energies

Article
BLDC Motor Speed Control with Digital Adaptive PID-Fuzzy
Controller and Reduced Harmonic Content
Kaspars Kroičs * and Arvı̄ds Būmanis

Institute of Industrial Electronics and Electrical Engineering, Riga Technical University, LV-1048 Riga, Latvia
* Correspondence: kaspars.kroics@rtu.lv

Abstract: Low power brushless direct current (BLDC) motors are used in many consumer appliances.
These motors have a relatively high winding resistance and therefore current control loop can be
avoided in some cases, but fast and accurate speed regulation can be still needed. To minimize
harmonics and generated sound noise, improved sinusoidal pulse width modulation (PWM) has
been tested in the paper. As the most suitable commutation type, the sine wave with the third
harmonic component has been selected. This type of communication reduced the torque ripple of the
motor. This paper analyses the possibility to improve traditional proportional-integral-derivative
(PID) speed regulator with Fuzzy logic block. A simulation model of BLDC motor, inverter, speed
detection circuit and controller have been created. Simulation results showed that by applying the
Fuzzy-based PID controller, the transient time can be reduced from 0.2 s to 0.05 s and overshoot can
be avoided in comparison with traditional PID controller. Experimental results show a significant
improvement in the motor dynamics—the overshoot and transient time were reduced twice. The
difference with simulation results and experimental ones can be explained by delays introduced by
the microcontroller.

Keywords: BLDC motor; electric drive; Fuzzy logic; Matlab/Simulink; speed controller

1. Introduction
Citation: Kroičs, K.; Būmanis, A.
In the recent years, the use of brushless DC motors (BLDC) with permanent magnets
BLDC Motor Speed Control with
has drastically increased. This is due to the discovery of new stronger magnets, higher
Digital Adaptive PID-Fuzzy
efficiency, and the better performance of this motor type [1]. In the work presented in [2]
Controller and Reduced Harmonic
it is mentioned that the BLDC motor-based electric drives have limited fault tolerance
Content. Energies 2024, 17, 1311.
capability, increased electromagnetic interference, increased acoustic noise, and increased
https://doi.org/10.3390/en17061311
torque ripple. All these challenges can be addressed by the control system. Fault-tolerant
Academic Editor: control, electromagnetic interference control (EMI), and acoustic noise control improve the
Salvatore Musumeci feasibility of the motor [2]. Torque ripples in BLDC motors are reduced by the improved
Received: 7 February 2024
design of the motor, but the control algorithm contributes to the torque ripple significantly
Revised: 28 February 2024 as well.
Accepted: 2 March 2024 BLDC motors have high power density and therefore, this type of motor often is used
Published: 8 March 2024 in devices that are required to be energy efficient, lightweight, and powerful. BLDC are
more reliable than traditional brushed DC motors as this type of motors eliminate the need
for brushes, which are prone to wear and tear over time due to friction and sparking. This
absence of brushes reduces mechanical failure points and enhances reliability. With no
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors. brushes to replace or maintain, BLDC motors require less frequent servicing, resulting
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
in lower maintenance costs and downtime. BLDC motors allow smoother operation,
This article is an open access article
precise speed control, and reduced electrical noise, resulting in improved reliability and
distributed under the terms and
performance. BLDC motors are mostly preferred for dynamic applications where speed
conditions of the Creative Commons
response is important. Nowadays various types of robots and automated systems are
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
increasingly growing, and they require rapid and accurate speed change [3]. In low-power
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
applications, the motor winding resistance is relatively high and therefore, the current peak

Energies 2024, 17, 1311. https://doi.org/10.3390/en17061311 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2024, 17, 1311 2 of 15

is not critical in the transition processes, meaning only speed control can be used, which
allows to reduce the number of sensors, thus, reducing the price of the inverter. In that case,
the issues of reducing harmonics and noise of the motor by choosing the most appropriate
pulse width modulation method (PWM) as well as the development of a high-response
speed regulator remain relevant. The goal of this paper is to design a fast speed controller
for low inertia, low power BLDC motor with 60 degree Hall-effect sensors by extracting the
speed of these sensors and implementing controller into inexpensive microcontroller.
The most widely used type of speed controller today remains the proportionally
integral (PI) regulator [4]. Considering that microcontroller performance is increasing today,
it is possible to create more sophisticated control algorithms, potentially improving motor
reaction speeds. A comparison of the different regulators is provided in [4–6]. The results
show that adaptive controllers, such as neuron networks, genetic algorithms, Fuzzy logic
regulator and others, allow improve the dynamics of the motor even they do not require
a precise motor model to create such a controller. Sliding mode control for BLDC motor
control has been used in the works referenced in [7,8], model-based adaptive control in the
scientific works presented in [9,10], genetic algorithm based control in the works presented
in [11,12], neural network control algorithm in the works presented in [13,14], swarm
optimization algorithm in the works presented in [15,16], robust control was proposed in
the works presented in [17,18]. Although these methods showed good performance at least
in simulation, for implementation there is a need for a high-performance controller and
the model of the motor should be known in some cases. Fuzzy control was applied in the
research papers [19–21]. The Fuzzy logic-based control algorithm has the advantage that
there is no need for mathematical model of the motor and inverter. The main disadvantage
of Fuzzy control is that the definition of intervals of fuzzy subsets is subjective, and this
can lead to a poor performance of the controller. To mitigate this problem, the Fuzzy
controller is combined with a traditional proportionally integrally differential (PID) control
algorithm. A similar idea has been analyzed in the scientific works presented in [6,21]
with an additional current control loop. In this case, additional control method will be
implemented to face the electromagnetic interference which is challenging when six step
control method with Hall-effect-based rotor position sensors [22].
The goal of the paper is investigating of improved control algorithms to optimize the
speed performance of the motor. This includes the development of an algorithm for rotor
position detection from Hall-effect sensors, and an investigation of different switching
techniques to reduce electromagnetic noise. The paper includes validation of developed
control methods through simulation and experiments. Implementation of control method
into inexpensive microcontroller and comparison of speed performance of the BLDC motor
with a traditional PID control will be given.

