r charges:

where r is a unit vector along the position
We now extend the analysis to a system of
vector, OC = r
charges.
i) Potential at an axial point, θ = 0 0 (towards
+q) or 1800 (towards – q)
1 p
Vaxial 
4 o r 2
i.e. This is the maximum value of the potential.
ii) Potential at an equatorial point, θ = 90° and
V=0
Hence, the potential at any point on the
equatorial line of a dipole is zero. This is Fig. 8.9: System of charges.
the minimum value of the magnitude of the Consider a system of charges q1, q2 .........
potential of a dipole. qn at distances r1, r2 ...... rn respectively from
Thus the plane perpendicular to the line point P. The potential V1 at P due to the charge
between the charges at the midpoint is an q1 is
1 q1
equipotential plane with potential zero. The V1 =
4 0 r1
work done to move a charge anywhere in this Similarly the potentials V2, V3 ........Vn at
plane (potential difference being zero) will be P due to the individual charges q2, q3 ...........qn
zero. are given by
1 q2 1 q3 1 qn
V2  , V3  , Vn 
Example 8.7: A short electric dipole has 4 0 r2 4 0 r3 4 0 rn
dipole moment of 1 × 10-9 C m. Determine By the superposition principle, the
the electric potential due to the dipole at a potential V at P due to the system of charges is
point distance 0.3 m from the centre of the the algebraic sum of the potentials due to the
dipole situated individual charges.
a) on the axial line b) on the equatorial line ∴ V = V + V + ... + V
1 2 n
c) on a line making an angle of 60° with the
1  q1 q2 q 
dipole axis. =  + + ----- + n 
4 0  r1 r2 rn 
193
 1 n qi As V1 + V2 = 0
Or, V  
4 0 i  1 ri 1  q1 q2 
  0
For a continuous charge distribution, 4π  0  x x 0.16 
summation should be replaced by integration.
 5  10 8 310 8 
9 × 10 
9  0
Use your brain power  x x 0.16 
∴x = 0.40 m, x = 40 cm
Is electrostatic potential necessarily zero at
8.5 Equipotential Surfaces:
a point where electric field strength is zero?
Justify. An equipotential surface is that surface,
at every point of which the electric potential is
Example 8.8: Two charges 5 × 10-8 C and the same. We know that,
-3 × 10-8 C are located 16 cm apart. At what The potential (V) for a single charge q is
point (s) on the line joining the two charges given by V = 1 q
is the electric potential zero ? Take the
4 0 r
potential at infinity to be zero. If r is constant then V will be constant.
Solution : As shown below, suppose the two Hence, equipotential surfaces of single point
point charges are placed on x- axis with the charge are concentric spherical surfaces
positive charge located at the origin O.
centered at the charge. For a line charge, the
q1= 5 × 10-8 C q2= -3 × 10-8 C
shape of equipotential surface is cylindrical.

Let the potential be zero at the point P and

OP = x. For x < 0 ( i.e. to the left of O), the
potentials of the two charges cannot add up
to zero. Clearly, x must be positive. If x lies
between O and A, then
V1 + V2 = 0, where V1 and V2 are the
potentials at point P due to O and A, Fig. 8.10 : Equipotential surfaces.
respectively. Equipotential surfaces can be drawn
q1= 5 × 10-8 C q2= -3 × 10-8 C through any region in which there is an electric
field.
By definition the potential difference

between two points P and Q is the work done
1  q1 q2 
  0 per unit positive charge displaced from Q to P.
4 0  x 0.16  x 
∴ VP – VQ = WQP
 5  10 8 310 8  If points P and Q lie on an equipotential
9 × 10 
9  0
 x 0.16  x  surface, Vp = VQ.

5 3  ∴ WQP = 0
⇒9 ×109 × 10-8    0
x 0.16  x  Thus, no work is required to move a test
5 3 charge along an equipotential surface.
⇒ −  = 0
x 0.16 − x a) If dx is the small distance over the
∴x = 0.10 m equipotential surface through which unit
The other possibility is that x may also positive charge is carried then
lie on extended OA.  
dW  E . d x  E dx cos   0
194
  cos  = 0 or  = 90 0
 
i.e. E ⊥ d x as shown in Fig. 8.11

Hence electric field intensity E is always
normal to the equipotential surface i.e., for any
charge distribution, the equipotential surface
through a point is normal to the electric field
at that point.
Fig. 8.13: Equipotential surfaces for a dipole.


Fig. 8.11: Equipotential surface ⊥ to E

b) If the field is not normal, it would have a Fig. 8.14: Equipotential surfaces for two
identical positive charges.
nonzero component along the surface. So to
move a test charge against this component
work would have to be done. But by the
definition of equipotential surfaces, there
is no potential difference between any two
points on an equipotential surface and hence
Fig. 8.15: (a) Between
no work is required to displace the charge on
2 plane metallic
the surface. Therefore, we can conclude that sheets.
the electrostatic field must be normal to the
equipotential surface at every point, and vice
versa.

Do you know?

Equipotential surfaces do not intersect each

other as it gives two directions of electric
fields at intersecting point which is not pos-
(b) When one of the sheet is replaced by a
sible.
charged metallic sphere.
Like the lines of force, the equipotential
surface give a visual picture of both the
direction and the magnitude of electric field in
a region of space.
Example 8.9: A small particle carrying a
negative charge of 1.6 × 10-19 C is suspended
in equilibrium between two horizontal
Fig. 8.12: Equipotential surfaces for a
uniform electric field.
metal plates 10 cm apart having a potential

195
 To calculate the electric potential energy
difference of 4000 V across them. Find the
of the two charge system, we assume that the
mass of the charged particle.
two charges q1 and q2 are initially at infinity.
Solution: Given :
We then determine the work done in bringing
q = 1.6 × 10-19 C
the charges to the given location by an external
dx = 10 cm = 10 × 10-2 m = 10-1 m
agency.
dV = 4000 V
−dV − 4000 In bringing the first charge q1 to position
E =
dx
=
10 −1  
A r1 , no work is done because there is no
= - 4 × 104 Vm-1 external field against which work is required
As the charged particle remains suspended to be done as charge q2 is still at infinity i.e.,
in equilibrium, W1 = 0. This charge produces a potential in
space given by
F = mg = qE 1 q1
V1 = ---
∴m =
qE
=
 
