CONCEPT OF LIFE AND UNIFYING THEMES OF LIFE

The characteristics/ properties of life are the following:

i. High degree of organization (a)
ii. Evolutionary adaptation/ evolution and adaptation (b)
iii. Regulation and Homeostasis (c)
iv. Energy Processing/ Acquisition and use of energy (d)
v. Growth and Development (e)
vi. Response to the environment/ Ability to respond to stimuli (f)
vii. Reproduction (g)
viii. Diversity and Unity (h)
A. F.

B. G.

C. H.

D.

E.
Themes on life:
a. New Properties Emerge at Successive Levels of Biological Organization
b. Life’s Processes Involve the Expression and Transmission of Genetic Information
c. Life Requires the Transfer and Transformation of Energy and Matter
d. From Ecosystems to Molecules, Interactions Are Important in Biological Systems
e. Evolution (the Core Theme of Biology)

Emergent property = Property that emerges as a result of interactions between components.

• With each step upward in the biological hierarchy, new properties emerge that were not present at the
simpler organizational levels.
• Life is difficult to define because it is associated with numerous emergent properties that reflect a
hierarchy of structural organization.
Some of the emergent properties and processes associated with life are the following:
1. Order. Organisms are highly ordered, and other characteristics of life emerge from this complex
organization.
2. Reproduction. Organisms reproduce; life comes only from life (biogenesis).
3. Growth and Development. Heritable programs stored in DNA direct the
4. Species-specific pattern of growth and development.
1. Energy Utilization. Organisms take in and transform energy to do work, including the
maintenance of their ordered state.
2. Response to Environment. Organisms respond to stimuli from their environment.
3. Homeostasis. Organisms regulate their internal environment to maintain a steady-state,
even in the face of a fluctuating external environment.
5. Evolutionary Adaptation. Life evolves in response to interactions between organisms and their
environment.
ORIGIN OF THE FIRST FORMS OF LIFE
A. THE THEORY OF SPECIAL CREATION

The theory of special creation is a religious belief that states that a divine being or supernatural power created all
life in its current form. It's a theological doctrine that's accepted by many religions around the world. However, it's
not a scientific fact. The theory of special creation includes the following beliefs:
 Life was created in six days
 Life was created in its current form, without any change Life's bodies and organs were designed to meet
the needs of their environment
 Different organisms were created at the same time, but they weren't related to each other
 God created the first man, Adam

B. THEORY OF SPONTANEOUS GENERATION OR ‘ABIOGENESIS’

The theory of spontaneous generation, also known as abiogenesis, is the idea that life can arise from
non-living matter:
Theory of spontaneous generation or Abiogenesis
The theory of spontaneous generation was a dominant belief for nearly 200 years but was eventually
disproved by the work of Louis Pasteur and John Tyndall in the 19th century. Pasteur's experiments
showed that microorganisms do not appear from air, but from contaminants within the air.
The prevailing scientific hypothesis today is that the transition from non-living to living entities on Earth
was a complex process that involved the formation of a habitable planet, the prebiotic synthesis of
organic molecules, and more.

Louis Pasteur

C. BIOGENESIS THEORY

Rudolf Virchow proposed the theory of biogenesis in 1858 as a counter-hypothesis to spontaneous

generation, which was the widely accepted belief that microorganisms appeared spontaneously. Louis
Pasteur conducted experiments in 1859 to prove biogenesis and established it as a solid theory by
1861. The theory of biogenesis is based on the discovery of cells, which provided scientific evidence
that life creates other living things. For example, a chicken laying eggs that hatch into baby chickens is
an example of biogenesis.

D. UREY-MILLER HYPOTHESIS

The Miller-Urey hypothesis is the idea that life on Earth could have developed from non-living matter
through a process called abiogenesis. The Miller-Urey experiment was a 1953 experiment that tested
this hypothesis by simulating early Earth conditions and producing organic molecules: Purpose: Test the
hypothesis that life on Earth developed from non-living matter
Experiment: Stanley Miller and Harold Urey simulated early Earth conditions by heating a gas mixture
and giving it an electrical charge
Results: The experiment produced organic compounds, including amino acids, which are the building
blocks of proteins. The Miller-Urey experiment was based on the ideas of Russian scientist Aleksandr
Oparin and English scientist J. B. S. Haldane. They proposed that organic molecules could form from
 inorganic molecules in the early Earth's atmosphere. The experiment's success validated Oparin's
theoretical ideas and is considered a classic experiment in the study of the origin of life.

E. COSMOZOIC THEORY (PANSPERMIA)

The cosmozoic theory, also known as the panspermia theory, is the idea that life on Earth originated from other
celestial bodies, such as meteorites or comets. The theory suggests that life arrived on Earth in the form of highly
resistant spores from organisms on other planets. Here are some details about the cosmozoic theory:
Origin
The theory was first proposed by Richter in 1865 and later supported by other scientists, including Arrhenius in
1908.
Validity
The theory is debated because there is no conclusive proof. Some say that it's unlikely that life could survive the
long journey between planets, or the harsh conditions of reentry and impact on a new planet.
Soft panspermia
A variation of the theory suggests that life's building blocks, like amino acids and sugars, were produced in space
and then distributed to planets. Laboratory experiments have shown that these building blocks can be produced
in space.

CELL: UNIT OF LIFE

EUKARYOTIC CELLS
A. The eukaryotic cell’s genetic instructions are housed in the nucleus and carried out by the ribosomes
-The nucleus contains most of the DNA in a eukaryotic cell
-Ribosomes use the information from the DNA to make proteins DNA-Deoxyribonucleic acid (abbreviated DNA)
is the molecule that carries genetic information for the development and functioning of an organism. Ribosomes-
A ribosome is an intercellular structure made of both RNA and protein, and it is the site of protein synthesis in the
cell. RNA- stands for ribonucleic acid. It's a molecule that's present in most living organisms and viruses and
plays a key role in protein synthesis and other cellular functions.