2. Simulation Based Study of BLDC Motor Control Method

The control system of BLDC motor was first simulated in Matlab R2023b using
Simulink blocks as can be seen in Figure 1. Block 1 corresponds to a signal from a Hall-
effect-based position sensor that describes rotor position with a unique 3-bit code. Block 2 is
a control system which controls the speed and provides six-pulse with modulated (PWM)
signals to the three-phase inverter with six transistors. These control signals are labeled
as AH, AL, BH, BL, CH, and CL and are connected with “goto” function internally to
corresponding transistor of the Block 3. In the labels, the first letter A, B, or C corresponds
to phase of the inverter. The second letter H clarifies that this is high-side transistor, but the
letter L indicates that this is low-side transistor. Block 3 represents the inverter of BLDC
motor. Block 4 is built in the BLDC motor simulation block using Matlab Simulink and is
used to simulate the motor.
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 15
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Figure 1. Matlab Simulink model of BLDC motor with inverter and control system.
Figure 1.
Figure Matlab Simulink
1. Matlab Simulink model
model of
of BLDC
BLDC motor
motor with
with inverter
inverter and
and control
control system.
system.

As
As shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 1, 1, the
the simulation
simulation model model consists
consists ofof power
power and and control
control parts,
parts,
where Asyoushown in Figure 1, the mode
simulation model consistsInofthe
power and control parts,
where you can select the control mode of the BLDC motor. In the simulations three
can select the control of the BLDC motor. simulations three phase
phase
where you
inverter can select the control mode of the BLDC motor. In the simulations three phase
inverter with
with IGBT
IGBT (isolated
(isolated gate
gate bipolar
bipolar transistors)
transistors) werewere used.
used. The
The model
model of
ofthe
theinverter
inverter
inverter
can with IGBT (isolated gate bipolar transistors) were used. The model of the inverter
can be
be seen
seen in
in Figure
Figure 2. 2. The
The inverter
inverter isis connected
connected to to an
an ideal
ideal DC
DC source
source with
with aa nominal
nominal
can be seen
voltage inVFigure 2. also
The corresponds
inverter is connected to an toideal DC source with a nominal
voltage of 24 V DC that also corresponds to the voltage to be used in the prototype.
of 24 DC that to the voltage be used in the prototype. The The
voltage of 24inverter
three-phase V DC that also
is not
not corresponds
ideal, meaningitto the electric
ithas
has voltage losses,
to be used insimulation
the prototype. The
three-phase inverter is ideal, meaning electric losses, sosothe
thesimulation is is closer
closer to
three-phase
to
thethe
real-worldinverter
real-world results. is not
results. ideal,signals
Output
Output meaning
signalsA,A, Bit and
Bhas electric
and C are
C are losses, soto
connected
connected the
to
thesimulation
the motor
motor is can
as as
it closer
it can
be
to
be theinreal-world
seen
seen in Figure
Figure results. Output signals A, B and C are connected to the motor as it can
1. 1.
be seen in Figure 1.

Figure 2. Matlab Simulink model of three phase inverter.

Figure 2. Matlab Simulink model of three phase inverter.
FigureThe
2. Matlab Simulink
sinusoidal model
control of threeknowledge
requires phase inverter.
of the precise angular state of the BLDC
rotor.The sinusoidal
With control
Hall-effect sensors requires knowledge
for rotor of the precise
position detection, angulartostate
it is possible obtainof an
theangular
BLDC
rotor.The sinusoidal
With control
Hall-effect sensorsrequires
for knowledge
rotor position of the precise
detection, it angular
is possiblestate
rotor position with accuracy equal to 60 electrical degrees. Furthermore, it is possibleto of the
obtain BLDC
an an-
to
rotor.
gular With
rotor Hall-effect
position withsensors for
accuracy rotor
equal position
to 60 detection,
electrical it
degrees. is possible to
Furthermore, obtain
it
process the signals of the Hall-effect sensors and get the exact rotator angle. The simulation is an an-
possible
gular
to
model rotor
process position
thatthe with
cansignals
be used accuracy
of to
the equalsensors
Hall-effect
detect speed to 60angle
and electrical
and ofgetdegrees.
thethe exact
rotor Furthermore,
can rotator
be seenangle.it is
The
in Figure possible
simu-
3.
to process
lation modelthethat
signals of the
can be usedHall-effect sensorsand
to detect speed andangle
get the exact
of the rotator
rotor angle.
can be seenThe simu-
in Figure
lation
3. model that can be used to detect speed and angle of the rotor can be seen in Figure
3.
Energies 2024, 17, 1311 4 of 15

Figure 3. BLDC motor rotor speed and angle calculation block diagram.

Before the angular position can be determined, it is necessary to calculate the rotational
speed of the rotor. For that purpose, signals that are obtained from the Hall-effect-based
sensors can be used and they change the state in the moment when the rotor reaches the
next sector. One sector is equal to 60 electrical degrees. State change of the sensors can be
detected by capturing rising edge. The time at which the rotor makes 60 electrical degree
rotation of the motor (ts ) can be measured by using timers and after that the rotational
speed of the motor can be calculated by Equation (1).
1
ts × 60
RPM = × 6, (1)
pp

where
RPM—rotor revolutions per minute;
ts —the time period during which the rotor rotates by 60 electrical degrees, s;
pp—number of pole pairs of the BLDC motor.
BLDC motor rotor speed and angle calculation block system shown in Figure 3 uses
the signal obtained from the rotors Hall-effect sensors. Rising fronts of this signal are
chaotic in the beginning of the simulation. This is why signal delay is used once, thus,
improving stability of the Matlab Simulink simulation. After removing this first chaotic
rising front, this signal is fed to the developed custom memory logic. This memory
consists of interlocking controlled switches, multiplication operation and Simulink cyclical
memories. Simulink cyclic memory records the value of the signal connected to it and
stores its value when disconnected from it. On this principle, the two mutually connected
counters have been created that are cyclically able to determine the time (ts ) between two
following rising fronts of the signal from Hall-effect sensors. Since it is known that this time
corresponds to 60 electrical degrees, the rotational speed of the motor can be calculated by
using Equation (1).
When the rising front pulse is detected, the counter starts to count at a certain frequency.
The falling front in the counter control memory stops the counter and updates it to the
initial state. At this point, this number of counter counts is also stored in the memory and
is further used for rotor speed calculations. Because the counter starts and stops counting
with the rising front, it skips one period. Therefore, two counters are used synchronously.
The second counter operates with an inverted input signal. It makes the counters work
 Energies2024,
Energies 17,x1311
2024,17, FOR PEER REVIEW 5 5ofof15
15

cyclically,
point that is,period
the other when counter
one period counter
starts completes
to count. the count,
An optional then is
switch at used
that point
whichtheatother
the
period counter starts to count. An optional switch is used which at the
right times passes both period counters data for further operations. This improvesright times passes
the
both period
speed counters
and accuracy of data for further
the period operations.
counter This obtained
system. Data improvesthrough
the speed and accuracy
simulation cal-
of the period counter system. Data obtained through simulation calculations is compared
culations is compared with real speed signal (measured) that is determined directly from
with real speed signal (measured) that is determined directly from the BLDC motor block
the BLDC motor block in Matlab Simulink and this can be seen in Figure 4.
in Matlab Simulink and this can be seen in Figure 4.