1.6 10 19  4 10 4  (8.14) 4  r
0 1
g 9.8 Where r1 is the distance of point A from
= 0.653 × 10 kg-15
the origin.
m = 6.53 × 10-16 kg When we bring charge q2 from infinity to
8.6 Electrostatic Potential Energy of  
r
B 2 at a distance r12, from q1, work done is
Two Point Charges and of a Dipole in an W2 = (potential at B due to charge q1) × q2
Electrostatic Field: q1
= × q2 , (where AB = r12) --- (8.15)
When two like charges lie infinite distance 4 0 r12
apart, their potential energy is zero because This work done in bringing the two
no work has to done in moving one charge at charges to their respective locations is stored
infinite distance from the other. But when they as the potential energy of the configuration of
are brought closer to one another, work has two charges.
to be done against the force of repulsion. As 1 q1q2
U = --- (8.16)
electrostatic force is conservative, this work 4 0 r12
gets stored as the potential energy of the two Equation (8.16) can be generalised for a
charges. Electrostatic potential energy of system of any number of point charges.
a system of point charges is defined as the Example 8.10: Two charges of magnitude
total amount of work done to assemble the 5 nC and −2 nC are placed at points
system of charges by bringing them from
(2 cm, 0, 0) and (20 cm, 0, 0) in a region of
infinity to their present locations.
space, where there is no other external field.
a) Potential energy of a system of two point
Find the electrostatic potential energy of
charges:
the system.
Solution : Given
q1= 5 nC = 5 × 10-9 C
q2 = -2 nC = -2 × 10-9 C
r = (20 – 2) cm = 18 cm = 18 × 10-2 m
O 1 q1q2
U =
4π  0 r
Fig. 8.16: System of two point charges. 9 109 5 10 9  
 2 10 9
Let us consider 2 charges q1 and q2 with =
 2
18 10
position vectors r1 and r2 relative to the origin
(O). = -5 × 10-7 J = -0.5 × 10-6 J = -0.5 µJ

196
b) Potential energy for a system of N point (c) Potential energy of a single charge in an
charges: external electric field:
Equation (8.16) gives an expression for Above, we have obtained an expression
potential energy for a system of two charges. for potential energy of a system of charges
We now analyse the situation for a system of when the source of the electric field, i.e.,
N point charges. charges and their locations, were specified.
In this section, we determine the potential
 In bringing a charge q3 from ∞ to C
( r3 ) work has to be done against electrostatic energyof a charge (or charges) in an external
forces of both q1and q2 field E which is not produced by the given
∴ W3 = (potential at C due to q1 and q2 )× q3 charge (or charges) whose potential energy we
1  q1 q2  wish to calculate. The external sources could
=  +  × q3 be known, unknown or unspecified, but what is
4 0
 r13 r23  known is the electric field E or the `electrostatic
1  q1q3 q2 q3  potential V due to the external sources.
=  + 
4 0  r13 r23  Here we assume that the external field
Similarly
 in bringing a charge q4 from is not affected by the charge q, if q is very
 
∞ to D r4 work has to be done against small. The external electric field E and the
electrostatic forces of q1, q2, and q3 corresponding external potential V may vary
from point to point.
1  q1 q4 q2 q4 q3 q4  If V ( r ) is the external potential at any
W4 =  + +  
4 0  r14 r24 r34  point P having position vector r , then by
Proceeding in the same way, we can definition, work done in bringing a unit positive
write the electrostatic potential charge from ∞ to the point P is equal to V.
 energy  of a
 ∴ Work done in bringing a charge q, from ∞
system of N point charges at r1 , r2 ....rN as
1 q j qk to the given
 point in the external field
U 
4 0 all pairs rjk
is qV ( r ).
This work is stored in the form of potential
Example 8.11: Calculate the energy of a charge q at a given point in the
electrostatic potential energy external electric field. 
of the system of charges ∴PE of a system of a single charge q at r in
shown in the figure. an external field is given by

Solution : Taking zero of potential energy at PE  qV  r  --- (8.17)
∞, we get potential energy (PE) of the system (d) Potential energy of a system of two
of charges charges in an external electric field:
1 q j qk
PE = ∑ In order to find the potential energy of a
4π  0 rjk system of two charges q1 and q2 located at r1
1  q q q  q   q  q  and r2 respectively in an external electric field,
    
4 0  r r r we calculate the work done in bringing the
charge q1 from ∞ to r1.
 q   q   q  q   q  q   From Eq. (8.17), in the said process the

r r 2 r 2  work done 
1  q2 q2 q2 q2 q2 q2  W = q1V ( r )
1 --- (8.18)
        To bring the charge q2 to r2, the work is
4 0  r r r r r 2 r 2
done not only against the external field E but
1  2q 2    2q 2  also against the field due to q1.
   
4 0  r 2   4 0 r 

197
 ∴Work done on q2 against the external field r = 16 cm = 0.16 m

= q2 V ( r2 ) and Work done on q2 against the a) Electrostatic potential energy of the
q1 q2
field due to q1 = , system of two charges is
4 0 r12 1 q1q2
where r12 = distance between q1and q2. V =
4π  0 r
By the Principle of superposition for 9 109   2 10 6  4 10 6
fields, we add up the work done on q2 against =
0.16
the two fields. = 0.45 J
∴ Work done in bringing q2 to r2 b) In the electric field, total potential energy
qq  
 q q (PE) = 1 2 + q1 V ( r1 ) + q2 V ( r2 )
 q2 V  r2   1 2 --- (8.19)
4π  0 r
  4 0 r12
−dV A A
Thus from (8.18) and (8.19) potential E= ∴ V =   Edr =  2 dr ,V =
energy of the system dr r r
q1q2
= Total work done in assembling the Aq1 Aq2
∴ Total PE = + +
configuration 4π  0 r r1 r2
 
   
= q1 V r1 + q2 V r2 + 1 2
q q
4 0 r12 = -0.45+
8 10   6 
 5   2 10
+

0.08
Example 8.12: Two charged particles
having equal charge of 3 ×10-5 C each are
8 10   6 
 5   4 10 
brought from infinity to a separation of 0.08
30 cm. Find the increase in electrostatic = -0.45 -20 + 40
potential energy during the process. = 19.55 J
Solution : Taking the potential energy (PE) (e) Potential energy of a dipole in an external
at ∞ to be zero, field:
Increase in PE = present PE
q1q2 9 109 ( 310 5 ) 2
V= =
4π  0 r 0.3
10
9 9 10 10
9
81
= 1 = = 27 J
310 3
Example 8.13: Fig. 8.17 : Couple acting on a dipole.
a) Determine the electrostatic potential Consider a dipole with charges -q and
energy of a system consisting of two +q separated by a finite distance 2 , placed

charges -2 µC and +4 µC (with no external in a uniform electric field E . It experiences a

field) placed at (-8 cm, 0, 0) and (+8 cm, 0, torque τ which tends to rotate it.
  