B. The Nucleus: Information Central

-The nucleus contains most of the cell’s genes and is usually the most conspicuous organelle
-The nuclear envelope encloses the nucleus, separating it from the cytoplasm
-The nuclear membrane is a double membrane; each membrane consists of a lipid bilayer
-Pores regulate the entry and exit of molecules from the nucleus
-The shape of the nucleus is maintained by the nuclear lamina, which is composed of protein.
In the nucleus, DNA is organized into discrete units called chromosomes
-Each chromosome is composed of a single DNA molecule associated with proteins
-The DNA and proteins of chromosomes are together called chromatin
-Chromatin condenses to form discrete chromosomes as a cell prepares to divide
-The nucleolus is located within the nucleus and is the site of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) synthesis
 C. Ribosomes: Protein Factories
-Ribosomes are particles made of ribosomal RNA and protein
-Ribosomes carry out protein synthesis in two locations
In the cytosol (free ribosomes) -On the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum or the nuclear envelope (bound
ribosomes).

C. The Endomembrane system regulates protein traffic and performance metabolic functions of the
cell.
E. Endoplasmic Reticulum: Biosynthetic Factory
-The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) accounts for more than half of the total membrane in many eukaryotic cells
-The ER membrane is continuous with the nuclear envelope
-There are two distinct regions of ER
Smooth ER, which lacks ribosomes
Rough ER, surface is studded with ribosomes.

F. Golgi Apparatus: Shipping and Receiving Center

-The Golgi apparatus consists of flattened membranous sacs called cisternae
-Functions of the Golgi apparatus
Modifies products of the ER
Manufactures certain macromolecules
Sorts and packages materials into transport vesicles
G. Lysosomes: Digestive Compartments
-A lysosome is a membranous sac of hydrolytic enzymes that can digest macromolecules
-Lysosomal enzymes can hydrolyze proteins, fats, polysaccharides, and nucleic acids
-Lysosomal enzymes work best in the acidic environment inside the lysosome
-Some types of cell can engulf another cell by phagocytosis; this forms a food vacuole
-A lysosome fuses with the food vacuole and digests the molecules
-Lysosomes also use enzymes to recycle the cell’s own organelles and macromolecules, a process called
autophagy
Hydrolytic enzymes are enzymes that break down molecules into smaller components using water.

H. Vacuoles: Diverse Maintenance Compartments

-A plant cell or fungal cell may have one or several vacuoles, derived from endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi
apparatus
-Food vacuoles are formed by phagocytosis
-Contractile vacuoles, found in many freshwater protists, pump excess water out of cells
-Central vacuoles, found in many mature plant cells, hold organic compounds and water

I. Mitochondria and Chloroplasts change energy from one form to another.

-Mitochondria are the sites of cellular respiration, a metabolic process that uses oxygen to generate ATP
-Chloroplasts, found in plants and algae, are the sites of photosynthesis
-Peroxisomes are oxidative organelles
J. Cytoskeleton is a network of fibers that organizes structures and activities in the cell.

K. Extracellular Components and connections between cells help coordinate cellular activities
-Most cells synthesize and secrete materials that are external to the plasma membrane
-These extracellular structures include
-Cell walls of plants
-The extracellular matrix (ECM) of animal cells
-Intercellular junctions

PHOTOSYNTHESIS

Photosynthesis
i. Parts of the chloroplast
ii. Light Reaction
iii. Dark Reaction (Calvin Cycle)
Main Structures and Summary of Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis requires sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water as starting reactants (After the process is
complete, photosynthesis releases oxygen and produces carbohydrate molecules, most commonly glucose.

Main Structures and Summary of Photosynthesis

These sugar molecules contain the energy that living things need to survive.
Photosynthesis takes place in two stages: the light-dependent reactions and the Calvin cycle.
In the light-dependent reactions, which take place at the thylakoid membrane, chlorophyll absorbs energy
from sunlight and then converts it into chemical energy with the use of water.
The light-dependent reactions release oxygen from the hydrolysis of water as a by-product.

In the Calvin cycle, which takes place in the stroma, the chemical energy derived from the light-dependent
reactions drives both the capture of carbon in carbon dioxide molecules and the subsequent assembly of
sugar molecules.
The two reactions use carrier molecules to transport the energy from one to the other.
The carriers that move energy from the light-dependent reactions to the Calvin cycle reactions can be
thought of as “full” because they bring energy.
After the energy is released, the “empty” energy carriers return to the light-dependent reactions to obtain
more energy.

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) is a key molecule in photosynthesis, where it's
produced in the light-dependent reactions and used in the light-independent reactions.
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) plays a key role in photosynthesis, the process by which plants make their
own food.
In photosynthesis, NADP+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate) acts as an electron carrier and
energy shuttle, moving electrons between reactions.
Adenosine diphosphate (ADP) is a molecule that works with other molecules to provide essential
components used in photosynthesis.

What the Calvin cycle produces?

The Calvin cycle produces glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P), a three-carbon compound.
How glucose is produced
It takes two G3P molecules to produce one glucose molecule. This means that it takes six turns of the Calvin
cycle to produce one glucose molecule.
The Calvin cycle is a series of reactions that occur during photosynthesis. It uses energy from sunlight to fix
carbon and synthesize glucose. The Calvin cycle has three stages:
Carbon fixation: The enzyme RuBisCO incorporates carbon dioxide into an organic molecule.
Reduction: The organic molecule is reduced.
Regeneration: RuBP, the molecule that starts the cycle, is regenerated.

The Calvin cycle is also known as the Calvin-Benson cycle or dark reactions.