BLDCrotor
Figure4.4.BLDC
Figure rotorspeed
speedobtained
obtainedby
bysimulation
simulationcalculations
calculationsand
andmeasurements.
measurements.

Ascan
As canbe
beseen
seenin
inFigure
Figure44the
theaccuracy
accuracyof
ofthe
thesystem
systemdepends
dependsdirectly
directlyon
onthe
thespeed
speed
of the BLDC motor. That means that a higher rotor speed increases the accuracy
of the BLDC motor. That means that a higher rotor speed increases the accuracy of ofthe
the
resulting RPM signal. As has already been mentioned above, it is necessary to obtain
resulting RPM signal. As has already been mentioned above, it is necessary to obtain the the
precise angle position of the rotor. The rotor angle can be obtained using Equation (2):
precise angle position of the rotor. The rotor angle can be obtained using Equation (2):
𝑑𝑒𝑔
deg rot ==∆t
∆𝑡××( RPM
(𝑅𝑃𝑀××K𝐾
1 ) )++K𝐾
2 ××K𝐾
3, , (2)
(2)
where
where
deg
degrotrot—BLDC
—BLDCrotorrotorangular
angularposition;
position;
KK1—coefficient;
1 —coefficient;
KK2—number
2 —numberof ofrotor
rotorsectors;
sectors;
KK3— angle of one rotor
3 —angle of one rotor sector;
sector;
∆𝑡— lenght of
∆t—lenght ofone
oneperiod,
period,s;s;
RPM—BLDC
RPM—BLDCmotor motorrevolutions
revolutions perper one
one minute.
minute.
The
The period interval ∆t was obtainedusing
period interval ∆t was obtained usingthe theperiod
periodcounter
countercontrol
controlsignals
signalsmen-
men-
tioned
tionedabove,
above,which
whichare arefed
fedtotothe
theinterval
intervalcounter.
counter.The Thenumber
numberof ofcounts
countsisissummed
summedand and
multiplied
multipliedby bythe
theduration
durationof ofone
onepulse.
pulse.This
Thispulse
pulseduration
durationisisfurther
furthermultiplied
multipliedby bythe
the
angular
angularvelocity
velocityobtained
obtainedby bymultiplying
multiplyingthetherevolutions
revolutionsper perminute
minutebybythe
theconstant.
constant.The
The
result
resultisisthen
thensummed
summedup upatatthe
theangular
angularposition
positionof ofthe
thelast
lastknown
knownrotor
rotorposition
positionobtained
obtained
from
from the Hall-effect sensor signals. The mechanical angle calculated in the simulationwas
the Hall-effect sensor signals. The mechanical angle calculated in the simulation was
compared
comparedwith withthe
theBLDC
BLDCmotor
motorblock
blockangular
angularsignal,
signal,which
whichisisreferred
referredininthe
thefigure
figureas
as
measured.
measured.These Thesesignals
signalscan
canbebeseen
seenininFigure
Figure5.5.
As can be seen in Figure 5, a similar relationship can be observed to the rotor speed
graph in Figure 4—more accurate data is obtained as the rotor speed increases. It is also
observed that the data have sufficient precision to allow the implementation of sinusoidal
pulse width modulation (SPWM) and all the other commutation methods observed in
these experiments. The MATLAB/Simulink block that allows for the implementation of
sinusoidal PWM with or without third harmonic injection can be seen in Figure 6. In the
sinusoidal control unit, it is possible to choose between three types of control methods—full
sine wave modulation, sine wave modulation with a third harmonic component, and half-
period sine with a third harmonic component. Corresponding duty cycles are stored into
memory in the form of a data table. The necessary duty cycle is generated at each BLDC
 Energies 2024, 17, 1311 6 of 15

rotor mechanical angle. Regardless of a control method, BLDC motor speed is controlled
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 15
with the same controller that will be analyzed further. With the multiplication block, the
maximum value of the duty cycle is kept below 100 percent.

Figure 5. BLDC rotor angular position obtained by simulation calculations and measurements.

As can be seen in Figure 5, a similar relationship can be observed to the rotor speed
graph in Figure 4—more accurate data is obtained as the rotor speed increases. It is also
observed that the data have sufficient precision to allow the implementation of sinusoidal
pulse width modulation (SPWM) and all the other commutation methods observed in
these experiments. The MATLAB/Simulink block that allows for the implementation of
sinusoidal PWM with or without third harmonic injection can be seen in Figure 6. In the
sinusoidal control unit, it is possible to choose between three types of control methods—
full sine wave modulation, sine wave modulation with a third harmonic component, and
half-period sine with a third harmonic component. Corresponding duty cycles are stored
into memory in the form of a data table. The necessary duty cycle is generated at each
BLDC rotor mechanical angle. Regardless of a control method, BLDC motor speed is con-
trolled with therotor
BLDC
Figure5.5.BLDC
same controller
angularposition
that will be analyzed
positionobtained
obtainedbybysimulation
further.
simulationcalculations
With
calculationsand
the multiplication
andmeasurements.
measurements.
Figure rotor angular
block, the maximum value of the duty cycle is kept below 100 percent.
As can be seen in Figure 5, a similar relationship can be observed to the rotor speed
graph in Figure 4—more accurate data is obtained as the rotor speed increases. It is also
observed that the data have sufficient precision to allow the implementation of sinusoidal
pulse width modulation (SPWM) and all the other commutation methods observed in
these experiments. The MATLAB/Simulink block that allows for the implementation of
sinusoidal PWM with or without third harmonic injection can be seen in Figure 6. In the
sinusoidal control unit, it is possible to choose between three types of control methods—
full sine wave modulation, sine wave modulation with a third harmonic component, and
half-period sine with a third harmonic component. Corresponding duty cycles are stored
into memory in the form of a data table. The necessary duty cycle is generated at each
BLDC rotor mechanical angle. Regardless of a control method, BLDC motor speed is con-
trolled with the same controller that will be analyzed further. With the multiplication
block, the maximum value of the duty cycle is kept below 100 percent.