0) respectively. τ = p × E or   pE sin 
b) Suppose the same system of charges is In order to neutralize this
 torque, let us
now placed in an external electric field assume an external torque τ ext is applied,
E = A (1/r2), where A = 8 × 105 cm-2, what which rotates it in the plane of the paper
would be the electrostatic potential energy from angle θ 0 to angle θ , without angular
of the configuration acceleration and at an infinitesimal angular
Solution: Given : speed. Work done by the external torque
 
q1 = -2 µC = -2 × 10-6 C, r1= 0.08 cm
W    ext   d   pE sin  d
q2= +4 µC = +4 × 10-6 C, r2 = 0.08 cm
0 0

198
  8.7 Conductors and Insulators, Free Charges
 pE  - cos    and Bound Charges Inside a Conductor:
 pE - cos  -  - cos  0   a) Conductors and Insulators:
When you come in contact with wires in
 pE  - cos   cos  0  wet condition or while opening the window of
 pE  cos  0 - cos   your car, you might have experienced a feeling
of electric shock. Why don’t you get similar
This work done is stored as the potential
experiences with wooden materials?
energy of the system in the position when the
The reason you get a shock is that
dipole makes an angle θ with the electric
there occurs a flow of electrons from one body
field. The zero potential energy can be chosen
to another when they come in contact via
as per convenience. We can choose U ( θ 0 )
rubbing or moving against each other. Shock
= 0, giving
is basically a wild feeling of current passing
U    U  0   pE  cos  0 - cos  
through your body.
a) If initially the dipole is perpendicular to the Conductors are materials or substances

field E i.e.,  0  then which allow electricity to flow through them.
2

U    pE cos  - cos 
2  This is because they contain a large number of
free charge carriers (free electrons). In a metal,
 - pE cos  the electrons in the outermost orbit (valence
U    - p. E electrons) are loosely bound to the nucleus and
are thus free for conduction, when an external
b) If initially the dipole is parallel to the field
electric field is applied.
E then  0  0
U    pE  cos 0 - cos   Metals, humans, earth and animal bodies

U    pE 1 - cos   are all conductors. The main reason we get

electric shocks is that being a good conductor
Example 8.14: An electric dipole consists our human body allows a resistance-free path
of two opposite charges each of magnitude for the current to flow from the wire to our
1µC separated by 2 cm. The dipole is placed body.
in an external electric field of 105 N C-1. Under electrostatic conditions the conductors
Find: have following properties.
(i) The maximum torque exerted by the 1. In the interior of a conductor, net
field on the dipole electrostatic field is zero.
(ii) The work the external agent will have 2. Potential is constant within and on the
to do in turning the dipole through 180° surface of a conductor.
starting from the position θ = 0° 3. The interior of a conductor does not have
Solution: Given : any charge.
p = q × 2ℓ = 10-6 × 2 × 10-2 = 2 × 10-8 cm 4. Electric field just outside a charged
E = 105 NC-1 conductor is perpendicular to the surface
(i) τmax = p E sin 90°= 2 × 10-8 × 105 × 1 of the conductor at every point.
= 2 × 10-3 Nm 5. Surface charge density of a conductor
(ii) W = pE ( cos θ1 − cos θ 2  ) could be different at different points.
= 2 × 10-8 × 105 × (cos 0- cos 180°)
= 2 × 10-3 ( 1 + 1 ) = 4 × 10-3 J

199
 Electrostatic shielding : In insulators, the electrons are tightly
bound to the nucleus and are thus not available
• To protect a delicate instrument from
for conductions and hence are poor conductors
the disturbing effects of other charged of electricity. There are no free charges since
bodies near it, place the instrument all the charges are bound to the nucleus. An
inside a hollow conductor where E = 0. insulating material can be considered as a
This is called electrostatic shielding. collection of molecules that are not easily
• Thin metal foils are used in making the ionized. An insulator can carry any distribution
shields. of external electric charges on its surface or in
• During lightning and thunder storm it is its interior and the electric field in the interior
always advisable to stay inside the car can have non-zero values unlike conductors.
8.8 Dielectrics and Electric Polarisation:
than near a tree in open ground, since
Dielectrics are insulates which can be
the car acts as a shield.
used to store electrical energy. This is because
Faraday Cages: when such substances are placed in an external
• It is an enclosure which is used to block field, their positive and negative charges
the external electric fields in conductive get displaced in opposite directions and the
materials. molecules develop a net dipole moment. This
• Electro-magnetic shielding: MRI is called polarization of the material and such
scanning rooms are built in such a materials are called dielectrics.
manner that they prevent the mixing In every atom there is a positively
of the external radio frequency signals charged nucleus and there are negatively
charged electrons surrounding it. The negative
with the MRI machine.
charges form an electron cloud around the
b) Free charges and Bound charges inside positive charge. These two oppositely charged
materials: regions have their own centres of charge
The electrical behaviour of conductors (where the effective charge is located). The
and insulators can be understood on the basis centre of negative charge is the centre of
of free and bound charges. mass of negatively charged electrons and that
of positive charge is the centre of mass of
In metallic conductors, the electrons in
positively charged protons in the nucleus.
the outermost shells of the atoms are loosely
Thus, dielectrics are insulating materials
bound to the nucleus and hence can easily get or non-conducting substances which can be
detached and move freely inside the metal. polarized through small localized displacement
When an external electric field is applied, they of charges. e.g. glass, wax, water, wood ,
drift in a direction opposite to the direction of mica, rubber, stone, plastic etc. Dielectric
the applied electric field. These charges are constants of various materials are given in
called free charges. Table 8.1(pp203).
The nucleus, which consist of the positively Dielectrics can be classified as polar
charged protons, and the inner shell electrons dielectrics and non-polar dielectrics as
described below.
keeps the charges fixed in their positions. These
Polar dielectrics:
immobile charges are called bound charges. A molecule in which the centre of mass
In electrolytic conductors, positive and of positive charges (protons) does not coincide
negative ions act as charge carriers but their with the centre of mass of negative charges
movements are restricted by the electrostatic (electrons), because of the asymmetric shape
force between them and the external electric of the molecules, is called a polar molecule as
field. shown in Fig. 8.18 (a). They have permanent
200
dipole moments of the order of 10-30 Cm. They Polarization of a non-polar dielectric in an
act as tiny electric dipoles, as the charges are external electric field:
separated by a small distance. The dielectrics In the presence of an external electric
like HCℓ, water, alcohol, NH3 etc are made of field Eo, the centres of the positive charge
polar molecules and are called polar dielectrics. in each molecule of a non-polar dielectric is
Water molecule has a bent shape with its two pulled in the direction of Eo, while the centres
O - H bonds which are inclined at an angle of of the negative charges are displaced in the
about 105°. It has a very high dipole moment opposite direction. Therefore, the two centres
of 6.1 × 10-30 Cm. Fig. 8.18 (b) and (c) show are separated and the molecule gets distorted.
the structure of HCl and H2O, respectively. The displacement of the charges stops when
the force exerted on them by the external field
is balanced by the electric field of induced
(a)
dipole of the molecule.
Each molecule becomes a tiny dipole
Fig. 8.18. (a) A polar molecule. having a dipole moment. The induced dipole
moments of different molecules add up giving
a net dipole moment to the dielectric in the
presence of the external field.

(b) (c)
Fig. 8.18. Examples of Polar molecules
(b) HCI (c) H2O.
Non Polar dielectrics:
A molecule in which the centre of mass of
the positive charges coincides with the centre
of mass of the negative charges is called a non Fig. 8.20 (a) A non-polar dielectric material in
absence of electric field.
polar molecule as shown in Fig. 8.19 (a). These
have symmetrical shapes and have zero dipole
moment in the normal state. The dielectrics
like hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, CO2, benzene,
methane are made up of nonpolar molecules
and are called non polar dielectrics. Structures
of H2 and CO2 are shown in Fig. 8.19 (b) and
(c), respectively.

Fig. 8.20 (b) A non-polar dielectric material in

(b) the presence of an external field.
Polarization of a polar dielectric in an
(a) external electric field:
The molecules of a polar dielectric have
tiny permanent dipole moments. Due to thermal
(c) agitation in the material in the absence of any
Fig. 8.19. (a) Nonpolar molecule. Examples of external electric field, these dipole moments
Nonpolar molecules (b) H2 (c) CO2. are randomly oriented as shown in Fig. 8.21
201
(a). Hence the total dipole moment is zero. Reduction of electric field due to polarization
When an external electric field is applied the of a dielectric:
dipole moments of different molecules tend to When a dielectric is placed in an external
align with the field. As a result the dielectric electric field, the value of the field inside the
develops a net dipole moment in the direction dielectric is less than the external field as a
of the external field. Hence the dielectric is result of polarization. Consider a rectangular
dielectric
 slab placed in a uniform electric
polarized. The extent of polarization depends
field E acting parallel to two of its faces.
on the relative values of the following two
Since the electric charges are not free to move
opposing fields : about in a dielectric, no current results when it
is placed in an electric field. Instead of moving
the charges, the electric field produces a slight
rearrangement of charges within the atoms,
resulting in aligning them with the field. This
is shown in Fig. 8.20 and Fig. 8.21. During the
process of alignment charges move only over
distances that are less than an atomic diameter.
Fig. 8.21 (a) A polar dielectric in absence of As a result of the alignment of the dipole
electric field. moments there is an apparent sheet of positive
charges on the right side and negative charges
on the left side of the dielectric. These two
sheets of induced
 surface charges produce an
electric field E0 called the polarization field
in the insulator  which opposes the applied
electric field E . The net field E ' , inside the
dielectric
 is the vector sum of the
 applied field
E and the polarization field E0
∴ E' = E - E0 (in magnitude)
Fig. 8.21 (b) A polar dielectric in presence This is shown in Fig. 8.22 (a), (b) and (c).
of an external field.
1. The applied external electric field which
tends to align the dipole with the field.
2. The electric field due to induced dipole.
The polarization in presence of a strong
external electric field is shown in Fig. 8.21 (b)
Thus, both polar and non-polar dielectric
materials develop net dipole moment in the
Fig. 8.22 (a) A dielectric slab placed
presence of an electric field. between the plates of a capacitor.
The dipole moment per unit volume  is
called polarization and is denoted
 by P . For
linear isotropic dielectrics P = χ e E .
χ e is a constant called electric
susceptibility of the dielectric medium.
It describes the electrical behaviour of a
dielectric. It has different values for different
dielectric materials.
For vacuum χe = 0. Fig. 8.22 (b) Induced surface charges and the
polarization field in dielectric material placed
between the plates of a capacitor.
202
 electrical component which allows current to
pass through it and dissipates heat but can’t
store electrical energy. So there was a need
to develop a device that can store electrical
energy. The most common arrangement for
this consists of a set of conductors (conducting
plates) having opposite charges on them and

 separated by a dielectric material.
Fig. 8.22 (c) The net field E′ is a vector sum of The conductors 1 and 2 shown in the Fig.

E and E0 . 8.23 have charges +Q and -Q with potential
Do you know? difference, V = V1 - V2 between them. The
electric field in the region between them is
If we apply a large enough electric field, we proportional to the magnitude of charge Q.
can ionize the atoms and create a condition
for electric charge to flow like a conductor.
The fields required for the breakdown of
dielectric is called dielectric strength.
The greater the applied field, greater is the
degree of alignment of the dipoles and hence
greater is the polarization field.
The induced dipole moment disappears
when the field is removed. The induced dipole Fig. 8.23: A capacitor formed by two conductors.
moment is often responsible for the attraction The potential difference V is the work
of a charged object towards an uncharged done to carry a unit positive test charge from
insulator such as charged comb and uncharged the conductor 2 to conductor 1 against the field.
bits of paper. As this work done will be proportional to Q,
Table 1:Dielectric constants of various materials: then V ∝ Q and the ratio Q is a constant.
Material Min Max Q V
∴ C =
Air 1 1 V
Ebonite 2.7 2.7 The constant C is called the capacitance
Glass 3.8 14.5 of the capacitor, which depends on the size,
Mica 4 9 shape and separation of the system of two
Paper 1.5 3 conductors.
Paraffin 2 3 The SI unit of capacitance is farad (F).
Porcelain 5 6.5 Dimensional formula is [M-1 L-2T4A2].
Quartz 5 5 1 farad = 1 coulomb/1volt
Rubber 2 4 A capacitor has a capacitance of one
Wood dry 1.4 2.9 farad, if the potential difference across it rises
Metals ∞ ∞ by 1volt when 1 coulomb of charge is given
8.9 Capacitors and Capacitance, to it. In practice farad is a big unit, the most
Combination of Capacitors in Series and commonly used units are its submultiples.
Parallel: 1µF = 10-6F
In XIth Std. you have studied about resistors, 1nF=10-9F
resistance and conductance. A resistor is an 1pF = 10-12F
203
Uses of Capacitors based on the shape of the conductors.
Principle of a capacitor: Combination of Capacitors:
To understand the principle of a capacitor When there is a combination of capacitors
let us consider a metal plate P1 having area A. to be used in a circuit we can sometimes
Let some positive charge +Q be given to this replace it with an equivalent capacitor or a
plate. Let its potential be V. Its capacitance is single capacitor that has the same capacitance
Q as the actual combination of capacitors. The
given by C1 =
V effective capacitance depends on the way the
Now consider another insulated metal
individual capacitors are combined. Here we
plate P2 held near the plate P1. By induction a
discuss two basic combinations of capacitors
negative charge is produced on the nearer face
which can be replaced by a single equivalent
and an equal positive charge develops on the
capacitor.
farther face of P2 (Fig. 8.24 (a)). The induced
(a) Capacitors in series:
negative charge lowers the potential of plate
When a potential difference (V ) is
P1, while the induced positive charge raises its
applied across several capacitors
potential.
connected end to end in such a way that
sum of the potential difference across all the
capacitors is equal to the applied potential
difference V, then the capacitors are said to be
(a) (b) connected in series.