MATLAB/Simulinkblock
Figure6.6.MATLAB/Simulink
Figure blockthat
thatallows
allowsfor
forthe
theimplementation
implementationofofsinusoidal
sinusoidalPWM
PWMwith
withor
or
without
withoutthird
thirdharmonic
harmonicinjection.
injection.

3. Fuzzy Logic Based Adaptive PID Controller of a BLDC Motor Speed

PID controllers are used primarily in scientific papers and practice as the design of PID
controllers for many applications is well known. From the other side, the proper tuning
of such a controller is challenging and can be difficult in a practice [23]. This promotes
researchers and engineers to develop more advanced tuning methods and approaches for
PID controller improvement. As it has been shown in the literature [24], adaptive controllers
allow for the increase in the dynamics of the BLDC motor. PID controller improvement
with Fuzzy logic makes PID control tuning simpler if the proper model of motor is not
known [25]. Fuzzy control has recently found wider application within the motion control
industry due to the model free concept [26]. Many scientific papers lack experimental and
practical implementation. This paper proposes a Fuzzy-based adaptive PID controller for
speed6.response
Figure improvement
MATLAB/Simulink block of small
that power
allows BLDC
for the motor with
implementation of simultaneous
sinusoidal PWMharmonic
with or
without third harmonic injection.
 PID controller improvement. As it has been shown in the literature [24], adaptive control-
lers allow for the increase in the dynamics of the BLDC motor. PID controller improve-
ment with Fuzzy logic makes PID control tuning simpler if the proper model of motor
is not known [25]. Fuzzy control has recently found wider application within the motion
Energies 2024, 17, 1311 control industry due to the model free concept [26]. Many scientific papers lack experi- 7 of 15
mental and practical implementation. This paper proposes a Fuzzy-based adaptive PID
controller for speed response improvement of small power BLDC motor with simultane-
ous harmonic
content reduction.content
This reduction. This paper
paper describes describes
the practical the practicalof
implementation implementation
a Fuzzy-based PID of a
Fuzzy-based PID controller with non-expensive microcontroller and
controller with non-expensive microcontroller and verification in the MATLAB/Simulink verification in the
MATLAB/Simulink environment. The goal of such controller selection is not
environment. The goal of such controller selection is not only the simplified tuning of the only the sim-
plified tuning
controller, of the
but also controller,
the improvedbut alsoresponse.
speed the improved speed response.
At first
At first the
thecontroller
controllerwaswasverified in in
verified MATLAB/Simulink
MATLAB/Simulink software R2023b.
software The simu-
R2023b. The
lation model
simulation of Fuzzy-based
model of Fuzzy-based PIDPID
controller (FUZZY
controller (FUZZY + PID)
+ PID) can
canbebeseen
seenininin
in Figure
Figure 7. 7.
Trapezoidal and sinusoidal commutation methods have their own
Trapezoidal and sinusoidal commutation methods have their own PID controllers. The PID controllers. The
output of
output of the
the controller
controller isis connected
connected toto the
the PWM
PWM forming
forming block
block shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 6.6. Both
Both
of PID controllers
of controllers are are connected
connectedtotoone
oneFUZZY
FUZZYlogic
logicblock
blockthat adapts
that adapts PIDPID
controller
controllerco-
efficients. The
coefficients. The Fuzzy
Fuzzylogic
logicblock
blockcontrols
controlsthethePPand
andII coefficients,
coefficients, while the D coefficient
coefficient
stays constant.
stays constant.

Figure 7. Matlab/Simulink
Figure 7. model of
Matlab/Simulink model of Fuzzy
Fuzzy based
based PID
PID controller.
controller.

As
As can be seen
can be seenin
inTable
Table1,1,specific
specificoutput
output values
values areare shown
shown for for
eacheach speed
speed rangerange
and
and each condition. There is an additional coefficient that determines input impact. With
each condition. There is an additional coefficient that determines input impact. With this
this rank, the behavior of the controller can be used to prioritize a particular relationship
rank, the behavior of the controller can be used to prioritize a particular relationship be-
between the Fuzzy logic input and outputs.
tween the Fuzzy logic input and outputs.
Table 1. Definition of Fuzzy rules for PID coefficient adaption.
Table 1. Definition of Fuzzy rules for PID coefficient adaption.
Speed Error (Fuzzy Input) Kp (Fuzzy Output) Ki (Fuzzy Output) Priority (0–1)
Speed Error (Fuzzy Input) Kp (Fuzzy Output) Ki (Fuzzy Output) Priority (0–1)
Very slow Very slow Very slow 0.5
Very slow Very slow Very slow 0.5
Too slow Very slow Very slow
Too slow Very slow Very slow 0.5 0.5
Set speed Correct Correct
Set speed Correct Correct 1 1
Too fast Very slow Very slow
Too fast Very slow Very slow 0.01 0.01
Fast Slow Very slow
Fast Slow Very slow 0.5 0.5
Very fast Very
Veryfastslow Very slowVery slow Very slow 0.5 0.5
Almost slow Almost
Almost slowslow Almost slowCorrect Correct 0.5 0.5
Almost fast Almost fast
Almost slow Almost slowCorrect Correct 0.5 0.5