Fig. 8.24: (a) and (b) Parallel plate capacitor.

As the induced negative charge is closer
to P1 it is more effective, and thus there is a
net reduction in potential of plate P1. If the
Fig. 8.25: Capacitors in series.
outer surface of P2 is connected to earth, the
In series arrangement as shown in Fig.
induced positive charges on P2 being free,
8.25, the second plate of first conductor is
flows to earth. The induced negative charge on connected to the first plate of the second
P2 stays on it, as it is bound to positive charge conductor and so on. The last plate is connected
of P1. This greatly reduces the potential of P2, to earth. In a series combination, charges on
(Fig 8.24 (b)). If V1 is the potential on plate the plates (± Q)are the same on each capacitor.
P2 due to charge (- Q) then the net potential Potential difference across the series
difference between P1 and P2 will now be +V- combination of capacitor is V volt,
V1. where V = V1 + V2 + V3
Q Q Q Q
Hence the capacitance C2 = ∴C2 > C1 ∴V = + +
V - V1 C1 C2 C3
Thus capacitance of metal plate P1,
is increased by placing an identical earth
connected metal plate P2 near it.
Such an arrangement is called capacitor.
It is symbolically shown as .
⊥ ⊥

If the conductors are plane sheets then it is

called parallel plate capacitor. We also have Fig. 8.26: Effective capacitance of three
spherical capacitor, cylindrical capacitor etc. capacitors in series.
204
 Let Cs represent the equivalent capacitance In this combination all the capacitors
shown in Fig. 8.26, then V = Q have the same potential difference but the
CS plate charges (± Q1) on capacitor1, (± Q2)
Q Q Q Q on the capacitor 2 and (± Q3) on capacitor 3
∴ = + +
CS C1 C 2 C3 are not necessarily the same. If charge Q is
1 1 1 1 applied at point A then it will be distributed to
∴ = + +
Cs C1 C2 C3 the capacitors depending on the capacitances.
( for 3 capacitors in series) ∴Total charge Q can be written as Q = Q1 +
This argument can be extended to yield Q2 + Q3 = C1 V + C2 V + C3V
an equivalent capacitance for n capacitors Let Cp be the equivalent capacitance of
connected in series. The reciprocal of the combination then Q = CpV
equivalent capacitance is equal to the sum of ∴C pV = C1V + C2 V + C3 V
the reciprocals of individual capacitances of ∴ Cp = C1 + C2 + C3
the capacitors.
The general formula for effective
1 1 1 1
    .................  capacitance Cp for parallel combination of n
Ceq C1 C2 Cn capacitors follows similarly
If all capacitors are equal then Cp = C1 + C2+ .............. + Cn
1 n C If all capacitors are equal then Ceq = nC
= = or Ceq
Ceq C n
Remember this
Remember this
Capacitors are combined in parallel when
Series combination is used when a we require a large capacitance at small
potentials.
high voltage is to be divided on several
capacitors. Capacitor with minimum Example 8.15 When 108 electrons are
capacitance has the maximum potential transferred from one conductor to another, a
difference between the plates. potential difference of 10 V appears between
b) Capacitors in Parallel: the conductors. Find the capacitance of the
The parallel arrangement of capacitors two conductors.
is as shown in Fig. 8.27 below, where the Solution : Given :
insulated plates are connected to a common Number of electrons n = 108
terminal A which is joined to the source of V = 10 volt
potential, while the other plates are connected ∴charge transferred
to another common terminal B which is Q = ne = 108 × 1.6 × 10-19
earthed. (∵ e = 1.6 × 10-19 C)
= 1.6 × 10-11 C
∴ Capacitance between two conductors
Q 1.6  10 11
C= = = 1.6 × 10-12 F
V 10
Example 8.16: From the figure given below
find the value of the capacitance C if the
equivalent capacitance between A and B is
to be 1 µF. All other capacitors are in micro
Fig. 8.27: Parallel combination of capacitors. farad.
205
 A parallel plate capacitor consists of two
thin conducting plates each of area A, held
parallel to each other, at a suitable distance d
apart. One of the charged plates is isolated and
charged and the other is earthed as shown in
Fig. 8.28.