As can be seen in Table 1, Fuzzy controller error is divided into 9 parts—from very slow
to very fast. If the error is positive, then the BLDC motor is rotating too slow, segments are
allocated there accordingly—“very slow”, “too slow”, “slow”, “almost slow”. Otherwise,
when the error is negative, then the BLDC motor rotates too fast, segments are allocated
accordingly in that range—“very fast”, “too fast”, “fast”, and “almost fast”. The range “set
speed” has been defined in the case when the error is close to zero. All the defined ranges
overlap with adjacent conditions, thus achieving smooth transition from one segment to the
other. Input configuration can be seen in Figure 8, and the rules are shown in Table 1. The
proportional and integral gain factor definition as an output can be seen in Figures 9 and 10.
The fuzzy logic was built in such a way that the P and I coefficients increase the speed of the
control system, in case the control error deviates more from the desired value. Such control
system also contributes to a decrease in overshoot.
 allocated accordingly in that range—“very fast’’, “too fast”, “fast’’, and “almost fast’’. The
range “set
defined speed”
ranges has been
overlap defined
with defined
adjacentininconditions,
the case when the error is
thus achieving close to
smooth zero. All the
transition
range
defined “set speed”
ranges has been
overlap with adjacent the case when
conditions, thus the error is
achieving close to
smooth zero. Allfrom
transition the
from
one segment
defined rangesto overlap
the other. Input
with configuration
adjacent canthus
conditions, be seen in Figure
achieving 8, and
smooth the rules
transition are
from
one segment
shown in to 1.the
Table Theother. Input configuration
proportional and integralcan
gainbefactor
seen definition
in Figure 8,as and
an the rules
output can are
be
one segment to the other. Input configuration can be seen in Figure 8, and the rules are
shown
seen ininin Table
Figures 1. The
9 and proportional and
10. The fuzzyand logic integral gain
was built factor definition as an output can be
Energies 2024, 17, 1311
shown
seen in Table 1.
Figures 9 The proportional
and 10. The fuzzy logicintegral
was gainin
built in
such definition
factor
such
a way thatasthe
a way that an P
the P
and I can
output
and I
coeffi-
coeffi-be
cientsinincrease 8 of 15
seen Figures the
9 andspeed of the
10. The control
fuzzy logicsystem, in in
was built case thea control
such way thaterror
the deviates more
P and I coeffi-
cients
from theincrease
desiredthe speed
value. of
Such the control
control systemsystem, in case the
also contributes control error
to a decrease deviates more
cients increase the speed of the control system, in case the control error in overshoot.
deviates more
from the desired value. Such control system also contributes to a decrease in overshoot.
from the desired value. Such control system also contributes to a decrease in overshoot.

Figure 8. Definition
Figure 8. Definition of
of inputs
inputs of
of Fuzzy
Fuzzy logic block.
logic block.
Figure 8. Definition of inputs of Fuzzy logic block.
Figure 8. Definition of inputs of Fuzzy logic block.

Figure 9. Definition of Fuzzy logic output—proportional (P) coefficient.

Figure 9.
Figure 9. Definition of
Definition of Fuzzy
of Fuzzy logic
Fuzzy logic output—proportional (P)
logic output—proportional
output—proportional (P) coefficient.
coefficient.
Figure 9. Definition (P) coefficient.

Figure 10. Definition of Fuzzy logic output—integral (I) coefficient.

Figure 10. Definition of Fuzzy logic output—integral (I) coefficient.
Figure
Figure 10.
10. Definition
Definition of
of Fuzzy
Fuzzy logic
logic output—integral
output—integral (I)
(I) coefficient.
coefficient.

4. Simulation Results
Previously described simulation models were used to tune the controller and compare
different control methods. Figure 11 shows current waveforms in case of sinusoidal
modulation with third harmonic injection. As can be seen, the current is close to sinusoidal,
and therefore, the content of harmonics is much less than in the case of other modulation
methods. Figure 12 shows the torque ripple. As the current is not controlled, the torque
ripple level is acceptable. The motor was operated at 1500 RPM and loaded with 0.5 Nm.
 pare different
modulation control
with thirdmethods.
harmonicFigure 11 shows
injection. As cancurrent
be seen,waveforms in is
the current case of to
close sinusoidal
sinusoi-
modulation with third
dal, and therefore, harmonic
the content of injection.
harmonics Asiscan be less
much seen,than
the in
current is close
the case to sinusoi-
of other modu-
dal, and therefore, the content of harmonics is much less than in the case of other
lation methods. Figure 12 shows the torque ripple. As the current is not controlled, the modu-
lation
torquemethods. Figure
ripple level 12 shows The
is acceptable. the torque
motor wasripple. As theatcurrent
operated is notand
1500 RPM controlled, the
loaded with
Energies 2024, 17, 1311 torque
0.5 Nm. ripple level is acceptable. The motor was operated at 1500 RPM and loaded with
9 of 15
0.5 Nm.

Figure 11. Obtained motor currents with sinusoidal modulation.

Figure11.
Figure Obtainedmotor
11.Obtained motorcurrents
currentswith
withsinusoidal
sinusoidalmodulation.
modulation.

Figure12.
Figure Obtainedmotor
12.Obtained motortorque
torqueby
byapplying
applyingsinusoidal
sinusoidalmodulation.
modulation.
Figure 12. Obtained motor torque by applying sinusoidal modulation.
In Figure 13, a comparison between a PID controller and a FUZZY + PID controller was
In Figure 13, a comparison between a PID controller and a FUZZY + PID controller
presented during
In Figure 13, athe start-up of between
comparison the motor.a It cancontroller
PID be clearlyandseenathat
FUZZYthe PID controller with
was presented during the start-up of the motor. It can be clearly seen that +thePID controller
PID control-
constant
was proportional
presented during andstart-up
the integralofcoefficients
the motor. is
It unable to stably
can beisclearly ensure
seen that the
the desired speed
PID control-
ler with constant proportional and integral coefficients unable to stably ensure the de-
and
ler Fuzzy
with logic
constant re-adjustment
proportional helps significantly
and integralhelps
coefficients in speed
is unableresponse
to stably improvement
ensure and
the de-
sired speed and Fuzzy logic re-adjustment significantly in speed response improve-
overshoot
sired reduction. It was observed that, with such control, the electromagnetic torque
ment speed and Fuzzyreduction.
and overshoot logic re-adjustment helps significantly
It was observed that, with such in speed response
control, improve-
the electromag-
developed
ment and by the BLDC
overshoot motorIthas
reduction. wassome fluctuations
observed that, in the
with rotor
such rotation
control, the speed as well.
electromag-
netic torquefordeveloped
However, the control bywhere
the BLDC
FUZZY motor has the
changed some fluctuations
proportional andin integral
the rotor rotation
coefficients
netic
speed torque
as developed
well. However, byforthe
the BLDC motor
control where has some changed
FUZZY fluctuations in
thewere the rotor rotation
proportional and in-
of theas
speed PID controller,
well. However, smaller
for theelectromagnetic
control where torque fluctuations
FUZZY changed the observed.and
proportional This
in-is
tegral coefficients of the PID controller, smaller electromagnetic torque
due to the fact that FUZZY logic dynamically changes the PID coefficients depending on fluctuations were
tegral coefficients of the PID controller, smaller electromagnetic torque fluctuations were
the error, thus providing faster settling time and more precise speed control.
 Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 15

observed. This is due to the fact that FUZZY logic dynamically changes the PID coeffi-
observed.
cients This on
depending is due to thethus
the error, fact providing
that FUZZY logic
faster dynamically
settling time andchanges the PID
more precise coeffi-
speed
Energies 2024, 17, 1311 10 ofspeed
15
cients
control. depending on the error, thus providing faster settling time and more precise
control.