Solution : Given :
C1 = 8 µF , C2 = 4 µF , C3 = 1µF ,
C4 = 4 µF , C5 = 4 µF
The effective capacitance of C4 and C5 in
parallel
= C4 + C5 = 4 + 4 = 8 µF
The effective capacitance of C3 and 8 µF in
series
18 8
= = µF Fig. 8.28: Capacitor with dielectric.
1 8 9 When a charge +Q is given to the isolated
The capacitance 8 µF is in parallel with
plate, then a charge -Q is induced on the inner
the series combination of C1 and C2. Their
face of earthed plate and +Q is induced on
effective combination is
its outer face. But as this face is earthed the
C1C2 8 8 ×4 8 32
+ ⇒ + ⇒ µF charge +Q being free, flows to earth.
C1 +C2 9 12 9 9
32 In the outer regions the electric fields due
This capacitance of µF is in series with to the two charged plates cancel out. The net
9
C and their effective capacitance is given to field is zero.
be 1µF  
E= - =0
32 2 0 2 0
C
9 1 In the inner regions between the two
32 capacitor plates the electric fields due to the
 C
9 two charged plates add up. The net field is thus
32 32
 C   C    Q
9 9 E= + = = --- (8.20)
= 1.392 µF 2 0 2 0 0 A 0
The direction of E is from positive to
8.10 Capacitance of a Parallel Plate negative plate.
Capacitor Without and With Dielectric Let V be the potential difference between
Medium Between the Plates: the 2 plates. Then electric field between the
In section 8.8 we have studied the plates is given by
behaviour of dielectrics in an external field. Let V
E = or V = Ed --- (8.21)
us now see how the capacitance of a parallel d
plate capacitor is modified when a dielectric is Substituting Eq. (8.20) in Eq. (8.21) we
Q
introduced between its plates. get V = d
Aε 0
a) Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor
Capacitance of the parallel plate capacitor
without a dielectric:
is given by
206
 Let E0 be the electric field intensity
Remember this between the plates before the introduction of
the dielectric slab. Then the potential difference
(1) If there are n parallel plates then there
between the plates is given by V0 = E0d,
will be (n-1) capacitors, hence
 Q
Aε 0 where Eo   , and
C = (n - 1)  o A o
d
(2) For a spherical capacitor, consisting σ is the surface charge density on the plates.
of two concentric spherical conducting Let a dielectric slab of thickness t (t < d) be
shells with inner and outer radii as a and b introduced between the plates of the capacitor.
respectively, the capacitance C is given by The field E0 polarizes the dielectric, inducing
 ab  charge - Qp on the left side and +Qp on the right

C = 4 0   side of the dielectric as shown in Fig. 8.29.
b-a 
These induced charges set up a field Ep
(3) For a cylindrical capacitor, consisting
inside the dielectric in the opposite direction of
of two coaxial cylindrical shells with radii
E0. The induced field is given by
of the inner and outer cylinders as a and b,
and length ℓ, the capacitance C is given by  Q  Qp 
Ep  p  p  p  
2 0   o A o  A 
C
b
loge The net field (E) inside the dielectric
a
reduces to E0- Ep.
Q Q A Hence,
C= = = 0 E  Eo 
V  Qd  d E = Eo - Ep = o  =k ,
---   (8.22) k  Eo - Ep 
 A 0  where k is a constant called the dielectric
b) Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor
constant. Q
with a dielectric slab between the plates: E  or Q  Ak  0 E --- (8.23)
Let us now see how Eq. (8.22) gets A 0 k
modified with a dielectric slab in between the Remember this
plates of the capacitor. Consider a parallel
plate capacitor with the two plates each of area The dielectric constant of a conductor is
A separated by a distance d. The capacitance infinite.
of the capacitor is given by The field Ep exists over a distance t and E0
Aε 0 over the remaining distance (d - t) between the
C0 =
d capacitor plates. Hence the potential difference
between the capacitor plates is
V = Eo  d - t  + E  t 
Eo  E0 
= Eo  d - t  + t   E  k 
k  
 t
= Eo  d - t  + 
 k
Q  t
=  d-t + 
A o  k
The capacitance of the capacitor on the
Fig. 8.29: Dielectric slab in the capacitor.
introduction of dielectric slab becomes
207
 Q Q A 0 8.11 Displacement Current:
C= = =
V Q  d  t
 d - t +  d - t + 
A 0  k  k
Special cases:
1. If the dielectric fills up the entire space then
A k
t = d C = 0 = k C0
d
∴ capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor
C
increases k times i.e. k =
C0
2. If the capacitor is filled with n dielectric slabs
Fig. 8.31: Displacement current in the space
of thickness t1, t2....... tn then this arrangement is between the plates of the capacitor.
equivalent to n capacitors connected in series We know that electric current in a DC
as shown in Fig. 8.30. circuit constitutes a flow of free electrons. In
A 0
C = a circuit as shown in Fig 8.31, a parallel plate
 t1 t 2 tn 
 + + ............. +  capacitor with a dielectric is connected across a
 k1 k 2 kn 
DC source. In the conducting part of the circuit
free electrons are responsible for the flow of
current. But in the region between the plates
of the capacitor, there are no free electrons
available for conduction in the dielectric.
As the circuit is closed, the current flows
through the circuit and grows to its maximum
value (ic) in a finite time (time constant of the
circuit). The conduction current, ic is found
to be same everywhere in the circuit except
inside the capacitor. As the current passes
through the leads of the capacitor, the electric
field between the plates increases and this in
Fig. 8.30 : Capacitor filled with n dielectric slabs. turn causes polarisation of the dielectric. Thus,
3. If the arrangement consists of n capacitors there is a current in the dielectric due to the
in parallel with plate areas A1, A2, .............. An movement of the bound charges. The current
and plate separation d due to bound charges is called displacement