Figure 13. Obtained motor speed response by applying sinusoidal modulation and PID or Fuzzy +
Figure 13. Obtained
PIDFigure motor
13. Obtained
controllers. speed
motor response
speed by applying
response sinusoidal
by applying modulation
sinusoidal and PIDand
modulation or Fuzzy
PID or+Fuzzy
PID +
PID controllers.
controllers.
5. Experimental
5. Experimental Results
Results
5. Experimental Results
An experimental
An experimental setup
setup has
has been
been developed totoimplement thethe
developed control al-
gorithm Anin experimental
Matlab Simulinksetup has beendeveloped
simulation developed to
environment
implement
asimplement the developed
microcontroller developed
program
control
control
and cre- al-
algorithm in Matlab Simulink simulation environment as microcontroller program and
gorithm
ate a real in Matlab
testtest
bench. Simulink
The operatorsimulation
will run environment
therun
testthe
bench as microcontroller program and cre-
create a real bench. The operator will test operation and the test
bench operation and data will
the test
be ate a real test
obtained bench.
through The
the operator
STM32 will runprogramming
processor the test benchenvironment
operation and on the
the test data will
personal
data will be obtained through the STM32 processor programming environment on the
be obtained
computer (PC). through
The(PC). the microcontroller
STM32 STM32 processor andprogramming
gate and
drivers environment on the USBpersonal
personal computer The STM32 microcontroller gateare supplied
drivers from
are supplied con-
from
computer
nection (PC). The
with PC.with PC. STM32 microcontroller and gate drivers are supplied from USB con-
USB connection
nection with PC.
The STM32-NUCLEO
STM32-NUCLEO prototypeboard
boardhashasbeen
beenused
usedforforthe
thetests,
tests,and
anditit is
is connected
connected
The prototype
with The
the STM32-NUCLEO prototype
XNUCLEO-IHM07M1 expansionboard has been
board. The used for theboard
expansion tests, and it is connected
handles BLDC
with the XNUCLEO-IHM07M1 expansion board. The expansion board handles BLDC
withHall
motor the sensor
XNUCLEO-IHM07M1
signals and expansion
provides motor board.
phase The expansion
voltage board with
commutation handles BLDC
transis-
motor Hall sensor signals and provides motor phase voltage commutation with transistors
torsmotor
being being Hall
placed
sensor
placed
on this
signals
on this
board.
and
board.
The
provides
The motor phaseprototyping
NUCLEO-G747RE
NUCLEO-G747RE
voltage commutation
prototyping board
with transis-
boardisisconnected
connected to
to
tors being
the inverter placed
inverter board, on
board, whichthis
which canboard.
can be The
be seen NUCLEO-G747RE
seen in
in Figure
Figure 14.
14. The prototyping
The control
control boards board
boards are is
are based
based connectedthe to
on the
the on
the inverter microcontroller.
STM43G747RE
STM43G747RE
board, which can be seen in Figure 14. The control boards are based on the
microcontroller.
STM43G747RE microcontroller.

Figure14.
Figure 14. Electrical
Electrical connections
connections between
between microcontroller
microcontrollerboard,
board,inverter
inverterboard,
board,and
andthe
themotor.
motor.
Figure 14. Electrical connections between microcontroller board, inverter board, and the motor.
The X-NUCLEO-IHM07M1X (U2 in Figure 14) expansion board is based on the
L6230PD integrated chip. The L6230 is a fully integrated three-phase motor inverter
with integrated drivers and overcurrent protection. An uncommitted comparator with
open-drain output is available. The expansion board provides Hall sensor signal processing,
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 15

The X-NUCLEO-IHM07M1X (U2 in Figure 14) expansion board is based on the

Energies 2024, 17, 1311 L6230PD integrated chip. The L6230 is a fully integrated three-phase motor inverter11with of 15
integrated drivers and overcurrent protection. An uncommitted comparator with open-
drain output is available. The expansion board provides Hall sensor signal processing,
phase current
phase currentandandvoltage
voltagereadings,
readings,andandother
otherimportant
important functions
functions forfor BLDC
BLDC motor
motor con-
control.
trol. L6230PD
The The L6230PD chip metal
chip uses uses metal
oxideoxide field effect
field effect transistors
transistors (MOSFET)
(MOSFET) in thein the three-
three-phase
phase bridge
bridge configuration,
configuration, whichwhich are controlled
are controlled usingusing the enable
the enable and pulse
and pulse withwith modu-
modulated
lated (PWM)
(PWM) signals.signals.
experimentalsetup
An experimental setupcancanbebe seen
seen in Figure
in Figure 15. 15.
TheThe
BLDC BLDC
motormotor (2)been
(2) has has attached
been at-
tached
to to the platform
the platform with
with four four screws
screws in a horizontal
in a horizontal orientation.
orientation. A rotating
A rotating cylindrical
cylindrical mass
mass
(1) (1)a with
with a constant
constant weight ofweight
120 g of
and120 g and a of
a diameter diameter of 37been
37 mm have mm used
haveas been used
a load. as a
Board
with
load.logic
Board(5) has
withbeen used(5)to has
logic enable inverter
been usedswitching
to enable action. A DF45L024048-A2
inverter switching action. BLDC A
motor was used inBLDC
DF45L024048-A2 the experimental
motor was used setup. Theexperimental
in the flywheel has setup.
been selected as a load
The flywheel has since
been
inertia
selected is as
main parameter
a load that influences
since inertia speed transient
is main parameter process. Similar
that influences setups also
speed transient have
process.
been
Similarused in many
setups alsoscientific
have been papers
usedwhere
in many the scientific
speed loop was investigated,
papers for example,
where the speed loop was in
the work presented in [27].
investigated, for example, in the work presented in [27].

1 4
2

5 3

Figure 15.
Figure 15. Experimental
Experimentalsetup:
setup:1—inertia
1—inertiadisc;
disc;2—BLDC
2—BLDCmotor
motorwith
withHall
Hallsensors;
sensors;3—microcontroller
3—microcontrol-
ler board
board NUCLEO-G747RE;
NUCLEO-G747RE; 4—inverter
4—inverter board
board XNUCLEO-IHM07M1;
XNUCLEO-IHM07M1; 5—logic
5—logic gates.
gates.

Figure 16 shows the result of calculating

calculating the electric angle of the rotor of the the BLDC
BLDC
motor
motor from
fromthetheHall
Hallsensor
sensorsignals. Digitally
signals. Digitallycalculated
calculatedrotor position
rotor is marked
position withwith
is marked a bluea
color. It can be observed that the shape of the signal is “stepped”. This can
blue color. It can be observed that the shape of the signal is “stepped”. This can be ex-be explained by
the fact that Hall sensors provide information about the angular position
plained by the fact that Hall sensors provide information about the angular position of theof the rotor at
the specified
rotor referencereference
at the specified points. To obtainTo
points. more precise
obtain morerotor angle
precise between
rotor anglethese reference
between these
points mentioned
reference above, it isabove,
points mentioned necessary
it is to know how
necessary manyhow
to know degrees
many thedegrees
rotor makes per
the rotor
second.
makes per Thesecond.
microcontroller program determines
The microcontroller the speed ofthe
program determines rotation
speed of of the rotor,of
rotation from
the
which further information about the instantaneous angular position of the
rotor, from which further information about the instantaneous angular position of the ro- rotor can be
obtained. In Figure 16, the orange curve represents the data where the
tor can be obtained. In Figure 16, the orange curve represents the data where the instantaneous rotor
angle has been obtained. As can be seen, this obtained curve complements the information
gaps of the previous method of determining the rotor angle and provides more detailed
information about the instantaneous angular position of the rotor. However, there are
 Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 15
Energies 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 15

Energies 2024, 17, 1311 instantaneousrotor

instantaneous rotorangle
anglehas
hasbeen
beenobtained.
obtained.AsAscan
canbe
beseen,
seen,this
thisobtained
obtainedcurve
curvecomple-
comple-
12 of 15
ments the information gaps of the previous method of determining the
ments the information gaps of the previous method of determining the rotor angle androtor angle and
provides more detailed information about the instantaneous angular position
provides more detailed information about the instantaneous angular position of the rotor.of the rotor.
However,
some
However, thereare
inaccuracies
there are someinaccuracies
inaccuracies
in determining
some indetermining
the rotor
in determining the
angle. Thesethe rotorangle.
angle.
inaccuracies
rotor These
arise from
These inaccuracies
program
inaccuracies
arise from
execution program
time lags. execution time
arise from program execution time lags. lags.

Figure 16. Experimental results of rotor position detection.

Figure16.
Figure 16.Experimental
Experimentalresults
resultsofofrotor
rotor position
position detection.
detection.

TheThe
The PIDPID
PIDand and
and Adaptive
Adaptive
Adaptive PID PID
PID control
control
control algorithms
algorithms
algorithms were
were
were implemented
implemented
implemented into into
into microcontrol-
microcontrol-
microcontroller.
ler. Each
ler.
Each Each
test wastestfirst
test was
was first performed
first
performedperformed
with PID with
with PID control,
PID
control, control,
and then and
and then
then
with with
with
PID PID control,
PID
control, control,
and theand and the
coeffi-the
coefficients
cients have been
coefficients have been
haveupdated updated
based on
been updated based
Fuzzy
based on Fuzzy
oncontrol control
logic. The
Fuzzy control logic. The high-speed
high-speed
logic. test of the
The high-speed test of
testBLDC the
of the
BLDC
motor
BLDCwas motor
motor was
performed performed at
at a starting
was performed a starting
speed of
at a starting speed
200 of
speed of
rpm. 200 rpm.
200Further, Further, in
in thein
rpm. Further, the
testing testing process,
process,
the testing the
process,
the desired
desired
the desired speed
speedspeed value
value value
was setwas
was set to
to 800
set to 800
and 800
thenand
and 500then
then 500 revolutions
revolutions
500 revolutions per minute.
per minute.
per minute.
Thus, the Thus,
speed
Thus, the
the
speed
ofspeed of
the created the created
of the control
createdsystemcontrol
controlwas system was
studied.
system studied.
Figures 17
was studied. Figures 17
and 1817show
Figures and 18 show
experimental
and 18 experimental
results.
show experimental
results.
Inresults.
Figure In InFigure
17,Figure
no load 17, no
was load
appliedwas toapplied
the axisto the
of the axis
BLDCof the BLDC
motor. motor.
The
17, no load was applied to the axis of the BLDC motor. The orange orange The orange
curve curve
shows
curve
theshows
shows the
test result test
with
the test result
Fuzzy
result with
with+ PIDFuzzy
Fuzzy +
and+the PID
PIDblueand
and the
curve blue
shows
the blue curve shows
the speed
curve showsofthethe speed
thespeed of
PID control. the
of the As PID
PID
cancontrol.
be seen
control. As can
Asincan
the bebe seen
figures, in the
seen adaptive figures, adaptive
Fuzzy-based
in the figures, adaptive Fuzzy-based
control allows for
Fuzzy-based control allows
the improvement
control for
allows for the the
of theim-
im-
provement
speed response
provement of the
of the
of the speed
motor.
speed response of the
response of the motor. motor.