C = 0 A1 k 1 + A2 k 2 + .........+ An k n
d
 current (id) or charge- separation current.
A We can now derive an expression between
if A1 = A2 .............. An = then ic and id.
n
A 0 From Eq (8.23) we can infer that the
C=  k1 + k 2 + .........+ k n  charge produced on the plates of a capacitor is
dn
4. If the capacitor is filled with a conducting due to the electric field E.
slab (k = ∞) then q = Akε0 E
 d  Differentiating the above equation, we get
C =  Co ∴ C > Co
d-t dq dE
 Ak  0
The capacitance thus increases by a factor dt dt --- (8.24)
 d  dq/dt is the conduction current (ic)in the
  conducting part of the circuit.
d-t
208
 dq dE
ic   Ak  0 Aε 0 k
dt dt (ii) Capacitance C ′ =
dE i dE d
 c   ic (for fixed value of A) 8.85  10  4  10 4  6.7 
12 
dt Ak  0 dt =
The rate of change of electric field (dE/dt)  3
2 10
across the capacitor is directly proportional to = 11.86 × 10-12 F
the current (ic) flowing in the conducting part Example 8.18: In a capacitor of capacitance
of the circuit. 20 µF, the distance between the plates is 2
The quantity on the RHS of Eq (8.24) is mm. If a dielectric slab of width 1 mm and
having the dimension of electric current and is dielectric constant 2 is inserted between the
caused by the displacement of bound charges plates, what is the new capacitance ?
in the dielectric of the capacitor under the Solution: Given
influence of the electric field. This current, C = 20 µF = 20 × 10-6 F
called displacement current (id), is equivalent d = 2 mm = 2 × 10-3 m
to the rate of flow of charge (dq/dt=ic) in t = 1 × 10-3 m
the conducting part of the circuit. In the k= 2
Aε 0 A 0 
absence of any dielectric between the plates C= and C ′ = t
of the capacitor, k =1 (for air or vacuum), the
d d –t  
t k
displacement current id = Aε0 (dE/dt). C d – t + 
As a broad generalization of displacement ⇒ = k
current in a circuit containing a capacitor, it
C' d
 3 3  3 
110
can be stated that the displacement currents do  2 10
  110  
20  2 
not remain confined to the space between the ⇒ =
C ' 2 10 3
plates of a capacitor. A displacement current
(id) exists at any point in space where, time- ⇒ C ′ = 26.67 µF
varying electric field (E) exists (i.e. dE/dt ≠0).
8.12 Energy Stored in a Capacitor:
Example 8.17 A parallel plate capacitor A capacitor is a device used to store energy.
has an area of 4 cm2 and a plate separation Charging a capacitor means transferring
of 2 mm electron from one plate of the capacitor to the
other. Hence work will have to be done by the
(i) Calculate its capacitance
battery in order to remove the electrons against
(ii) What is its capacitance if the space
the opposing forces. These opposing forces
between the plates is filled completely with
arise since the electrons are being pushed to
a dielectric having dielectric constant of the negative plate which repels them and
constant 6.7. electrons are removed from the positive plate
Solution : Given which tends to attract them. In both the cases,
A = 4 cm2 = 4 × 10-4 m2 the coulombian forces oppose the transfer
d = 2 mm = 2 × 10-3 m of charges from one plate to another. As the
ε0 = 8.85 × 10-12 C2 / Nm2 charge on the plate increases, its opposing
Aε 0 force also increases.
(i) Capacitance C =
d This work done is stored in the form of
12  4 electrostatic energy in the electric field between
= 8.85  10  4  10 = 1.77 × 10-12 F the plates, which can later be recovered by
 3
2 10
discharging the capacitor.
209
 Consider a capacitor of capacitance C
The potential difference between the plates
being charged by a DC source of V volts as
is maintained constant at 400 volt. What is
shown in Fig. 8.32. the change in the energy of capacitor if the
slab is removed ?
Solution : Energy stored in the capacitor
with air
1 1
Ea= CV2 = ×3×10 –9 × (400)2
2 2
= 24 × 10–5 J
Fig. 8.32: Capacitor charged by a DC source.
when the slab of dielectric constant 3
During the process of charging, let q' is introduced between the plates of the
be the charge on the capacitor and V be the capacitor, the capacitance of the capacitor
increases to
potential difference between the plates. Hence
q' C′ = kC
C=
V C′ = 3 × 3 × 10–9 = 9 × 10–9 F
A small amount of work is done if a small Energy stored in the capacitor with the
charge dq is further transferred between the dielectric (Ed)
plates. 1
q' Ed = C ' V2
 dW  V dq  dq 2
C 1
Ed = × 9 × 10-9 × (400)2
Total work done in transferring the charge 2
Q
q' 1
Q
= 72 × 10-5 J
W   dw   dq   q ' dq Change in energy = Ed– Ea = (72 - 24) × 10-5
O
C CO
Q
= 48 ×10–5 J
1   q ' 
2
1 Q2 There is, therefore, an increase in the
   
C 2  2 C energy on introducing the slab of dielectric
 0 material.
This work done is stored as electrical 8.13 Van de Graaff Generator:
potential energy U of the capacitor. This work Van de Graaff generator is a device used
done can be expressed in different forms as to develop very high potentials of the order of
follows. 107 volts. The resulting large electric fields are
1 Q2 1 1 used to accelerate charged particles (electrons,
U = = CV 2 = QV  Q = CV  protons, ions) to high energies needed for
2 C 2 2
experiments to probe the small scale structure
Observe and discuss of matter and for various experiments in
Nuclear Physics.
The energy supplied by the battery is QV It was designed by Van de Graaff (1901-
but energy stored in the electric field is 1967) in the year 1931.
1 1 Principle: This generator is based on
QV. The rest half QV of energy is (i) the phenomenon of Corona Discharge
2 2
wasted as heat in the connecting wires and (action of sharp points),
battery itself. (ii) the property that charge given to a hollow
conductor is transferred to its outer surface
Example 8.19: A parallel plate air capacitor and is distributed uniformly over it,
has a capacitance of 3 × 10–9 Farad. A slab (iii) if a charge is continuously supplied to an
of dielectric constant 3 and thickness 3 cm insulated metallic conductor, the potential
completely fills the space between the plates. of the conductor goes on increasing.

210
Construction: filled with nitrogen at high pressure. A small
Fig. 8.33 shows the schematic diagram of quantity of freon gas is mixed with nitrogen to
Van de Graaff generator. ensure better insulation between the vessel S
and its contents. A metal plate M held opposite
to the brush A on the other side of the belt is
connected to the vessel S, which is earthed.
Working: The electric motor connected to the
pulley P1 is switched on, which begins to rotate
setting the conveyor belt into motion. The DC
supply is then switched on. From the pointed
ends of the spray brush A, positive charge is
continuously sprayed on the belt B. The belt
carries this charge in the upward direction,
which is collected by the collector brush C and
sent to the dome shaped conductor.
As the dome is hollow, the charge is
Fig. 8.33: Schematic diagram of van de Graff distributed over the outer surface of the dome.
generator. Its potential rises to a very high value due to
P1 P2 = Pulleys the continuous accumulation of charges on it.
BB = Conveyer belt The potential of the electrode I also rises to
A = Spray brush this high value.
C = Collector brush The positive ions such as protons or
D = Dome shaped hollow conductor deuterons from a small vessel (not shown in
E = Evacuated accelerating tube the figure) containing ionised hydrogen or
I = Ion source deuterium are then introduced in the upper part
P = DC power supply
of the evacuated accelerator tube. These ions,
S = Steel vessel filled with nitrogen
repelled by the electrode I, are accelerated in
M = Earthed metal plate
the downward direction due to the very high
An endless conveyor belt BB made of an fall of potential along the tube, these ions
insulating material such as reinforced rubber acquire very high energy. These high energy
or silk, can move over two pulleys P1 and charged particles are then directed so as to
P2. The belt is kept continuously moving by strike a desired target.
a motor (not shown in the figure) driving the Uses: The main use of Van de Graff generator
lower pulley (P1). is to produce very high energy charged particles
The spray brush A, consisting of a large having energies of the order of 10 MeV. Such
number of pointed wires, is connected to the high energy particles are used
positive terminal of a high voltage DC power 1. to carry out the disintegration of nuclei of
supply. From this brush positive charge can different elements,
be sprayed on the belt which can be collected 2. to produce radioactive isotopes,
by another similar brush C. This brush is 3. to study the nuclear structure,
connected to a large, dome-shaped, hollow 4. to study different types of nuclear reactions,
metallic conductor D, which is mounted on 5. accelerating electrons to sterilize food and
insulating pillars (not shown in the figure). E to process materials.
is an evacuated accelerating tube having an
electrode I at its upper end, connected to the Internet my friend
dome-shaped conductor.
To prevent the leakage of charge from 1. https://en.m.wikipedia.org
the dome, the pulley and belt arrangement, 2. hyperphyrics.phy-astr.gsu.edu
the dome and a part of the evacuated tube 3. https://www.britannica.com/science
are enclosed inside a large steel vessel S, 4. https://www.khanacademy.org>in-i
211
 Exercises