Figure 17.Speed
Speedresponse
response of
of the BLDC
theBLDC motor
BLDCmotor with
motorwith
withdigital
digitalPID
PIDand Fuzzy-based adaptive PID with-
Figure
Figure17.
17. Speed response of the digital PID andand Fuzzy-based
Fuzzy-based adaptive
adaptive PID PID
with-
out load.
without load.
out load.
 Energies
Energies 2024,
2024, 17, 17,
1311x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 15
13 of 15

Figure Speed
18.18.
Figure response
Speed of the
response of BLDC motor
the BLDC with with
motor digitaldigital
PID andPIDFuzzy-based adaptive
and Fuzzy-based PID with
adaptive load.
PID with
load.
It was observed that, in Figure 16, as the BLDC motor accelerates at no load, the
overshoot of the
It was PID control
observed logic
that, in peaks
Figure 16,atasapproximately
the BLDC motor 950accelerates
of the set 800 rpm.
at no However,
load, the over-
PID + Fuzzy control reduced this overshoot to 870 rpm. As the BLDC motor
shoot of the PID control logic peaks at approximately 950 of the set 800 rpm. However, decelerated,
thePID
PID+ +Fuzzy
Fuzzy logic was
control also able
reduced to performtobetter
this overshoot thanAs
870 rpm. thethe
PID controller,
BLDC motor where the
decelerated,
deceleration overshoot peak was reduced from 390 to 450 rpm. Experimental results with
the PID + Fuzzy logic was also able to perform better than the PID controller, where the
a load connected are shown in Figure 17. As the BLDC motor accelerated with the load,
deceleration overshoot peak was reduced from 390 to 450 rpm. Experimental results with
the overshoot peak of the PID control logic reached a smaller value than the PID + Fuzzy
a load connected are shown in Figure 17. As the BLDC motor accelerated with the load,
control, i.e., PID override is equal to 901 and PID + Fuzzy override is equal to 939 rpm.
the overshoot peak of the PID control logic reached a smaller value than the PID + Fuzzy
However, when the BLDC motor was decelerating, the PID + Fuzzy logic was able to
control, i.e., PID override is equal to 901 and PID + Fuzzy override is equal to 939 rpm.
perform better than the PID controller. The deceleration undershoot peak was reduced
However, when the BLDC motor was decelerating, the PID + Fuzzy logic was able to per-
from 330 to 387 rpm. It was observed that under the load, PID + Fuzzy controller prevented
form better than the PID controller. The deceleration undershoot peak was reduced from
the motor from reducing the rotor RPM too rapidly, thus, reducing overshoot. When
330 to 387 rpm. It was observed that under the load, PID + Fuzzy controller prevented the
comparing both cases with and without an inertia wheel, it can be concluded that, with an
motor from reducing the rotor RPM too rapidly, thus, reducing overshoot. When compar-
inertia transient, the process is longer, but the overshoot is lower. In other papers [9,28], it is
ing both cases with and without an inertia wheel, it can be concluded that, with an inertia
suggested to use an adaptive Fuzzy-based PID controller. Many other adaptive controllers
fortransient, the process
motor control can be is found
longer,inbut
thetheliterature.
overshootAlthough
is lower. Ininother papers [9,28],
a simulation they itshow
is sug-
gested
fast speedtoresponse,
use an adaptive
like theFuzzy-based PID controller.
proposed controller in the Many other adaptive
simulations, controllers
they require a highfor
motor control can be found in the literature. Although in a simulation
componential power of the digital controller and therefore, cannot be implemented by using they show fast
speed response, like the proposed controller in the simulations, they require
conventional microcontroller as in this case. An expensive high-performance controller, in a high com-
ponential
most cases, ispower of thesolution
not a good digital controller
for low powerand therefore,
inexpensive cannot
BLDC bemotor
implemented
control. by using
conventional microcontroller as in this case. An expensive high-performance controller,
6. in most cases, is not a good solution for low power inexpensive BLDC motor control.
Conclusions
The paper analyses different modulation methods. At first, a Matlab Simulink simu-
6. Conclusions
lation model has been created and used for several different types of BLDC motor com-
mutation The paper As
testing. analyses
a mostdifferent
suitablemodulation
commutation methods.
type, theAtsine
first,with
a Matlab Simulink
the third harmonicsimu-
lation model
component has been
has been created
selected. Thisand
typeused for several different
of communication types of the
also improves BLDC motor
torque com-
of the
mutation
motor testing. six-step
as traditional As a most suitable
method hascommutation
torque drops type, the sine with
that negatively thethe
affects third harmonic
speed and
component
speed stabilityhas been
of the selected.
BLDC This type of communication also improves the torque of the
motor.
A simulation model has been
motor as traditional six-step method created haswith a traditional
torque drops thatPID speed controller.
negatively affects the It was
speed
observed
and speedthatstability
the PIDofcontroller
the BLDChas a limited speed response. To improve the speed
motor.
response proportional
A simulation (P) and
model hasintegral (I) coefficients
been created of PID controller
with a traditional PID speed were adaptedItby
controller. was
using Fuzzy that
observed logicthe
block.
PIDIn the simulations,
controller the proposed
has a limited adaptive solution,
speed response. To improve where
the the PIDre-
speed
and Fuzzyproportional
sponse logic-based controllers are combined,
(P) and integral completely
(I) coefficients of PID canceled
controllerthe overshoot,
were adaptedthus by us-
ensuring the speed accuracy and high-speed response operation of the BLDC
ing Fuzzy logic block. In the simulations, the proposed adaptive solution, where the PID motor.
andA Fuzzy
BLDC logic-based
motor test bench has been
controllers arepractically
combined,created, which
completely was used
canceled thefor testing the
overshoot, thus
control
ensuring the speed accuracy and high-speed response operation of the BLDCalgorithm
algorithms. During the testing process, it was established that the control motor.
based on A the
BLDC STM32
motormicroprocessor
test bench hascan determine
been the created,
practically instantaneous
whichangular
was used position of
for testing
thethe
BLDC motor
control rotor and its
algorithms. rotation
During thespeed
testingwith some delay.
process, it was established that the control
Energies 2024, 17, 1311 14 of 15

The Fuzzy logic-based adaptable PID algorithm has been implemented into the micro-
controller and tested on an experimental test bench. The experiment shows only slightly
better performance than traditional PID controller. It can be explained by significant delays
introduced by digital algorithm implementation. The still adaptive PID controller improved
the speed response, reduced the overshoot, and improved the torque of the motor. The
more advanced microcontroller could improve the performance of the adaptive controller.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, K.K.; Methodology, K.K.; Software, A.B.; Investigation,

K.K. and A.B.; Data curation, K.K. and A.B.; Writing—original draft, K.K. and A.B.; Writing—review
& editing, K.K.; Visualization, K.K. and A.B.; Supervision, K.K.; Project administration, K.K.; Funding
acquisition, K.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Latvian Council of Science, project “Fast transient response and
high efficiency GaN based BLDC motor converter with a dual power supply”, project No. lzp-2021/1-0298.
Data Availability Statement: Data are contained within the article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design
of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or
in the decision to publish the results.

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