Q1. Choose the correct option

i) A parallel plate capacitor is charged and qQ qQ
(C) (D)
then isolated. The effect of increasing 6 0 L 4 0 L
the plate separation on charge, potential, v) A parallel plate capacitor has circular
capacitance respectively are plates of radius 8 cm and plate separation
(A) Constant, decreases, decreases 1mm. What will be the charge on the
(B) Increases, decreases, decreases plates if a potential difference of 100 V
(C) Constant, decreases, increases is applied?
(D) Constant, increases, decreases (A) 1.78 × 10-8 C (B) 1.78 × 10-5 C
ii) A slab of material of dielectric constant (C) 4.3 × 104 C (D) 2 × 10-9 C
k has the same area A as the plates of a Q2. Answer in brief.
parallel plate capacitor and has thickness i) A charge q is moved from a point A
(3/4d), where d is the separation of the above a dipole of dipole moment p to
plates. The change in capacitance when
a point B below the dipole in equitorial
the slab is inserted between the plates is
plane without acceleration. Find the
A 0  k  3 
(A) C  work done in this process.
d  4 k 
A
(B) C  0  2 k 
d  k 3
A 0  k  3 
(C) C 
d  2 k 
A  4 k 
(D) C  0 
d  k  3 
iii) Energy stored in a capacitor and ii) If the difference between the radii of the
dissipated during charging a capacitor two spheres of a spherical capacitor is
bear a ratio. increased, state whether the capacitance
(A) 1:1 (B) 1:2 will increase or decrease.
(C) 2:1 (D) 1:3 iii) A metal plate is introduced between
iv) Charge +q and -q are placed at points the plates of a charged parallel plate
A and B respectively which are distance capacitor. What is its effect on the
2L apart. C is the mid point of A and B. capacitance of the capacitor?
The work done in moving a charge +Q iv) The safest way to protect yourself from
along the semicircle CRD as shown in lightening is to be inside a car. Justify.
the figure below is v) A spherical shell of radius b with charge
Q is expanded to a radius a. Find the
work done by the electrical forces in the
process.
3. A dipole with its charges, -q and +q
located at the points (0, -b, 0) and (0 +b,
0) is present in a uniform electric field E
qQ qQ whose equipotential surfaces are planes
(A) (B) parallel to the YZ planes.
6 0 L 2 0 L
212
 (a) What is the direction of the electric in which all the dipoles are perpendicular
field E? (b) How much torque would to the field, θ2 = 90°.[Ans: 1.575 × 10-3 J]
the dipole experience in this field? [(a) 11. A charge 6 µC is placed at the origin
along/parallel to X axis, (b) τ = 2bqE] and another charge –5 µC is placed on
4. Three charges -q, +Q and -q are placed the y axis at a position A (0, 6.0) m.
at equal distance on straight line. If the
potential energy of the system of the
three charges is zero, then what is the
ratio of Q:q? [(Q : q = 1 : 4)]
5. A capacitor has some dielectric between
its plates and the capacitor is connected
to a DC source. The battery is now
disconnected and then the dielectric is
removed. State whether the capacitance, a) Calculate the total electric potential
the energy stored in it, the electric field, at the point P whose coordinates are
charge stored and voltage will increase, (8.0, 0) m
decrease or remain constant.
b) Calculate the work done to bring a
6. Find the ratio of the potential differences
proton from infinity to the point P.
that must be applied across the parallel
and series combination of two capacitors What is the significance of the sign of
C1 and C2 with their capacitances in the the work done ?
ratio 1:2, so that the energy stored in [Ans: (a) Vp = 2.25 × 103 V
these two cases becomes the same. (b) W = 3.6 × 10-16 J]
[Vp : Vs = √ 2:3] 12. In a parallel plate capacitor with air
7. Two charges of magnitudes -4Q and between the plates, each plate has an
+2Q are located at points (2a, 0) and (5a, area of 6 × 10–3 m2 and the separation
0) respectively. What is the electric flux between the plates is 2 mm. a) Calculate
due to these charges through a sphere of the capacitance of the capacitor, b) If this
radius 4a with its centre at the origin? capacitor is connected to 100 V supply,
8. A 6 µF capacitor is charged by a 300 what would be the charge on each plate?
V supply. It is then disconnected c) How would charge on the plates be
from the supply and is connected to
affected if a 2 mm thick mica sheet of
another uncharged 3µF capacitor. How
k = 6 is inserted between the plates while
much electrostatic energy of the first
capacitor is lost in the form of heat and the voltage supply remains connected ?
electromagnetic radiation ? [Ans: (a) 2.655 × 10-11 F,
[Ans: 9 × 10-2 J] (b) 2.655 × 10-9 C, (c) 15.93 × 10-9 C]
9. One hundred twenty five small liquid 13. Find the equivalent capacitance between
drops, each carrying a charge of P and Q. Given, area of each plate = A
0.5 µC and each of diameter 0.1 m form and separation between plates = d.
a bigger drop. Calculate the potential at 2 Aε 0 4 Aε 0
[Ans: (a) (b) ]
the surface of the bigger drop. d d
[Ans: 2.25 × 106 V]
10. The dipole moment of a water molecule
is 6.3 × 10–30 Cm. A sample of water
contains 1021 molecules, whose dipole
moments are all oriented in an electric
field of strength 2.5 × 105 N /C. Calculate
the work to be done to rotate the dipoles
from their initial orientation θ1 = 0 to one
213